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(Download PDF) Essentials of Meteorology An Invitation To The Atmosphere Eighth Edition C Donald Ahrens Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
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ESSENTIALS OF METEOROLOGY
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EIGHTH EDITION
Essentials of Meteorology
AN INVITATION TO THE ATMOSPHERE
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Essentials of Meteorology © 2018, 2015, 2012 Cengage Learning
An Invitation to the Atmosphere
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the
Eighth Edition copyright herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by
any means, except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the
C. Donald Ahrens and Robert Henson prior written permission of the copyright owner.
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CONTENTS IN BRIEF
APPENDICES
v
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CONTENTS
Preface xv CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
Air Temperature 54
Warming and Cooling Air Near the Surface 56
Daytime Warming 56
Extreme High Temperatures 57
Nighttime Cooling 59
© C. Donald Ahrens
vi
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Daily Temperature Variations 63 Key Terms 111
Regional Temperature Variations 64 Questions for Review 111
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 3.1 Questions for Thought and Exploration 112
When It Comes to Temperature, What’s Normal? 65
Applications of Air Temperature Data 67 CHAPTER 5
Air Temperature and Human Comfort 70
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 3.2 Cloud Development and
A Thousand Degrees and Freezing to Death 71 Precipitation 114
Measuring Air Temperature 72 Atmospheric Stability 116
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVAT
RV ION 3.3
RVAT Determining Stability 117
Why Thermometers Must Be Read in the Shade 74 A Stable Atmosphere 117
Summary 76 An Unstable Atmosphere 118
Key Terms 76 A Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere 120
Questions for Review 76 Cloud Development and Stability 121
Questions for Thought and Exploration 77 Convection and Clouds 121
Topography and Clouds 123
CHAPTER 4 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 5.1
Atmospheric Stability and Windy Afternoons—
Humidity, Condensation, Hold On to Your Hat 124
CONTENTS vii
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FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 5.2 CHAPTER 6
Does Cloud Seeding Enhance Precipitation? 131
Precipitation Types 132 Air Pressure and Winds 146
Rain 132
Snow 133 Atmospheric Pressure 148
Horizontal Pressure Variations—a Tale of Two
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 5.3
Cities 148
Are Raindrops Tear-Shaped? 134
Measuring Air Pressure 150
Sleet and Freezing Rain 136 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 6.1
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVAT
RV ION 5.4
RVAT The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law 150
Aircraft Icing 138
Pressure Readings 152
Snow Grains and Snow Pellets 138 Surface and Upper-Air Charts 153
Hail 138 Why the Wind Blows 154
Measuring Precipitation 140 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 6.2
Instruments 140 Isobaric Maps 155
Doppler Radar and Precipitation 141
Summary 144 Newton’s Laws of Motion 155
Key Terms 144 Forces That Influence the Wind 156
Questions for Review 144 Straight-Line Flow Aloft 159
Questions for Thought and Exploration 145 FOCUS ON AN OBSERVAT
RV ION 6.3
RVAT
Estimating Wind Direction and Pressure Patterns Aloft by
Watching Clouds 160
Curved Winds Around Lows and Highs Aloft 161
Winds On Upper-Level Charts 162
Surface Winds 163
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVAT
RV ION 6.4
RVAT
Winds Aloft in the Southern Hemisphere 164
Winds and Vertical Air Motions 164
Determining Wind Direction and Speed 165
The Influence of Prevailing Winds 166
Wind Instruments 167
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 6.5
Wind Energy 169
Summary 170
Key Terms 170
Questions for Review 170
Questions for Thought and Exploration 171
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 11
Hurricanes 318
Tropical Weather 320
Anatomy of a Hurricane 320
Hurricane Formation and Dissipation 323
The Right Environment 324
The Developing Storm 324
The Storm Dies Out 325
Hurricane Stages of Development 325
Investigating the Storm 326
© Robert Henson
x CONTENTS
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FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 11.1 Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates
How Do Hurricanes Compare with Middle-Latitude (Group C) 366
Cyclones? 328
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVAT
RV ION 12.2
RVAT
Naming Hurricanes and Tropical Storms 331 A Desert with Clouds and Drizzle 367
Devastating Winds, the Storm Surge, and Flooding 331
Moist Continental Climates (Group D) 370
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 11.2
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 12.3
Devastation from a Tropical Storm—The
—The Case of
Allison 334 When Does a Dry Spell Become a Drought? 372
Classifying Hurricane Strength 334 Polar Climates (Group E) 374
Hurricane-Spawned Tornadoes 336 Highland Climates (Group H) 375
Hurricane Fatalities 336 FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 12.4
Some Notable Hurricanes 337 Are Plant Hardiness Zones Shifting Northward? 376
Galveston, 1900 337 Summary 378
New England, 1938 337 Key Terms 378
Camille, 1969 337
Questions for Review 378
Hugo, 1989 337
Andrew, 1992 338 Questions for Thought and Exploration 379
Katrina and Rita, 2005 339
CHAPTER 13
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVAT
RV ION 11.3
RVAT
The Record-Setting Atlantic Hurricane Seasons of 2004 and
2005 340 Earth’s Changing Climate 380
Sandy, 2012 341 Reconstructing Past Climates 382
Devastating Tropical Cyclones Around the World 342 Climate Throughout the Ages 384
Hurricane Watches and Warnings 343 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 13.1
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 11.4 The Ocean’s Influence on Rapid Climate Change 386
Hurricanes in a Warmer World 344
Hurricane Forecasting Techniques 345
Modifying Hurricanes 347
Summary 348
Key Terms 348
Questions for Review 348
Questions for Thought and Exploration 349
CHAPTER 12
CONTENTS xi
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Temperature Trends During the Past 1000 FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 13.5
Years 385 The Impact of Ozone on the Greenhouse Effect and Climate
Temperature Trends During the Past 100-Plus Change 406
Years 386 Consequences of Climate Change:
Climate Change Caused by Natural Events 388 The Possibilties 406
Climate Change: Feedback Mechanisms 389 Climate Change: A Final Note 410
Climate Change: Plate Tectonics and Mountain Summary 411
Building 390 Key Terms 411
Climate Change: Variations in the Earth’s Questions for Review 411
Orbit 391 Questions for Thought and Exploration 412
Climate Change: Variations in Solar Output 394
Climate Change: Atmospheric Particles 394 CHAPTER 14
Climate Change Caused by Human (Anthropogenic)
Activities 397
Climate Change: Greenhouse Gases 397 Air Pollution 414
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 13.2 A Brief History of Air Pollution 416
Nuclear Winter—Climate Change Induced by Nuclear Types and Sources of Air Pollutants 418
War 398 FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 14.1
Climate Change: Land Use Changes 398 Indoor Air Pollution 418
Climate Change: Global Warming 399 Principal Air Pollutants 419
Recent Global Warming: Perspective 399 Ozone in the Troposphere 422
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 13.3 Ozone in the Stratosphere 422
Climate Change and Extreme Weather 400 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 14.2
Future Climate Change: Projections 401 The Formation of Ground-Level Ozone in Polluted Air 423
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC 13.4 FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 14.3
Climate Models—A Quick Look 404 The Ozone Hole 425
Air Pollution: Trends and Patterns 426
Factors That Affect Air Pollution 429
The Role of the Wind 429
The Role of Stability and Inversions 429
The Role of Topography 431
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVAT
RV ION 14.4
RVAT
Smokestack Plumes 432
Severe Air Pollution Potential 433
Air Pollution and the Urban Environment 433
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVAT
RV ION 14.5
RVAT
Five Days in Donora—An Air Pollution Episode 434
Acid Deposition 436
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE 14.6
Heat Waves and Air Pollution: A Deadly Team 437
Summary 439
Key Terms 439
© Robert Henson
xii CONTENTS
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CHAPTER 15 APPENDIXES
CONTENTS xiii
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PREFACE
The world is an ever-changing picture of naturally oc- Written expressly for the student, this book empha-
curring events. From drought and famine to devastat- sizes the understanding and application of meteorologi-
ing floods, some of the greatest challenges we face come cal principles. The text encourages watching the weather
in the form of natural disasters created by weather. Yet, so that it becomes “alive,” allowing readers to immedi-
dealing with weather and climate is an inevitable part ately apply textbook material to the world around them.
of our lives. Sometimes it is as small as deciding what To assist with this endeavor, a color Cloud Chart ap-
to wear for the day or how to plan a vacation. But it
pears at the back of the text. The Cloud Chart can be
can also have life-shattering consequences, especially
for those who are victims of a hurricane or a tornado. separated from the book and used as a learning tool at
In recent years, weather and climate have become any place one chooses to observe the sky. To strengthen
front page news, from record-setting extreme weather points and clarify concepts, illustrations are rendered
events to environmental issues such as global warming in full color throughout. Color photographs were care-
and ozone depletion. The dynamic nature of the atmos- fully selected to illustrate features, stimulate interest,
phere seems to demand our attention and understand- and show how exciting the study of weather can be. To
ing more these days than ever before. Almost daily, enhance the value of the book, several appendices that
there are newspaper articles describing some weather were only available online in the seventh edition have
event or impending climate change. For this reason, been reincorporated.
and the fact that weather influences our daily lives in Organized into fifteen chapters, Essentials of Meteo-
so many ways, interest in meteorology (the study of the rology is designed to provide maximum flexibility to in-
atmosphere) has been growing. This rapidly develop- structors of weather and climate courses. Thus, chap-
ing and popular science is giving us more information ters can be covered in any desired order. For example,
about the workings of the atmosphere than ever before. Chapter 15, “Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics,” is
One of the reasons that meteorology is such an engaging self-contained and can be covered earlier if so desired.
science to study is that the atmosphere is a universally Instructors, then, are able to tailor this text to their par-
accessible laboratory for everyone. Although the atmos- ticular needs. This book basically follows a traditional
phere will always provide challenges for us, as research approach. After an introductory chapter on the origin,
and technology advance, our ability to understand our composition, and structure of the atmosphere, it covers
atmosphere improves as well. The information available solar energy, air temperature, humidity, clouds, precipi-
to you in this book, therefore, is intended to aid in your tation, and winds. Then comes a chapter on air masses,
own personal understanding and appreciation of our fronts, and middle-latitude cyclonic storms. Weather
Earth’s dynamic atmosphere. prediction and severe storms are next. A chapter on
hurricanes is followed by a chapter on global climate. A
chapter on climate change is next. A chapter on air pol-
About This Book lution precedes the final chapter on atmospheric optics.
Essentials of Meteorology is written for students taking an Each chapter contains at least two Focus sections,
introductory course on the atmospheric environment. which either expand on material in the main text or ex-
The main purpose of the text is to convey meteorologi- plore a subject closely related to what is being discussed.
cal concepts in a visual, practical, and nonmathematical Focus sections fall into one of three distinct categories:
manner. In addition, the intent of the book is to stim- Observations, Special Topics, and Environmental Issues.
ulate curiosity in the reader and to answer questions Some include material that is not always found in intro-
about weather and climate that arise in our day-to-day ductory meteorology textbooks—subjects such as space
lives. Although introductory in nature, this eighth edi- weather, the scientific method, and wind energy. Others
tion maintains scientific integrity and includes up-to- help to bridge theory and practice. This edition contains
date information on large-scale topics, such as global several new or rewritten Focus sections, including an up-
warming, ozone depletion, and El Niño, as well as dis- dated discussion of nor’easters in Chapter 8 and a new
cussion of recent high-profile weather events. As in pre- Focus section on tornado damage patterns in Chapter 10.
vious editions, no special prerequisites are necessary for Set apart as “Did You Know?” features in each chap-
understanding. ter is weather information that may not be commonly
xv
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A Satellite’s View of the Weather A good view DID YOU KNOW?
of the weather can be obtained from a weather satellite.
When it rains, it rains pennies from heaven—sometimes. On
Figure 1.4 is a satellite image showing a portion of the July 17, 1940, a tornado reportedly picked up a treasure of
Pacific Ocean and the North American continent. The over 1000 sixteenth-century silver coins, carried them into a
image was obtained from a geostationary satellite situated thunderstorm, then dropped them on the village of Merchery
about 36,000 km (22,300 mi) above Earth. At this elevation, in the Gorki region of Russia.
the satellite travels at the same rate as Earth spins, which
allows it to remain positioned above the same spot so it
can continuously monitor what is taking place beneath it. cumulus clouds that have grown into thunderstorms, that
The thin, solid black lines running from north-to- is, tall churning clouds accompanied by lightning, thunder,
south on the satellite image are called meridians, or lines strong gusty winds, and heavy rain. If you look closely at
of longitude. Since the zero meridian (or prime meridian) Fig. 1.4, you will see similar cloud forms in many regions.
runs through Greenwich, England, the longitude of any There were probably more than a thousand thunderstorms
place on Earth is simply how far it is in degrees from the occurring throughout the world at that very moment.
prime meridian up to 180° east or west. North America Although they cannot be seen individually, there are even
is west of Great Britain and most of the United States lies some thunderstorms embedded in the cloud mass west
between 75°W and 125°W longitude. of the Great Lakes. Later in the day on which this image
The thin, solid black lines that parallel the equator are was taken, a few of these storms spawned the most violent
called parallels of latitude. The latitude of any place is how disturbance in the atmosphere, tornadoes.
far north or south, in degrees, it is from the equator. The lat- A tornado is an intense rotating column of air that usu-
itude of the equator is 0°, whereas the latitude of the North ally extends downward from the base of a thunderstorm with
Pole is 90°N and that of the South Pole is 90°S. Most of the a circulation reaching the ground. Sometimes called twisters,
United States is located between latitude 30°N and 50°N, a or cyclones, they may appear as ropes or as a large cylinder.
region commonly referred to as the middle latitudes. They can be more than 2 km (1.2 mi) in diameter, although
most are less than a football field wide. Most tornadoes have
Storms of All Sizes Probably the most prominent fea- sustained winds below 100 knots, but some can pack winds
ture in Fig. 1.4 is the whirling cloud masses of all shapes exceeding 200 knots (230 mi/hr). Sometimes a visibly rotat-
and sizes. The clouds appear white because sunlight is re-re ing funnel cloud dips part of the way down from a thunder
thunder-
flected back to space from their tops. The largest of the or- storm, then rises without ever forming a tornado.
ganized cloud masses are the sprawling storms. One such
storm shows as an extensive band of clouds, over 2000 km A GLIMPSE AT A WEATHER MAP We can obtain a
long, west of the Great Lakes. Superimposed on the sat- better picture of the middle-latitude storm system by ex-
ellite image is the storm’s center (indicated by the large amining a simplified surface weather map for the same
red L) and its adjoining weather fronts in red, blue, and day that the satellite image was taken. The weight of the
purple. This middle-latitude cyclonic storm system (or air above different regions varies and, hence, so does
extratropical cyclone) forms outside the tropics and, in the the atmospheric pressure. In Fig. 1.5, the red letter L on
Northern Hemisphere, has winds spinning counterclock- the map indicates a region of low atmospheric pressure,
wise about its center, which is presently over Minnesota. often called a low, which marks the center of the middle-
A slightly smaller but more vigorous storm is located latitude cyclonic storm. (Compare the center of the storm
over the Pacific Ocean near latitude 12°N and longitude in Fig. 1.5 with that in Fig. 1.4.) The two large blue letters
116°W. This tropical storm system, with its swirling band H on the map represent regions of high atmospheric
of rotating clouds and sustained surface winds of 65 knots* pressure, called highs, or anticyclones. The circles on the
(74 mi/hr) or more, is known as a hurricane. The diameter map represent other individual weather stations or cities
of the hurricane, as measured by the presence of winds of where observations are taken. The wind is the horizontal
at least 34 knots (39 mi/hr), is about 800 km (500 mi). The movement of air. The wind direction—the direction from
tiny dot at its center is called the eye. Near the surface, in which the wind is blowing*—is given by wind barbs, lines
the eye, winds are light, skies are generally clear, and the that parallel the wind and extend outward from the center
atmospheric pressure is lowest. Around the eye, however, of the station. The wind speed—the rate at which the air is
is an extensive region where heavy rain and high surface moving past a stationary observer—is indicated by flags,
winds are reaching peak gusts of 100 knots. the short lines that extend off each wind barb.
Smaller storms are seen as bright spots over the Gulf Notice how the wind blows around the highs and the
of Mexico. These spots represent clusters of towering lows. The horizontal pressure differences create a force
*A knot is a nautical mile per hour where one knot equals 1.15 miles per hour *If you are facing north and the wind is blowing in your face, the wind would
(mi/hr) or 1.9 kilometers per hour (km/hr). be called a “north wind.”
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 7
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Ankara työ oli auttanut häntä nousemaan. Miten iloiseksi Lyyli
tuleekaan saatuaan tietää, ettei hän ollut turhaan ponnistellut. Siellä
suuren luonnon keskellä hän tulisi kokonaan uudeksi ihmiseksi, sillä
nyt hän jo voi luottaa itseensä, että pääsisi voitolle.
Hän oli varma, että se toimi moitteettomasti, jos heillä vain oli
tarpeellinen koekenttä. Herrat olivat ensin epäilleet, mutta sitten jo
innostuneet itsekin.
*****
Lyyliltä, oli hän ilostunut. Mutta kirje toi murheellisia tietoja. Lyyli ei
ollut jaksanutkaan odottaa häntä. Oli lakannut toivomasta, että hän
enää koskaan tulisi ja — oli lupautunut toiselle. Ensi sunnuntaina
hänet jo kuulutettaisiin.
Muuta ei hän voinut miettiä kuin sitä, miten taivaan nimessä Lyyli
oli saattanut niin tehdä. Nyt saisi hän taas aloittaa kuin alusta
elämänsä.
Jokivarteenkin nyt tulisi toinen. Tyttö, joka oli saanut kaikki hänen
parhaimmat ajatuksensa, ei jaksanutkaan odottaa.
Xl.
Hannesta pisti ukon puhuttelu. Vai kulki eilen yks' sälli. Ja nyt tuli
toinen. Ei sopinut kuva talosta isännän kanssa yhteen. Semmoinen
oman arvonsa tunteva turilas. Tuuheiden kulmien alta tuikki pienet
kiiluvat kissan silmät.
— Hyh… vai sälliä sinä oikein kamariin… hyvä kun saa penkilläkin
maata.
Huhtikuun yönä, niin kuin muinakin öinä, talo nukkuu, mutta talon
henki valvoo. Ja on kuin vanha seinäkello ja astiakaappi
keskustelisivat tuvassa keskenään. Ja jos on kukkia ikkunalla ja jos
ne eivät ole nuutuneet, ottavat ne osaa keskusteluun. Ne puhuvat
useimmiten talon omista asioista, mutta joskus ne saavat viestejä
hyvinkin kaukaa ja kätkevät ne. Ja kun tulee sopiva hetki, kertovat
ne kuulemansa.
— Entä sitten? uteli kello, joka tiesi kaiken, mutta antoi kukkasen
kertoa.
Hannes karisti unen rippeet, nousi ketterästi, mutta jäi pää käsien
varaan penkille istumaan. Kello kävi edelleen ja verenpisara
ikkunalla näytti katselevan hyvin kauas.
*****
Tyttö oli sama kuin ennenkin. Vartalo, suu, silmät ja hiukset. Hymy
oli vain uutta, se oli arkaa ja siinä oli kuin pieni surun piirre. Mutta
kuitenkaan tyttö ei ollut sama. Hannes tunsi sen ensi hetkestä ja
melkein hätkähti. Hän oli kuvitellut kokonaan toisenlaiseksi
tapaamisen ensihetkiä.
— Niin.
— … näille maille.
— Tulinhan.
Tyttö vavahti.
— En.
Hannes tunsi sinä hetkenä niin suurta riemua, ettei koskaan ollut
sellaista tuntenut.
Lyyli, Jokivarsi.
Se satu oli alkanut niin hellänä ja täyteläisenä, mutta oli nyt jo
hänelle melkeinpä etäinen ja vieras. Sitä ajatellessa ei tuska
kirpaissut enää. Hän tiesi varmasti, että jossain oli tällä hetkellä
auringosta ja maan luomisriemusta iloitseva tyttö, joka oli
koskematon ja joka oli häntä varten olemassa. Hänen kanssaan
yhtyneenä voisi lapsilleen antaa sukuperintönä terveen elämän ja
yhtä kirkkaat ajatukset kuin aurinkokukat tuossa nurmella.
Talosta oli tullut kuin uusi koti hänelle. Siitä oli vaikea luopua. Ja
lopullista luopumista ei hän aikonutkaan päättäessään lähteä
käymään synnyinseudullaan.
— Sinä et tulekaan.
— Sinä karkaat.
*****