ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 1546–1561

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijimpeng

Numerical analysis method for the RC and geological structures

subjected to extreme loading by energetic materials
M. Katayama, M. Itoha, S. Tamuraa, M. Beppub, T. Ohnob
a
ITOCHU Techno-Solutions, 2-5, Kasumigaseki 3-chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-6080, Japan
b
National Defence Academy, Hashirimizu 1-10-20, Yokosuka, 239-8686, Japan
Received 8 March 2004; received in revised form 15 April 2006; accepted 28 October 2006
Available online 26 January 2007

Abstract

This paper proposes and demonstrates a numerical simulation method suitable to analyze the local damage and dynamic
response of the structures composed of the reinforced concrete (RC) and/or the geological materials subjected to extremely
severe loading by the energetic material like high explosives (HE).
After the description of the numerical simulation method, the former part of this work attests that the present method
has an enough accuracy to simulate the dynamic behavior of the RC structures subjected to the impulsive loading, through
comparison of numerical analysis results with those of reference experiments.
In the latter part of this work, a three-dimensional numerical simulation is performed by using the same analysis code as
applied in the former part, but for much more complicated physical system. Through the discussion on the numerical
simulation results the effectiveness of the present method is demonstrated from the viewpoint of the explosion safety and
the structural integrity evaluation.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: AUTODYN; Detonation; DYCAP model; High explosive; Reinforced concrete

1. Introduction

Recently the serious hazards have increased. Terrorists attack various public buildings and structures using
energetic materials. At the same time, another type of hazard also cannot be ignored, i.e., hazards caused by
industrial accidents, related to use of high explosives (HE), reactive gas mixtures, etc. Since these hazards are
not small-size problems, they have to be discussed as interactions between energetic materials and
constructional structures. However, these problems are of highly non-linear and complex physical systems. So
numerical analyses of such problems, especially in the three-dimension, were out of reach for computers even a
few years ago. Fortunately, both hardware and software have now become available to solve some such
difficult problems, although much more is still needed.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 3 6203 7425; fax: +81 3 35 39 5173.

E-mail address: masahide.katayama@ctc-g.co.jp (M. Katayama).

0734-743X/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2006.10.013
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The concrete and geological materials exhibit complicated behaviors in the compressive and the tensile
region, especially when subjected to the severe impact loading. Therefore, a number of material properties are
necessary to describe such highly nonlinear and dynamic phenomena. On the other hand, generally only
limited number of these properties are measured in the usual material testing of theses materials, usually
limited to density, elastic moduli and static compressive strength. Then it will be of much use, if the present
scheme provides us the recommended values of the dynamic material properties based on the correlation
between the static compressive strength and other properties. We have proposed and improved such
constitutive and failure models over several years [1,2].
In this paper we propose and demonstrate a numerical simulation method suitable to analyze the local
damage and the dynamic response of structures composed of the reinforced concrete (RC) and/or geological
materials when subjected to extremely severe loading by the energetic material like HE.

2. Analytical method

2.1. Analysis code

A multiple solver type hydrocode: AUTODYN is used for numerical simulation [3,4]. In the code, we can
make use of the Lagrangain, three types of Eulerians [conventional, Godunov-type and flux-corrected
transport (FCT)], arbitrary Lagrangian–Eulerian (ALE), smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), shell and
beam solvers. Moreover, interactions among these solvers can be taken into account. These solvers are
compared and investigated in order to clarify what solver is the most suitable and efficient to model the
individual part of the present problem: concrete, reinforcement, soil/sand, air, HE, etc. The three-dimensional
calculation for such complex physical system is very heavy even for current advanced computers. The
modeling method for actual problems is proposed from practical viewpoint. We persist in using not so
expensive but easily obtainable and easily usable computers.

2.2. Material models

The material model in AUTODYN consists of two parts: (i) the equation of state (EOS) describes the
relationship among pressure (p), density (r) and internal energy (e) as indicated by Eq. (1) and (ii) the material
strength model simulates the constitutive relation including the failure model, as many hydrocodes do:
p ¼ F ðr; eÞ. (1)
In the low-velocity structural analyses, Young’s modulus (E) and the Poisson ratio (n) are used for solid
materials. And bulk modulus (K) is derived by Eq. (2), so that the usage of E and n is just equivalent to that
of K.
E
K¼ . (2)
3ð1  2nÞ
Considering that definition of bulk modulus is given by
 
dV r
p ¼ K ¼K 1 , (3)
V ref rref
where V is the volume and subscript ‘ref’ denotes reference variable. Eq. (3) can be recognized as using
simplest EOS, i.e., proportional (linear) EOS to the density and neglecting the energy term.
In this study, we applied the linear EOS to the concrete for simplicity, and also did similarly with the beam
and shell elements, because change of density cannot be taken into account in these elements.
The porous EOS was applied to the soil material, but we leave out its detailed descriptions because
limitations of space here.
The numerical erosion model is not a physical material model, but it is very useful to model the cratering
and spalling (scabbing) of the solid materials, as well as the scattering of the liquid materials in the Lagrangian
frame of reference. During the subsequent calculations, some of the Lagrangian elements can become grossly
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distorted and, unless some remedial action is taken, can seriously impair the progress of the calculation.
Therefore, procedures have been incorporated into AUTODYN to remove such Lagrangian elements from
the calculation, if a pre-defined strain exceeds a specified limit. When an element is removed from the
calculation process in this way, the mass within the element can either be discarded or distributed to the corner
nodes of the element. If the mass is retained, conservation of inertia and spatial continuity of inertia are
maintained. However, the compressive strength and internal energy of the material within the element are
whether lost or not the mass is retained.
In AUTODYN, Lagrangian grids can impact and slide along any Lagrangian surface. At the same time,
this surface can be dynamically redefined as the surface changes through the numerical erosion. Erosion is a
technique wherein Lagrangian elements are transformed into free mass points not connected to the original
element. These free nodes can optionally further interact with other bodies or the original body from which
they were eroded. This feature allows the study of impact interaction problems including deep penetrations in
the low to hypervelocity range using a Lagrangian technique.

2.2.1. Concrete
We adopted two-parameter Drucker–Prager criterion instead of the four- or five-parameter failure
surface used by Han and Chu in the static non-uniform hardening plasticity model [5]. In this paper we
show the numerical results only on a relatively high-velocity (4100 m/s) impact problem as a
concrete structure. However, we demonstrated and verified in other instance that the present material
model (referred to as DYCAP model) is also applicable to lower velocity impact problems of the
concrete [2].
To describe the dynamic behavior of fragile material such as concrete is complicated because it shows
highly nonlinear behavior and its multi-axial behavior is hard to measure by experiment. Many
constitutive equations of concrete were proposed in the literature, but only a few can predict the dynamic
behavior of concrete in the multi-axial stress state, and the applicable region is often very limited. We are
concerned with two constitutive equations that can be applied to the multi-axial stress state. One is
Drucker–Prager’s equation that shows good results in the region of high strain rate. Another is Han and
Chen’s non-uniform hardening plasticity model that can be applied to the region of low strain rate. We
combined both equations together to establish a new constitutive model, and introduced strain rate
dependency and strain hardening to this.
In this model, yield surface is described by

f ¼ sy  sðk0c ; k0t ; pÞsdy ¼ 0, (4)

where sy is yield stress, sdy is the ultimate stress surface that is Drucker–Prager’s criterion, s is the shape factor
that describes non-uniform hardening behavior, p is hydrostatic pressure, k0c is the hardening parameter for
compression, and k0t is the hardening parameter for tension. 0
To incorporate strain rate effect, dynamic compressive strength f^c and dynamic tensile strength f^0 t proposed
by Yamaguchi et al. [6] are introduced into Drucker–Prager’s equation as follows:
 
f^0 c ð_ Þ ¼ 1:021  0:05076 log _ þ 0:2583ðlog _ Þ2 f 0c , (5)

 
f^0 t ð_Þ ¼ 0:8267  0:02987 log _ þ 0:04379ðlog _Þ2 f 0t , (6)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 
where strain rate _ ¼ 2=3 _ij _ij and _ij is the strain rate tensor.
The strain hardening effect is incorporated by use of the shape factor s, which is a function of hardening
factors k0c and k0t. Shape factor s is defined at the three different regions in the same manner as Chen’s
method [7], i.e. at tensile region, at transitional region, and at compression region. The detailed equation
found in the literature is of Itoh et al. [1]. The typical relation between yield stress and pressure in this
constitutive equation is shown in Fig. 1. The curve is arranged by t =0 dt where et is the largest tensile strain in
its history and 0 dt is dynamic ultimate tensile strain.
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M. Katayama et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 34 (2007) 1546–1561 1549

100

t
=1.0 0.8
80 ′td

Yield Stress (MPa)

60
0.6

40

0.4
20
0.2
0.0

20 40 60 80 100
Pressure (MPa)

Fig. 1. Typical relation between yield stress and pressure in our constitutive model of concrete.

2.2.2. High explosives

We applied the JWL equation of state to HE proposed by Lee et al. [8], and used programmed ‘on-time
burning’ model assuming ideal stationary detonation. The equation of state are
       
oZ R1 oZ R2
p ¼ AJWL 1  exp  þ BJWL 1  exp  þ oZrref e, (7)
R1 Z R2 Z
where Z is r/rref, AJWL, BJWL, R1, R2, o are the material properties of the chemical high explosive. Detonation
properties and the parameters of the JWL equation for many HE have been compiled by Dobratz et al.
for several decades [9]. In Ref. [9], the other important variables like detonation velocity (Vdet) and initial
internal energy (e0) are also included. The constitutive model of the HE is neglected, i.e. assumed to be
hydrodynamic.

2.2.3. Ductile materials

It has been known that a linear relationship between shock velocity (Us) and particle velocity (up), as shown
by Eq. (8), can adequately represent the Hugoniot relation for many materials in the impact velocity is less
than the threshold for shock-induced vaporization,
U s ¼ c0 þ sup , (8)
where c0 and s are experimentally determined material constants and c0 denotes bulk sound velocity. Then the
following Mie–Grüneisen form of the shock Hugoniot EOS is derived by assuming Grüneisen G as shown in
Eq. (10) [10]:
p ¼ pref ðrÞ þ rG eðrÞ  eref ðrÞ , (9)
 
1 qp
G . (10)
r qe r
This equation of state is recognized to be applicable for a wide variety of solid and liquid materials. Moreover,
the material data of the EOS for many materials are published by quite many research organizations [11].
In the Johnson–Cook constitutive model applied to the ductile material, yield stress (Y) is estimated by the
function of strain (e), strain rate ð_Þ and homologous temperature ðT  Þ calculated by
Y ¼ ðAJC þ BJC n Þð1 þ C JC ln _n Þð1  T nm Þ, (11)
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where _ ¼ _=_0 is the dimensionless plastic strain rate for _0 ¼ 1:0 s1 , and T* is defined by
T  T room
Tn ¼ , (12)
T melt  T room
and Troom and Tmelt are the room temperature and melting temperature, respectively. The variables AJC,
BJC, CJC, m and n are determined by an experimental procedure [12]. However, the thermal term is
neglected for the beam and shell solvers, because no volume changes, consequently no temperature changes of
the elements are calculated in these solvers.

3. Numerical analyses

3.1. Missile impact on RC structure

In order to verify the present material model of the concrete, we carried out number of numerical analyses
[1] to simulate an experimental test program conducted by Muto et al. [13]. The main purpose of the reference
test is to investigate the local damage of the reinforced concrete structure caused by the accidental aircraft
impact on the nuclear related protective structures. The test program consists of three-scale models for F-4
Phantom fighter: 1/7.5-, 1/2.5- and full-scale models. Two types of projectiles, i.e., rigid and deformable, were
adopted to model the engine part of the aircraft in the experiment. Although the target RC structures are
square in the experiment, two-dimensional axisymmetric model was used in the numerical analysis so that the
targets may be assumed to be the circular plates with equivalent sectional areas. The parts of concrete material
were modeled by the Lagrangian frame of the reference, shell elements were applied to the reinforcement and
the thin parts of the 1/7.5-scale deformable missile are shown in Fig. 2. Therefore, reinforcement was also
modeled by thin circular plate with equivalent mass. It should be noted that the bending moment was taken
into account for the shell elements in the missile, and it was ignored for the shell element modeling the
reinforcement, i.e., was assumed to be membrane. Each lower half indicates the numerical mesh used in the
calculation in Fig. 2. The concrete panel was constrained at the radial end to the axial and radial directions. To
the interface between the missile and the RC structures, slide/impact interactive boundary condition without
friction was applied, and all the elements in the concrete, missile and reinforcement were also enabled to
interact with the elements that exist in the same component after subjected to a serious deformation. The

Fig. 2. Geometrical models and numerical meshes in the analysis.

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capabilities of the interaction and the numerical erosion triggered by the maximum geometric strain enable us
to simulate the complicated deformation processes. For Lagrangian elements, the erosion strains 100–500%
were used, while the erosion strains equivalent to the ultimate physical (material) strains were applied for shell
and beam elements, because no bulk deformations occur in the case of these two- or one-dimensional
elements.

a b c

front side
front side
front side

482 189

155 292 169 392

37

elastic
plastic
at 5m sec at 8m sec failed at 5m sec

335
sectional
171
420

178

140

front side rear side

Exp. 1-1

front side sectional rear side

185
590
155

440

Exp. 1-3

front side rear side

sectional
302
320

42

Exp. 1-8

Fig. 3. Numerical and experimental results for the 1/7.5-scale model cases.
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Table 1
Conditions and results of the 1/7.5 model comparing between the analysis and the test

No. Thickness Imp.vel. Res.vel. Projectile Front dia. (mm) Depth Rear dia. (mm) Status
(mm) (m/s) (m/s) (mm)
Ver. Hor. Ave. Ver. Hor. Ave.

(a) Analysis 60 194 138 Deformable — — 155 — — — 292 Perforated

1–1 Test 60 194 143 Deformable 178 171 175 — 420 335 378 Perforated
(b) Analysis 150 143 1.94 Rigid — — 169 32.3 — — 482 Scabbed
1–3 Test 150 143 N/A Rigid 155 185 170 N/A 590 440 515 Scabbed
(c) Analysis 350 198 11.8 Rigid — — 189 37 — — — Penetrated
1–8 Test 350 198 N/A Rigid 320 302 311 42 — — — Penetrated

—: Physically nonsense; N/A: not available in the reference.

Only the results of the 1/7.5-scale model are discussed in this paper, and the cases and results in both the
experiment and the numerical analysis are summarized in Fig. 3 and Table 1 for the selected 1/7.5 model tests
reported in Ref. [13]. Both results are compared in their residual velocities of projectiles, in the vertical/
horizontal/average diameters of the front craters and rear scabbing of the target plates, and in the overall
damage status of the target plates. The numerical results can be considered to simulate the overall
deformations of the reinforced concrete panels, because the present numerical results nearly predict both the
cratering in the front side and the scabbing (spalling) in the rear side.

3.2. HE detonations on RC structure

The effects of the detonation on RC structures have been investigated experimentally in the case of HE,
placed and detonated on the surface of the RC slab [14–16,18]. Some numerical studies on the damage of the
RC structures subjected to the contact HE detonation have been conducted and compared with experimental
results [14,17,19]. However, almost all numerical analyses are carried out by two-dimensional models until
recently. The reason of such a limitation seems to have come from both the computational hardware and
software capabilities at the time when those studies were conducted.
Fig. 4 shows the schematic comparison of the three-dimensional calculation, which was performed a little
bit before by us, with the experimental results conducted by Kraus et al. [14].
The RC slab has dimensions 2.0  2.0  0.3 m with a concrete compressive strength of 44–48 MPa, and has a
percentage of reinforcement of 42 kg/m2. The cubic high explosive is placed in the center and in the direct
contact with the slab. The high explosive is PETN with a mass of 1.0 kg and a density of 1.5 g/cm3.
In calculation, concrete, reinforcement and high explosive were modeled by the Lagrangian element. This
three-dimensional calculation was performed using relatively coarse numerical discretization in today’s
environment, and hence the deformed slab obtained by the calculation does not have so smoothed outline. The
schematic deformation in Fig. 4 only represents the typical parameters: i.e., the diameters and depths of front
and rear craters.
Fig. 5 depicts the configuration of one of a series of HE detonation tests on the RC slab conducted by
Tanaka et al. [16]. We performed a three-dimensional calculation to simulate this experimental condition. In
this calculation, concrete and high explosive were modeled by the Lagrangian element with the numerical
erosion capability, while the reinforcement was done by the beam element, using finer numerical discretization
than in the previous calculation. The numerical grids used in the present calculation are indicated in Fig. 6.
The compressive strength of the concrete measured 28-day later is 56 MPa, and the reinforcement has the
yield strength of 300 MPa and the tensile strength of 419 MPa. The high explosive which is cylindrical with a
diameter of 41.8 mm is placed at the center of and in direct contact with the slab. The high explosive is the
Pentolite of mass 95 g.
Fig. 7 shows the comparison of the damage of the RC slab between the experiment and the calculation in
the front and back sides. The calculational result seems to evaluate the crater diameters in both sides a little bit
smaller than the experiment, but the overall damage of the RC slab in the calculation indicates a fairly good
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Photo of the
1.0 kg PETN
interior of a
by Kraus et
slabafter
al.
the test.

54cm
experiment-1
8.0cm

cracks
8.5cm
77cm

44cm
experiment-2 8.0cm

cracks 8.0cm
80cm

53cm
calculation 8.4cm

108cm 13.8cm

Fig. 4. Comparison of the present 3-D calculation with the experimental results by Kraus et al.

a b
Detonator 30
Reinforced 4.5 Explosive
4.5
Concrete
T=10
4.5
51 Plywood
10 Rectangular Lumber
1
Sa nd

10 10 (Unit: cm)

Fig. 5. Configuration of the HE detonation test on the RC slab by Tanaka et al. (Contact Explosion).

agreement with the experiment. Especially, the calculation successfully simulates the exposure of the
reinforcement in the front side and the pattern of the crack extension in the back side.
The lower figure depicts the damage and deformation of the reinforcement in a three-dimensional bird’s-eye
view by removing the concrete grid.
Morishita et al. [18] conducted another type of HE (Pentolite) detonation tests on the RC slab, in which the
HE are placed at the center of RC slabs but at the position standoff from the surface of RC slab. Fig. 8
indicates the configuration for the tests. It should be noted that the alignment of the reinforcements is different
from the contact explosion experiment, especially there are no reinforcements at the center of the RC slab. We
also performed two numerical simulations for this type of experiment: with the standoffs of 100 and 50 mm. In
these calculations, the concrete was modeled by the Lagrangian element with erosion, the reinforcement was
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Fig. 6. Three-dimensional numerical grids to simulate the HE detonation test on RC slab by Tanaka et al.

done by the beam element, as they were modeled in the contact explosion calculation. However, the high
explosive was modeled by the Eulerian frame of reference, and the atmosphere was taken into account by the
same numerical grid that the HE was modeled with.
The main parts of these numerical simulations were carried out in the three-dimensional model, after a
preliminary axisymmetric two-dimensional calculation to simulate the Pentolit detonation and propagation
process in the air with the initial pressure of 101.3 kPa. The preliminary calculation was carried out by using
the multiple-material Eulerian solver. Then, the two-dimensional distribution of the physical properties of the
Pentolite products and air at the final stage was remapped to the three-dimensional analysis model as an initial
condition. All the Pentolite products are assumed to be in the gas phase at this moment.
In the three-dimensional calculation we applied FCT-Euler solver to the gas materials (Pentolite products
and air), because this solver is suitable to model the shock in the gas and is much faster than the multiple-
material Eulerian solver. The Euler–Lagrange interactive boundary condition was applied to the front surfaces
of the RC slab. In order to attain this motivation, the EOS for the Pentolite was switched from the JWL
equation to the ideal gas equation (as shown in Eq. (13) as well as the air, and the Pentolite products were
assumed to have the same ratio of specific heat (g) of 1.4 just same as the air, because the third term of the
JWL EOS is equivalent to the ideal gas EOS, after perfect burning:
p ¼ ðg  1Þre. (13)
Fig. 9 depicts the remapping procedure from two-dimensional model to three-dimensional one: the upper
contours show the pressure distributions and the lower ones, the density distributions. There appear no
material boundaries in the three-dimensional contours, because we assumed that Pentolite products and air
are of the same material.
Comparison between experimental and calculational results of the standoff explosion is shown in Fig. 10. Only
very shallow craters are observed on the front side in both experimental and calculational results of the 100-mm-
standoff case, whereas obvious craters appear in the 50-mm-standoff case. Calculational results successfully
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Fig. 7. Comparison of the 3-D calculation of the HE detonation on RC slab with the experimental results by Tanaka et al. (Contact
Explosion).

simulate the spalling and cracking behaviors on the back side as well as the damages in the central cross section,
and they are compared with the corresponding photos in the experiment for the 50-mm-standoff case, especially
these results might be characterized by the crack patterns both along the reinforcements and in the radial directions.
All the beam elements modeling reinforcements seem to remain in the elastic state, unlike in contact explosion.

3.3. HE detonation in tunnel structure with inner steel liner

Here, we deal with a high explosive detonation problem in concrete tunnel structure with inner steel liner,
shown in Fig. 11. The spherical HE is suspended in the atmosphere and is ignited in the center of the charge.
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15 D6 15

15
Detonation Point
D10

600
Strain Gage

15

D6 D10
15

G1 G2 G3

100
15

600 G4 G5 G6

Unit mm

Explosive
Detonator
Thin Paper
Wire Holding Jig
Reinforced
Concrete R

Rectangular Lumber Plywood

Sand

Fig. 8. Configuration of the HE detonation test on the RC slab by Morishita et al. (Standoff Explosion).

The concrete structure is built on the soil, one end of the tunnel is closed and the other end is open. The
structure has a vertical height of 2 m and is embedded as a basis in the soil to a depth of 1 m. The thin steel
liner covers the inner surface of the tunnel without constraining to the concrete wall, but the inner surface of
the closed end of the concrete structure is bare. The high explosive is spherical TNT with a mass of 1 t and a
diameter of 1.06 m.
The main part of the numerical simulation was carried out with a three-dimensional model, after a
preliminary one-dimensional calculation, similarly in the case of the standoff explosion calculation. The
preliminary calculation was carried out using the multiple-material Eulerian solver for spherical TNT. Then,
the one-dimensional distribution of physical properties of TNT products and air at the final stage was
remapped to the three-dimensional analysis model as an initial condition. All the TNT products are assumed
to be in the gas phase at this moment.
Fig. 12 depicts the one-dimensional calculation process, and the remapping procedure from one-
dimensional model to three-dimensional one by showing the pressure distributions in both dimensional
models.
The concrete and soil were modeled by the Lagrangian element, the steel liner was done by the shell element.
Effect of reinforcements was taken into account by equivalent and homogeneous material model applied to
Lagrangain elements modeling the concrete. The interactive boundary condition with free slide was applied to
the interfaces between the concrete and the liner, and between the concrete and the soil. The Euler–Lagrange
interactive boundary condition was applied to all the surfaces of the concrete, soil and liner faced to the air.
The FCT-Euler grid was defined 1 m below the soil surface in order to take account of the subsequent
deformation of the soil. The flow-out boundary condition was applied to all the surfaces of the FCT-Euler grid
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Fig. 9. Remapping procedure from 2D/multiple-material Euler to 3D/FCT-Euler model.

except for those in the soil, and the transmit boundary condition was applied to all the surfaces except for the
ground surface, as to avoid unphysical reflections of the pressure wave.
The FCT–Euler method is much faster than the Godunov type multiple-material Eulerian solver. However
the method has the limitation of the applicability only to the analysis of gas dynamics.
Fig. 13 shows the pressure distribution in the gas region. It also shows the material status map in the
structural material region at 3 ms on the vertical cross-sectional surface in the axial direction. It must be noted
that light green, light blue and red stands for respectively, concrete, soil and liner stand for the elastic, plastic
and failed regions, respectively. We can see that the reflection of the shock wave in the air occurs just after its
first impact on the inner surface of the tunnel, and the reflection estimates the high pressure region over
4 MPa, consequently the rise of the pressure on the inner surface of the tunnel causes spall failure (scabbing) in
the vicinity of the outer surface of it. The soil was evaluated to fail in a wider region than concrete at this
moment. This might be because the high explosive is located nearer the soil, and the soil has a weaker tensile
strength than the reinforced concrete. However, no significant deformations or displacements in the structural
materials at 3 ms can be observed. It takes much more time for light gases to deform the heavy structures
significantly.
The material status maps of the bird’s-eye view depict the aspects of the damage only in the structural
material regions at 75 ms, shown in Fig. 14. The inner steel liner is shifted and plotted to the right-hand side so
that the material status of the inner surface of the concrete may be observed clearly and so also the steel liner
at the same time. We can see a deformation pattern in the left-hand side part of the steel liner, a deep drawing
of the plastic sheet metal forms, and almost all region of the steel liner is judged to be plastic at this moment.
The concrete structure has several failed lines in the axial direction and is also characterized to have a number
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Fig. 10. Comparison of the 3-D calculation of the HE detonation on RC slab with the experimental results by Morishita et al. (Standoff
Explosion).

of cracks in circumferential direction near the source of explosion. It indicates serious deformation and
displacement at this moment. The failed region in the soil has expanded much wider than at 3 ms,
the maximum vertical displacement of the soil surface is 0.23 m deep according to the calculation results at
75 ms.
Another bird’s-eye view enables us to comprehend the outer aspect of the deformation and damage of the
concrete structure, and the aspect of the damage of the soil surface, as shown in the lower right side of Fig. 14.
This figure was created to project mirror symmetric elements, as the three-dimensional calculation was
performed for only half the system.

4. Conclusion

We have demonstrated the availability and effectivity of our proposed three-dimensional numerical
simulation method by AUTODYN. After describing the method an attempt is made in order to solve the
impact loading by the energetic materials and subsequent response of the geological material. All calculations
were carried out using usual personal computers. Hence, we can say that the current hardware and software
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Fig. 11. Computational model of the HE explosion in the tunnel vault structure with a inner steel liner.

Fig. 12. Remapping procedure from 1D/multiple-material Euler to 3D/FCT-Euler model.

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Fig. 13. Pressure contour in gas region and material status map in structural region at 3 ms.

Fig. 14. Material status map in structural region at 75 ms.

for the impact analysis of a complex physical system and they provide us useful solutions and expressions to
understand the phenomena. However, the study has the following serious limitations:

(1) Requirement for the computer memory (hardware): even 106 times of the current memory is not sufficient
always, e.g., the assessment of the blast effect at the faraway positions.
(2) Requirement for the computing speed (hardware): for the large-scale and the complicated interaction
problem.
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(3) Requirement for the automatic mesh refinement (AMR) technique to trace the shock front precisely
without dulling (software): arises even in the very large-scale problem.

We expect that more remarkable progress in both hardware and software will be made in the future.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge Emeritus Prof. N. Ishikawa of National Defense Academy in
Japan and Mr. S. Mitake of Japan Nuclear Energy Safety Organization for their useful discussions
and encouragement with relation to this study. They also thank the experimental work performed by Dr. H.
Tanaka and Dr. M. Morishita at 4th Research Center of Technical Research & Development Institute, Japan
Defense Agency.

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