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Edited by
Daniel Abou-Ras, Thomas Kirchartz, and
Uwe Rau

Advanced Characterization Techniques

for Thin Film Solar Cells
Edited by
Daniel Abou-Ras, Thomas Kirchartz, and Uwe Rau

Advanced Characterization Techniques

for Thin Film Solar Cells

Volume 1

Second Edition
Editors
Dr. Daniel Abou-Ras
Helmholtz Center Berlin
for Materials and Energy
Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1
14109 Berlin
Germany
Prof. Dr. Thomas Kirchartz
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH
IEK-5 Photovoltaik
Leo-Brandt-Straße
52428 Jülich
Germany
Prof. Dr. Uwe Rau
Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH
IEK-5 Photovoltaik
Leo-Brandt-Straße
52428 Jülich
Germany
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 V

For Cíntia, Rafael, Teresa, Gabriel, and Julian

In memoriam Dr. Manuel J. Romero
 VII

Contents to Volume 1

List of Contributors XVII

Preface of the Second Edition XXVII
Preface of the First Edition XXIX
Abbreviations XXXIII

Part I Introduction 1

1 Introduction to Thin-Film Photovoltaics 3

Thomas Kirchartz, Daniel Abou-Ras, and Uwe Rau
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 The Photovoltaic Principle 5
1.2.1 The Shockley–Queisser Theory 6
1.2.2 From the Ideal Solar Cell to Real Solar Cells 10
1.2.3 Light Absorption and Light Trapping 10
1.2.4 Charge Extraction 13
1.2.5 Nonradiative Recombination 17
1.3 Functional Layers in Thin-Film Solar Cells 19
1.4 Comparison of Various Thin-Film Solar-Cell Types 21
1.4.1 Cu(In,Ga)Se2 22
1.4.1.1 Basic Properties and Technology 22
1.4.1.2 Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the
Heterostructure 23
1.4.2 CdTe 25
1.4.2.1 Basic Properties and Technology 25
1.4.2.2 Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the
Heterostructure 26
1.4.3 Cu2 ZnSn(S,Se)4 27
1.4.4 Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells 27
1.4.4.1 Hydrogenated Amorphous Si (a-Si:H) 27
1.4.4.2 Metastability in a-Si:H: The Staebler–Wronski Effect 29
1.4.4.3 Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon (μc-Si:H) 29
1.4.4.4 Micromorph Tandem Solar Cells 30
1.4.4.5 Liquid-Phase Crystallized Si 30
VIII Contents

1.4.5 Metal-Halide Perovskite Solar Cells 31

1.4.6 Organic Solar Cells 32
1.5 Conclusions 33
Acknowledgments 33
References 34

Part II Device Characterization 41

2 Fundamental Electrical Characterization of Thin-Film Solar Cells 43

Thomas Kirchartz, Kaining Ding, and Uwe Rau
2.1 Introduction 43
2.2 Current/Voltage Curves 44
2.2.1 Shape of Current/Voltage Curves and Their Description with
Equivalent Circuit Models 44
2.2.2 Measurement of Current/Voltage Curves 49
2.2.3 Determination of Ideality Factors and Series Resistances 50
2.2.4 Temperature-Dependent Current/Voltage Measurements 52
2.3 Quantum Efficiency Measurements 55
2.3.1 Definition 55
2.3.2 Measurement Principle and Calibration 56
2.3.3 Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Tandem Solar Cells 59
2.3.4 Differential Spectral Response Measurements 60
2.3.5 Interpretation of Quantum Efficiency Measurements in Thin-Film
Silicon Solar Cells 61
Acknowledgments 66
References 66

3 Electroluminescence Analysis of Solar Cells and Solar Modules 71

Thomas Kirchartz, Vito Huhn, Andreas Gerber, Bart E. Pieters, and Uwe Rau
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Basics 72
3.3 Spectrally Resolved EL 74
3.4 Spatially Resolved EL of c-Si Solar Cells 79
3.5 EL Imaging of Thin-Film Solar Cells and Modules 82
3.6 Electromodulated Luminescence under Illumination 85
Acknowledgments 88
References 88

4 Capacitance Spectroscopy of Thin-Film Solar Cells 93

Jennifer Heath and Pawel Zabierowski
4.1 Introduction 93
4.2 Admittance Basics 94
 Contents IX

4.3 Sample Requirements 96

4.4 Instrumentation 96
4.5 CV Profiling and the Depletion Approximation 98
4.6 Admittance Response of Deep States 99
4.7 The Influence of Deep States on CV Profiles 102
4.8 Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy 103
4.8.1 DLTS of Thin-Film PV Devices 107
4.9 Admittance Spectroscopy 108
4.10 Drive-Level Capacitance Profiling 110
4.11 Photocapacitance 111
4.12 The Meyer–Neldel Rule 112
4.13 Spatial Inhomogeneities and Interface States 113
4.14 Metastability 115
Acknowledgments 115
References 115

5 Time-of-Flight Analysis 121

Torsten Bronger
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Fundamentals of TOF Measurements 122
5.2.1 Anomalous Dispersion 123
5.2.2 Basic Electronic Properties of Thin-Film Semiconductors 125
5.3 Experimental Details 126
5.3.1 Accompanying Measurements 128
5.3.1.1 Capacitance 128
5.3.1.2 Collection 129
5.3.1.3 Built-In Field 130
5.3.2 Current Decay 131
5.3.3 Charge Transient 133
5.3.4 Possible Problems 135
5.3.4.1 Dielectric Relaxation 135
5.3.4.2 Inhomogeneous Field 135
5.4 Analysis of TOF Results 136
5.4.1 Multiple Trapping 136
5.4.1.1 Overview of the Processes 136
5.4.1.2 Energetic Distribution of Carriers 137
5.4.1.3 Time Dependence of Electrical Current 139
5.4.2 Spatial Charge Distribution 140
5.4.2.1 Temperature Dependence 140
5.4.3 Density of States 141
5.4.3.1 Widths of Band Tails 142
5.4.3.2 Probing of Deep States 142
References 144
X Contents

6 Transient Optoelectronic Characterization of Thin-Film Solar

Cells 147
Carsten Deibel and Thomas Kirchartz
6.1 Introduction 147
6.2 Measurement Setup 147
6.3 Charge Extraction and Transient Photovoltage 148
6.3.1 Transient Photovoltage 149
6.3.2 CE at Open Circuit 150
6.3.3 Prediction of V oc from CE and TPV 152
6.3.4 CE at Short Circuit 153
6.4 CE with Linearly Increased Voltage 154
6.5 Time-Delayed Collection Field Method 157
Acknowledgment 159
References 159

7 Steady-State Photocarrier Grating Method 163

Rudolf Brüggemann
7.1 Introduction 163
7.2 Basic Analysis of SSPG and Photocurrent Response 164
7.2.1 Optical Model 164
7.2.2 Semiconductor Equations 166
7.2.3 Diffusion Length: Ritter–Zeldov–Weiser Analysis 167
7.2.3.1 Evaluation Schemes 169
7.2.4 More Detailed Analyses 170
7.2.4.1 Influence of the Dark Conductivity 170
7.2.4.2 Influence of Traps 170
7.2.4.3 Minority-Carrier and Majority-Carrier Mobility-Lifetime
Products 172
7.3 Experimental Setup 173
7.4 Data Analysis 175
7.5 Results 177
7.5.1 Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon 178
7.5.1.1 Temperature and Generation Rate Dependence 178
7.5.1.2 Surface Recombination 179
7.5.1.3 Electric Field Influence 179
7.5.1.4 Fermi Level Position 180
7.5.1.5 Defects and Light-Induced Degradation 180
7.5.1.6 Thin-Film Characterization and Deposition Methods 181
7.5.2 Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Alloys 182
7.5.3 Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon 182
7.5.4 Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Germanium 183
7.5.5 Other Thin-Film Semiconductors 183
7.6 DOS Determination 184
7.7 Data Collection by Automization and Combination with Other
Experiments 184
 Contents XI

7.8 Summary 184

Acknowledgment 185
References 185

Part III Materials Characterization 189

8 Absorption and Photocurrent Spectroscopy with High Dynamic

Range 191
Thomas Christian, Mathias Müller, and Thomas Kirchartz
8.1 Introduction 191
8.2 Photothermal Deflection Spectroscopy 193
8.3 Fourier Transform Photocurrent Spectroscopy 195
8.3.1 FTIR Setup 196
8.3.2 Data Processing 198
8.3.2.1 Resolution in FTIR 200
8.3.2.2 Zero Filling 201
8.3.2.3 Undersampling 202
8.3.2.4 Apodization and Instrumental Line Shape 204
8.3.2.5 Phase Correction 206
8.3.3 Measurement Procedure 206
8.3.3.1 Sample Preparation 206
8.3.3.2 Measurement Modes 208
Acknowledgment 211
References 211

9 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry 215

Jian Li, Robert W. Collins, Michelle N. Sestak, Prakash Koirala,
Nikolas J. Podraza, Sylvain Marsillac, and Angus A. Rockett
9.1 Introduction 215
9.2 Theory 217
9.2.1 Polarized Light 217
9.2.2 Reflection from a Single Interface 218
9.3 Ellipsometry Instrumentation 219
9.3.1 Rotating-Analyzer SE for Ex Situ Applications 221
9.3.2 Rotating-Compensator SE for Real-Time Applications 222
9.4 Data Analysis 225
9.4.1 Exact Numerical Inversion 225
9.4.2 Least-Squares Regression 226
9.4.3 Virtual Interface Analysis 226
9.5 Spectroscopic Ellipsometry for Thin-Film Photovoltaics 227
9.5.1 Thin Si:H 227
9.5.2 CdTe 233
9.5.2.1 RTSE Monitoring of CdS in CdTe Solar-Cell Devices 233
9.5.2.2 Ex Situ SE and QE Simulation for CdTe Solar-Cell Devices 235
9.5.3 Cu(In1−x Gax )Se2 241
XII Contents

9.5.3.1 RTSE for Three-Stage Coevaporation of CIGS 242

9.5.3.2 Ex Situ SE and QE Simulation for CIGS Solar-Cell Devices 246
9.6 Summary and Outlook 251
Definition of Polarization and Ellipsometry Variables 252
References 252

10 Characterizing the Light-Trapping Properties of Textured Surfaces with

Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy 257
Karsten Bittkau, Stephan Lehnen, and Ulrich W. Paetzold
10.1 Introduction 257
10.2 How Does a Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscope Work? 258
10.3 The Role of Evanescent Modes for Light Trapping 260
10.4 Analysis of Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy Images by Fast
Fourier Transformation 263
10.5 Investigation of Individual Waveguide Modes 266
10.6 Light Propagation in Thin-Film Solar Cells Investigated with
Dual-Probe SNOM 269
10.7 Conclusion 272
Acknowledgments 272
References 272

11 Photoluminescence Analysis of Thin-Film Solar Cells 275

Thomas Unold and Levent Gütay
11.1 Introduction 275
11.2 Experimental Issues 278
11.2.1 Design of the Optical System 278
11.2.2 Calibration 280
11.2.3 Cryostat 280
11.3 Basic Transitions 281
11.3.1 Excitons 282
11.3.2 Free-Bound Transitions 283
11.3.3 Donor–Acceptor Pair Recombination 284
11.3.4 Potential Fluctuations 285
11.3.5 Band–Band Transitions 287
11.4 Case Studies 287
11.4.1 Low-Temperature Photoluminescence Analysis 288
11.4.2 Room-Temperature Measurements: Estimation of V oc from PL
Yield 291
11.4.3 Spatially Resolved Photoluminescence: Absorber
Inhomogeneities 293
Acknowledgments 295
References 295
 Contents XIII

12 Electron-Spin Resonance (ESR) in Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon

(a-Si:H) 299
Klaus Lips, Matthias Fehr, and Jan Behrends
12.1 Introduction 299
12.2 Basics of ESR 300
12.3 How to Measure ESR 303
12.3.1 ESR Setup and Measurement Procedure 303
12.3.2 Pulsed ESR 306
12.3.3 Sample Preparation 307
12.4 The g Tensor and Hyperfine Interaction in Disordered Solids 308
12.4.1 Zeeman Energy and g Tensor 309
12.4.2 Hyperfine Interaction 311
12.4.3 Line-Broadening Mechanisms 313
12.5 Discussion of Selected Results 316
12.5.1 ESR on Undoped a-Si:H 316
12.5.2 LESR on Undoped a-Si:H 320
12.5.3 ESR on Doped a-Si:H 322
12.5.4 Light-Induced Degradation in a-Si:H 326
12.5.4.1 Excess Charge Carrier Recombination and Weak Si–Si Bond
Breaking 327
12.5.4.2 Si–H Bond Dissociation and Hydrogen Collision Model 327
12.5.4.3 Transformation of Existing Nonparamagnetic Charged
Dangling-Bond Defects 328
12.6 Alternative ESR Detection 331
12.6.1 History of EDMR 332
12.6.2 EDMR on a-Si:H Solar Cells 334
12.7 Concluding Remarks 337
Acknowledgments 337
References 337

13 Scanning Probe Microscopy on Inorganic Thin Films for Solar

Cells 343
Sascha Sadewasser and Iris Visoly-Fisher
13.1 Introduction 343
13.2 Experimental Background 344
13.2.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 344
13.2.1.1 Contact Mode 345
13.2.1.2 Noncontact Mode 346
13.2.2 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy 347
13.2.3 Scanning Capacitance Microscopy 348
13.2.4 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 350
13.2.5 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 352
XIV Contents

13.2.6 Issues of Sample Preparation 353

13.3 Selected Applications 354
13.3.1 Surface Homogeneity 354
13.3.2 Grain Boundaries 356
13.3.3 Cross-Sectional Studies 360
13.4 Summary 363
Acknowledgments 363
References 363

14 Electron Microscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells 371

Daniel Abou-Ras, Melanie Nichterwitz, Manuel J. Romero, and
Sebastian S. Schmidt
14.1 Introduction 371
14.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 371
14.2.1 Imaging Techniques 373
14.2.2 Electron Backscatter Diffraction 374
14.2.3 Energy-Dispersive and Wavelength-Dispersive X-Ray
Spectrometry 378
14.2.4 Electron-Beam-Induced Current Measurements 380
14.2.4.1 Electron-Beam Generation 381
14.2.4.2 Charge Carrier Collection in a Solar Cell 382
14.2.4.3 Experimental Setups 383
14.2.4.4 Critical Issues 384
14.2.5 Cathodoluminescence 386
14.2.5.1 Example: Spectrum Imaging of CdTe Thin Films 389
14.2.6 Scanning Probe and Scanning Probe Microscopy Integrated
Platform 391
14.2.7 Combination of Various Scanning Electron Microscopy
Techniques 396
14.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy 396
14.3.1 Imaging Techniques 398
14.3.1.1 Bright-Field and Dark-Field Imaging in the Conventional Mode 398
14.3.1.2 High-Resolution Imaging in the Conventional Mode 399
14.3.1.3 Imaging in the Scanning Mode Using an Annular Dark-Field
Detector 401
14.3.2 Electron Diffraction 401
14.3.2.1 Selected-Area Electron Diffraction in the Conventional
Mode 401
14.3.2.2 Convergent-Beam Electron Diffraction in the Scanning Mode 402
14.3.3 Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy and Energy-Filtered
Transmission Electron Microscopy 403
14.3.3.1 Scattering Theory 403
14.3.3.2 Experiment and Setup 404
14.3.3.3 The Energy-Loss Spectrum 406
 Contents XV

14.3.3.4 Applications and Comparison with Energy-Dispersive X-Ray

Spectroscopy 408
14.3.4 Off-Axis and In-Line Electron Holography 409
14.4 Sample Preparation Techniques 412
14.4.1 Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy 412
14.4.2 Preparation for Transmission Electron Microscopy 413
Acknowledgments 415
References 416

15 X-ray and Neutron Diffraction on Materials for Thin-Film Solar

Cells 421
Susan Schorr, Christiane Stephan, Tobias Törndahl, Rene Gunder, and
Daniel M. Többens
15.1 Introduction 421
15.2 Diffraction of X-Rays and Neutron by Matter 421
15.3 Grazing Incidence X-Ray Diffraction (GIXRD) 424
15.3.1 Example: Microstructure of CZTSe Thin Films Studied by
GIXRD 427
15.4 Neutron Diffraction of Absorber Materials for Thin-Film Solar
Cells 430
15.4.1 Example: Investigation of Intrinsic Point Defects in
Nonstoichiometric CuInSe2 by Neutron Diffraction 431
15.5 Anomalous Scattering of Synchrotron X-Rays 434
15.5.1 Example: Investigation of Intrinsic Point Defects in
Nonstoichiometric CZTSe by Anomalous Scattering of X-Rays 438
Acknowledgments 439
References 439

Contents to Volume 2
List of Contributors XV
Preface of the Second Edition XXV
Preface of the First Edition XXVII
Abbreviations XXXI

16 In Situ Real-Time Characterization of Thin-Film Growth 441

Paul Pistor, Roland Mainz, Marc Daniel Heinemann, Thomas Unold, and
Roland Scheer

17 Raman Spectroscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells 469

Jacobo Álvarez-García, Víctor Izquierdo-Roca, Paul Pistor, Thomas Schmid,
and Alejandro Pérez-Rodríguez
XVI Contents

18 Soft X-ray and Electron Spectroscopy: A Unique “Tool Chest” to

Characterize the Chemical and Electronic Properties of Surfaces and
Interfaces 501
Marcus Bär, Lothar Weinhardt, and Clemens Heske

19 Accessing Elemental Distributions in Thin Films for Solar Cells 523

Volker Hoffmann, Denis Klemm, Varvara Brackmann, Cornel Venzago,
Angus A. Rockett, Thomas Wirth, Tim Nunney, Christian A. Kaufmann,
Raquel Caballero, and Oana Cojocaru-Mirédin

20 Hydrogen Effusion Experiments 569

Wolfhard Beyer and Florian Einsele

Part IV Materials and Device Modeling 597

21 Ab Initio Modeling of Defects in Semiconductors 599

Karsten Albe, Péter Ágoston, and Johan Pohl

22 Molecular Dynamics Analysis of Nanostructures 621

Xiaowang Zhou, Jose Chavez, and David Zubia

23 One-Dimensional Electro-Optical Simulations of Thin-Film Solar

Cells 633
Bart E. Pieters, Koen Decock, Marc Burgelman, Rolf Stangl, and
Thomas Kirchartz

24 Two- and Three-Dimensional Electronic Modeling of Thin-Film Solar

Cells 659
Ana Kanevce and Wyatt K. Metzger

Index 675
 XVII

List of Contributors

Daniel Abou-Ras Marcus Bär

Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Renewable Energy
Materialien und Energie GmbH Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für
(HZB) Materialien und Energie GmbH
Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1 (HZB)
14109 Berlin Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1
Germany 14109 Berlin
Germany
Péter Ágoston
Technische Universität Jan Behrends
Darmstadt Berlin Joint EPR Lab
Institut für Materialwissenschaft Institute for Nanospectroscopy
Fachgebiet Materialmodellierung Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für
Petersenstr. 23 Materialen und Energie
64287 Darmstadt Albert-Einstein-Str. 15
Germany 12489 Berlin
Germany
Karsten Albe
Technische Universität and
Darmstadt
Institut für Materialwissenschaft Berlin Joint EPR Lab Fachbereich
Fachgebiet Materialmodellierung Physik
Petersenstr. 23 Freie Universität Berlin
64287 Darmstadt Arnimallee 14
Germany 14195 Berlin
Germany
Jacobo Álvarez-García
Universitat de Barcelona
Department d’Electrònica
C. Martí i Franquès 1
08028 Barcelona
Spain
XVIII List of Contributors

Wolfhard Beyer Marc Burgelman

Forschungszentrum Jülich Universiteit Gent
GmbH Vakgroep Elektronica en
Institut für Energie- und Informatiesystemen (ELIS)
Klimaforschung (IEK-5) St.-Pietersnieuwstraat 41
Photovoltaik 9000 Gent
52428 Jülich Belgium
Germany
Raquel Caballero
Karsten Bittkau Universidad Autónoma de
Forschungszentrum Jülich Madrid
GmbH Departamento de Física Aplicada
Institut für Energie- und Calle Francisco Tomás y
Klimaforschung (IEK-5) Valiente 7
Photovoltaik 28049 Madrid
52428 Jülich Spain
Germany
Jose Chavez
Varvara Brackmann The University of Texas at El Paso
Leibniz Institute for Solid State Department of Electrical and
and Materials Research (IFW) Computer Engineering
Dresden 500 West University Avenue
Institute for Complex Materials El Paso, TX 79968
Helmholtzstraße 20 USA
01069 Dresden
Germany Oana Cojocaru-Mirédin
RWTH Aachen
Torsten Bronger I. Physikalisches Institut IA
Forschungszentrum Jülich Sommerfeldstraße 14
GmbH 52074 Aachen
Institut für Energie- und Germany
Klimaforschung (IEK-5)
Photovoltaik and
52428 Jülich
Germany Max-Planck Institut für
Eisenforschung GmbH
Rudolf Brüggemann Max-Planck Straße 1
Carl von Ossietzky Universität 40237 Düsseldorf
Oldenburg Germany
Fakultät V–Institut für Physik
AG GRECO
Carl-von-Ossietzky-Str. 9-11
26111 Oldenburg
Germany
 List of Contributors XIX

Robert W. Collins Florian Einsele

University of Toledo Forschungszentrum Jülich
Department of Physics and GmbH
Astronomy Institut für Energie- und
Wright Center for Photovoltaics Klimaforschung (IEK-5)
Innovation and Photovoltaik
Commercialization (PVIC) 52428 Jülich
2801 West Bancroft Street Germany
Toledo, OH 43606
USA Matthias Fehr
Berlin Joint EPR Lab
Koen Decock Institut für Silizium-Photovoltaik
Universiteit Gent Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für
Vakgroep Elektronica en Materialen und Energie
Informatiesystemen (ELIS) Kekuléstr. 5
St.-Pietersnieuwstraat 41 12489 Berlin
9000 Gent Germany
Belgium
Andreas Gerber
Carsten Deibel Forschungszentrum Jülich
Technische Universität Chemnitz GmbH
Institut für Physik Institut für Energie- und
Optik und Photonik Klimaforschung (IEK-5)
kondensierter Materie Photovoltaik
insbesondere für Sensorik und 52428 Jülich
Analytik (OPKM/212064) Germany
09107 Chemnitz
Germany Rene Gunder
Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für
Kaining Ding Materialien und Energie GmbH
Forschungszentrum Jülich (HZB)
GmbH Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1
Institut für Energie- und 14109 Berlin
Klimaforschung (IEK-5) Germany
Photovoltaik
52428 Jülich Levent Gütay
Germany Carl von Ossietzky University of
Oldenburg
Department of Physics
Carl-von-Ossietzky-Straße 9-11
26129 Oldenburg
Germany
 XXXIII

Abbreviations

1D One-dimensional
2D Two-dimensional
3D Three-dimensional
A∘ X Excitons bound to neutral acceptor
ac Amplified current
ADC Analog-to-digital converter
ADF Annular dark field
ADXRD Angle-dispersive X-ray diffraction
AES Auger electron spectroscopy
AEY Auger electron yield
AFM Atomic force microscopy
AFORS-HET Automat for simulation of heterostructures
ALDA Adiabatic local density approximation
AM Amplitude modulation
AM Air mass
AMU Atomic mass units
ARS Angularly resolved light scattering
AS Admittance spectroscopy
ASA Advanced semiconductor analysis, a solar-cell device simulator
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
a-Si Amorphous silicon
A-X Excitons bound to ionized acceptor
BACE Bias-amplified charge extraction
BF Bright field
BOP Bond-order potential
BS Beam splitter
BSE Bethe–Salpeter equation
BSE Backscattered electrons
c-AFM Conductive AFM
CBD Chemical bath deposition
CBED Convergent-beam electron diffraction
CBM Conduction-band minimum
CBO Conduction-band offset
CC Coupled cluster
CCD Charge-coupled device
CE Charge extraction
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Title: Parents and children

Author: Charlotte M. Mason

Release date: December 17, 2023 [eBook #72445]

Language: English

Original publication: London: Kegan Paul, 1897

Credits: Carol Brown, Tim Lindell, Turgut Dincer and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
(This file was produced from images generously made
available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PARENTS

AND CHILDREN ***
PARENTS AND CHILDREN
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR
HOME EDUCATION: A Course of Lectures to
Ladies. By Charlotte M. Mason. Second
Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo, 6s.
STUDIES IN ENGLISH FOR THE USE OF
MODERN SCHOOLS. By H. C. Bowen. Eleventh
Thousand. Small crown 8vo, 1s. 6d.
SIMPLE ENGLISH POEMS. English Literature for
Junior Classes. By H. C. Bowen. 3s. Parts I., II.,
and III. 6d. each. Part IV. . 1s.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. By H. C.
Bowen. Fcap. 8vo, 1s.
ON THE STUDY OF WORDS. By the late
Archbishop Trench. Revised by A. L. Mayhew.
Twenty-fifth Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 5s.
ENGLISH PAST AND PRESENT. By the late
Archbishop Trench. Revised by A. L. Mayhew.
Fifteenth Edition. Fcap. 8vo, 5s.
THE MODERN FRENCH READER. Edited by C.
Cassal, LL.D., and Theodore Karcher, LL.B.
Junior Course. Nineteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, 2s.
6d. Senior Course. Seventh Edition. Crown 8vo,
4s. Senior Course and Glossary, in One Vol.
Crown 8vo, 6s.
PRACTICAL FRENCH GRAMMAR. By Mortimer
de Larmoyer, Professor of the French Language
and Literature at the Crystal Palace School.
Crown 8vo. New Edition, in One Vol., 3s. 6d. Two
Parts, 2s. 6d. each.
London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Lᵀᴰ
P a r e n t s and C h i l d r e n

A SEQUEL TO

“ H O M E E D U C AT I O N ”

BY
 CHARLOTTE M. MASON

LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO. Lᵀᴰ

PATERNOSTER HOUSE, CHARING CROSS ROAD

1897
The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved.

Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson & Co.

At the Ballantyne Press
 TO THE MEMBERS OF

THE PARENTS’ NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL UNION

THIS VOLUME

is inscribed by the author

as an expression of the affection and
reverence with which their
efforts inspire her

Ambleside,
November 1896.
 PREFACE
The following essays have appeared in the Parents’ Review, and
were addressed, from time to time, to a body of parents who are
making a practical study of the principles of education—the “Parents’
National Educational Union.” The present volume is a sequel to
Home Education (Kegan Paul & Co.), a work which was the means
of originating this Union of Parents. It is not too much to say that the
Parents’ Union exists to advance, with more or less method and with
more or less steadfastness, a definite school of educational thought
of which the two main principles are—the recognition of the physical
basis of habit, i.e. of the material side of education; and of the
inspiring and formative power of the Idea, i.e. of the immaterial, or
spiritual, side of education. These two guiding principles, covering as
they do the whole field of human nature, should enable us to deal
rationally with all the complex problems of education; and the object
of the following essays is, not to give an exhaustive application of
these principles—the British Museum itself would hardly contain all
the volumes needful for such an undertaking—but to give an
example or a suggestion, here and there, as to how such and such
an habit may be formed, such and such a formative idea be
implanted and fostered. The intention of the volume will account to
the reader for what may seem a want of connected and exhaustive
treatment of the subject, and for the iteration of the same principles
in various connections. The author ventures to hope that the
following hints and suggestions will not prove the less practically
useful to busy parents, because they rest on profound educational
principles.
 CONTENTS

BOOK I

THEORY

CHAPTER I
page
the family 3

CHAPTER II
parents as rulers 12

CHAPTER III
parents as inspirers (part i) 20

CHAPTER IV
parents as inspirers (part ii ) 29

CHAPTER V
parents as inspirers (part iii) 39

CHAPTER VI
parents as inspirers (part iv ) 48
 CHAPTER VII
the parent as schoolmaster 58

CHAPTER VIII
the culture of character (part i) 66

CHAPTER IX
the culture of character (part ii ) 79

CHAPTER X
bible lessons 88

CHAPTER XI
faith and duty (part i) 96

CHAPTER XII
faith and duty (part ii ) 111

CHAPTER XIII
faith and duty (part iii) 122

CHAPTER XIV
the heroic impulse 134

CHAPTER XV
is it possible? 143

CHAPTER XVI
discipline 160
 CHAPTER XVII
sensations and feelings (part i) 169

CHAPTER XVIII
sensations and feelings (part ii ) 181

CHAPTER XIX
“what is truth?” 192

CHAPTER XX
show cause why 201

CHAPTER XXI
herbartian pedagogics 211

CHAPTER XXII
the teaching of the “parents’ national
educational union” (part i) 220

CHAPTER XXIII
the teaching of the “parents’ national
educational union” (part ii ) 228

CHAPTER XXIV
whence and whither (part i) 242

CHAPTER XXV
whence and whither (part ii ) 250
 CHAPTER XXVI
the great recognition 260

CHAPTER XXVII
the eternal child 271

BOOK II

ESSAYS IN PRACTICAL EDUCATION

CHAPTER I
the philosopher at home 283

CHAPTER II
“attention” 303

CHAPTER III
an educational experiment 312

CHAPTER IV
dorothy elmore’s achievement: a forecast 320

CHAPTER V
consequences 346

CHAPTER VI
mrs. sedley’s tale 355
 CHAPTER VII
ability 367

CHAPTER VIII
poor mrs. jumeau! 376

CHAPTER IX
“a happy christmas to you!” 386

CHAPTER X
parents in council (part i) 395

CHAPTER XI
parents in council (part ii ) 405

CHAPTER XII
a hundred years after 413

note 429
BOOK I
THEORY
 PARENTS AND CHILDREN

CHAPTER I

THE FAMILY
“The family is the unit of the nation.”—F. D. Maurice.

It is probable that no other educational thinker has succeeded in

affecting parents so profoundly as did Rousseau. Emile is little read
now, but how many current theories of the regimen proper for
children have there their unsuspected source? Everybody knows—
and his contemporaries knew it better than we—that Jean Jacques
Rousseau had not enough sterling character to warrant him to pose
as an authority on any subject, least of all on that of education. He
sets himself down a poor thing, and we see no cause to reject the
evidence of his Confessions. We are not carried away by the charm
of his style; his “forcible feebleness” does not dazzle us. No man can
say beyond that which he is, and there is a want of grit in his
philosophic theories that removes most of them from the category of
available thought.
But Rousseau had the insight to perceive one of those patent
truths which, somehow, it takes a genius to discover; and, because
truth is indeed prized above rubies, the perception of that truth gave
him rank as a great teacher. “Is Jean Jacques also among the
prophets?” people asked, and ask still; and that he had thousands of
fervent disciples amongst the educated parents of Europe, together
with the fact that his teaching has filtered into many a secluded
home of our own day, is answer enough. Indeed, no other
educationalist has had a tithe of the influence exercised by
Rousseau. Under the spell of his teaching, people in the fashionable
world, like that Russian Princess Galitzin, forsook society, and went
off with their children to some quiet corner where they could devote
every hour of the day, and every power they had, to the fulfilment of
the duties which devolve upon parents. Courtly mothers retired from
the world, sometimes even left their husbands, to work hard at the
classics, mathematics, sciences, that they might with their own lips
instruct their children. “What else am I for?” they asked; and the
feeling spread that the bringing up of the children was the one work
of primary importance for men and women.
Whatever extravagance he had seen fit to advance, Rousseau
would still have found a following, because he had chanced to touch
a spring that opened many hearts. He was one of the few
educationalists who made his appeal to the parental instincts. He did
not say, “We have no hope of the parents, let us work for the
children!” Such are the faint-hearted and pessimistic things we say
to-day. What he said was, in effect, “Fathers and mothers, this is
your work, and you only can do it. It rests with you, parents of young
children, to be the saviours of society unto a thousand generations.
Nothing else matters. The avocations about which people weary
themselves are as foolish child’s play compared with this one serious
business of bringing up our children in advance of ourselves.”
People listened, as we have seen; the response to his teaching
was such a letting out of the waters of parental enthusiasm as has
never been known before nor since. And Rousseau, weak and little
worthy, was a preacher of righteousness in this, that he turned the
hearts of the fathers to the children, and so far made ready a people
prepared for the Lord. But alas! having secured the foundation, he
had little better than wood, hay, and stubble to offer to the builders.
Rousseau succeeded, as he deserved to succeed, in awaking
many parents to the binding character, the vast range, the profound
seriousness of parental obligations. He failed, and deserved to fail,
as he offered his own crude conceits by way of an educational code.