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(Download PDF) Information Security Science Measuring The Vulnerability To Data Compromises 1St Edition Carl Young Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
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INFORMATION
SECURITY SCIENCE
MEASURING THE
VULNERABILITY TO DATA
COMPROMISES
Carl S. Young
Managing Director and Chief Security Officer,
Stroz Friedberg LLC
Syngress is an imprint of Elsevier
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
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tion about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the
Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.
elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such infor-
mation or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties
for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-809643-7
Biography
Carl S. Young is an expert in information and physical security risk management. He is cur-
rently a Managing Director and the Chief Security Officer at Stroz Friedberg, an international
security risk consulting firm. He is the former Global Head of Physical Security Technology
at Goldman Sachs as well as a former Senior Executive and Supervisory Special Agent at the
FBI. He was also a consultant to the JASON Defense Advisory Group. Mr. Young is the au-
thor of Metrics and Methods for Security Risk Management (Syngress, 2010), and The Science and
Technology of Counterterrorism (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2014) as well as numerous journal
publications. In 1997 he was awarded the President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board
(PFIAB) James R. Killian Award by the White House for significant individual contributions
to US national security. Mr. Young received undergraduate and graduate degrees in math-
ematics and physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
xi
Foreword
All new innovations bring positive and seem potentially limitless when the tools are
negative consequences for users and society put in malicious hands. These threats are also
at large. This has been true of the develop- limitless because they are very scalable and
ment and broad deployment of alternating rely on the weak underbelly of our basic mar-
current a century ago, and mass vehicular ket economy, which competes on the basis
and air transportation, right through to the of convenience and speed, often sacrificing
nuclear age. We enjoy the benefits of these security.
platforms for economic productivity and ad- This book examines in the most compre-
vancement as well as social interaction, but at hensive fashion how to think about vulner-
the same time in the hands of bad actors, all abilities in a scientific way, the only approach
these represent existential threats to society. that fully and objectively can determine how
The Internet and electronic communica- to go about identifying, understanding, and
tion have come into the public consciousness rooting out vulnerabilities. It is both wide
only over the past 20 years. And perhaps they ranging and looks at each potential vulner-
represent a new frontier in providing benefits ability with a strict scientific mindset to help
to society, by reducing what economists call all readers determine how best to maximize
search and transaction costs. They also bring the benefits of interconnection in the Internet
about the ability to reach and improve the lives age, while at the same time minimizing the
of many people in developing economies. downside so as to gain the benefits all societ-
At the same time the extreme networking ies have come to expect.
and electronic interconnection that under-
pins our day-to-day lives has provided for Michael Patsalos-Fox
an extraordinary amount of vulnerability; CEO, Stroz Friedberg,
whether it be through data breaches of cor- Former Chairman of the Americas,
porate networks or the compromise of wire- McKinsey & Co.
less communication means, cyber threats
xiii
Preface
Despite its name, the commercial success electronic devices radiate compromising en-
of the computer derives from its effectiveness ergy that can be remotely detected under the
as a communications tool rather than as a right conditions. State-sponsored adversaries
machine that computes. Humans are arguably have both the incentive and the resources to
obsessed with communication so any device conduct such attacks thereby obviating the
that enables the exchange of information is need to intrude on the network and largely
likely to be popular. eliminating a concern for detection.
To be sure, information technologies such This book analyzes the vulnerability to in-
as the telephone, the television, and the com- formation compromise via a variety of attack
puter cum Internet have had transformation- methodologies. Many of these are surpris-
al effects on society. People who were previ- ingly low-tech, which substantially increases
ously isolated suddenly had unprecedented the risk to many organizations. There is also
access to individuals outside their immediate a strong physical basis for many information
surroundings. In addition, they were now security risk scenarios that is not generally
almost immediately aware of events that appreciated by information security profes-
occurred beyond their immediate environ- sionals. Quantitative details related to these
ment. Notwithstanding possible correlations scenarios are included for those so inclined,
between social media and bad grammar, the but the principal intent is to convey the un-
positive effects of communication technolo- derlying principles that govern the opera-
gies cannot be disputed. tional limits on attacks and the effectiveness
Yet not all communications are meant for of countermeasures.
public consumption. Unauthorized access Such principles are essential to estimat-
to information is a problem when the whole ing the vulnerability to information com-
point of these technologies is to facilitate the promise. In addition, techniques borrowed
seamless exchange of data. To complicate from various scientific disciplines are pre-
matters, we are a species that also craves sented. These can provide unique insights
convenience, and convenience and security into security risk as well as yield meaning-
are often incompatible. In fact, the need for ful risk metrics that have eluded practitio-
convenience drives much of the information ners or at the very least have been difficult
security risk within organizations today. to formulate.
Although attacks on networks are the fo- To that end, the book is divided into five
cus of typical security strategies, other modes Parts, and each Part is further divided into
of attack on information assets deserve at- Chapters. These are briefly described as
tention. For example, unauthorized access follows.
to visual and audible information is com- Part I recounts the fundamentals of
monplace in many business settings with the threats, risk, and risk assessments. These
potential for significant losses. In addition, concepts represent the foundation of security
xv
xvi Preface
risk management, and must be understood Part III describes the essential features of
in order to rigorously assess information attacks on electromagnetic signals, audible
security risk. signals, and visual images pursuant to infor-
mation compromises. The relation between
• Chapter 1 discusses the concepts of
information theory and information security
threat and risk. In particular, the risk
is also discussed.
factor is introduced. Risk factors for
various threats and attack vectors are • Chapter 6 introduces topics related to the
highlighted throughout the text since compromise of electromagnetic signals.
they are essential to formulating an The process of modulation transforms
effective security risk management energy into signals and thereby conveys
strategy. information. Risk factors for signal
• Chapter 2 explains some of the compromises are discussed as well as a
quantitative tools that are useful in high-level review of signal averaging,
developing simple models of information which is essential to detecting signals
security risk. Basic functions are in noisy environments. Fundamental
described along with concepts pertaining concepts of information theory are
to scale, growth, decay, and rates of investigated, which leads to a discussion
change. on the relationship between information
theory and information security.
Part II provides the scientific background
• Chapter 7 analyzes methods to remotely
required to analyze the various attack scenar-
detect emanations from electronic
ios presented in later chapters.
devices. Achieving an adequate signal-
• Chapter 3 discusses mechanical and to-noise ratio is the Holy Grail for an
electromagnetic energy, which are attacker. A number of variables that affect
encoded with information to yield this ratio are discussed.
signals. Topics include waves and wave • Chapter 8 discusses various
motion, energy, power, resonance, countermeasures to attacks that target
diffraction, and point sources of radiating electromagnetic emanations. These
energy. measures principally include shielding
• Chapter 4 introduces electromagnetic and grounding. Fortuitous losses
signal fundamentals to include fields, caused by intervening objects that
flux, and Maxwell’s equations. The reflect, diffract, and absorb incident
latter are the expressions that govern electromagnetic energy are also reviewed
all electromagnetic phenomena, and in some detail and various models of
therefore explain the mechanisms for propagation loss are presented. Both
information loss. intrabuilding and interbuilding signal
• Chapter 5 focuses on the generation of propagation scenarios are discussed.
electromagnetic emanations in electronic • Chapter 9 focuses on optical attacks. The
circuits. These emanations are the targets vulnerabilities associated with remote,
of information compromise in remote unauthorized viewing of computer
attacks. Various sources of noise are monitors, whiteboards, and keyboards
discussed, and, as the name implies, are are considered. Such attacks can be
fundamental to the signal-to-noise ratio, conducted using a simple telescope. The
the critical security parameter in remote resolution limit for a given telescope
attacks on signals. objective lens and viewing distance is
Preface xvii
set by diffraction, which establishes the governance, information technology
threshold on vulnerability. An optical implementation, user behavior, and the
attack using photon counting rather than physical security of information assets.
imaging is also described. The nexus between risk-based policies
• Chapter 10 provides the fundamentals of and standards to security risk metrics
attacks on audible information. Speech- is also highlighted. Finally, the role of
borne vibrations of molecules in air and/ organizational culture is discussed since
or various materials that support acoustic it can strongly affect risk factors for
propagation produce an audible signal information compromise.
that, under certain conditions, can be • Chapter 12 describes various
remotely detected. As in any real-life measurements and resulting metrics
scenario, noise plays a significant role in that can yield insights into the root
determining the operational limits for a causes of information technology
given attack scenario. Both airborne and risk. These metrics can be used to
structure-borne scenarios are described measure effectiveness of underlying
as well as the effect of intervening objects risk management processes. Statistical
that reflect, diffract, and absorb acoustic correlation measurements are also
energy. used to examine trends in time series
of vulnerabilities. Such measurements
Part IV delves into the vast territory of enable Tier ratings of high-level
information technology risk. The scale and security controls as defined in the NIST
complexity of security vulnerabilities associ- Cybersecurity Framework.
ated with applications, databases, protocols, • Chapter 13 presents a variety of
operating systems, etc., preclude a meaning- specialized information security
ful treatment of security in a single reference. risk models, measurements, and
In addition, technologies are ephemeral, and metrics. Some of these are unique to
vulnerabilities eventually become less rel- information security but others have
evant over time. But the culture-driven pro- been borrowed from other science and
cesses that affect the use of these technolo- engineering disciplines. The use of the
gies persist long after a machine or software Markov process and Fourier analysis is
application is decommissioned. particularly noteworthy given their use in
Therefore a unique approach is adopted, many other contexts. These methods are
which avoids discussions of specific security suggested here as a means of identifying
technologies. Instead, simple statistical mea- risk-relevant behaviors within large
surements of data derived from standard and/or complex data sets, for example,
sources of vulnerabilities are specified that firewall logs.
lead to enterprise-level information security
metrics. These lead to inferences about root Part V is devoted to the physical security
causes of information security risk as well as of information assets. This topic is often over-
provide a common language on risk that can looked in traditional treatments of informa-
facilitate meaningful dialogue between tech- tion security risk. However, physical security
nologists and nontechnical management. represents an important source of risk factors
since physical security technologies protect
• Chapter 11 discusses the principal critical information assets. In addition, these
sources of risk factors for information devices are networked, and therefore are
security: business practices, security potentially vulnerable to direct compromise
xviii Preface
Source: Mcluhan M. Understanding media: the extensions of man. Critical ed. Gordon WT, editor. Gingko Press, CA, USA;
2003. p. 85.
Acknowledgments
For someone who makes a living at defin- manager and caregiver. My family and I
ing metrics, I am remarkably inadequate at are extraordinarily grateful for his expertise
estimating the magnitude of contributions by and the personal attention he has given my
others to this book. Thankfully a quantitative dad. There is no question Dr. Haas is largely
assessment is not required here, but suffice it responsible for the quality of life my dad now
to say that each of the following individuals enjoys and the happiness we derive from this
provided the inspiration, knowledge, and/or as a result.
support that made this book possible. Jean Gobin at Stroz Friedberg provided
Although they have been recognized pre- both content and ideas in this book. Specifi-
viously, I must reiterate the significant and cally, he made significant contributions to the
sometimes intangible contributions made section on Fourier transforms applied to se-
by my parents, Dr. Irving Young and Dr. curity data, the password cracking analysis,
Geraldine Young. A politician once famously and the section on virtual environments. Jean
remarked that some people think that because is a brilliant engineer, and my company and I
they landed on third base they believe they hit are fortunate to be able to draw on his talent
a triple. Without the support of my parents I and creativity.
would not have made it to the ballpark. Kate McManus (aka “Ms. Hudson Mar-
Specific individuals have profoundly in- ket”) at Stroz Friedberg provided some of
fluenced the way I look at security issues the graphics in this book as well as helped
and therefore shaped my thinking about this formulate the metrics related to the root
diverse field over many years. Fortunately, I causes of information technology risk. Kate
continue to be the beneficiary of their knowl- possesses a keen aesthetic sense and strong
edge, experience, and friendship. These indi- technical know-how, and she is a significant
viduals include Robert Bryant, Dr. David B. individual contributor to the visual presenta-
Chang, Robert Grubert, Christopher Hogan, tion of the security risk metrics presented in
James A. King, Michael McDevitt, David this book.
J. Murphy III, Roger Pike, and J. Martial Eileen Murphy is my Executive Assistant
Robichaud. at Stroz Friedberg. Her competence and ef-
Risk management and risk managers can fectiveness has helped in writing this book
assume many forms. Physicians are not nec- as well as getting things accomplished more
essarily identified in this way, but that is pre- generally. She has been a silent partner in this
cisely their role. My father has been fortunate endeavor, and I am grateful for her impor-
to be in the care of a cardiologist, Dr. Donald tant if behind-the-scenes contributions.
Haas of Abington Hospital in Abington, PA, This past year has had its challenges and
who exemplifies the best qualities of a risk without personal support I would not have
xix
xx Acknowledgments
mustered the motivation to produce this ment as well as for the authentic Cuban food
book. Lisa Maass, Fran Davis, and Ruth she sometimes brings to the office. Muchas
Steinberg, whom I have known since college gracias Señora.
and kindergarten, respectively, provided me The publishing experience can seem simi-
with the candid advice that only the best of lar to Dante’s Nine Circles of Hell if the pub-
friends can offer. I am grateful for the decades lisher and author are not resonant to borrow
of love and attention they have shown me. a term from physics. Fortunately I benefitted
Dr. Peter Rocheleau volunteered for the significantly from my association with three
dubious honor of editing this tome. Peter is bona fide editing professionals at Elsevier.
an intellectual’s intellectual who possesses Specifically, Anna Valutkevich, Editorial Proj-
a keen eye for both detail and thematic en- ect Manager, Mohanambal Natarajan, Senior
hancement. If this book is successful in Project Manager, and Brian Romer, Senior
achieving its stated objectives, it will largely Acquisitions Editor, understood what I was
be due to his insights and encouragement. trying to achieve and helped me to achieve it.
Some people contribute to projects in I am extremely appreciative of their efforts.
ways that do not often get recognized. In par- Finally, for more than a year Dr. Donna
ticular, individuals who make it possible to Gill has provided masterful collaboration on
work in a comfortable environment deserve the piano and elsewhere. Despite her modes-
more explicit acknowledgment. To that end, ty, I believe there is no one who performs the
Sadie Torres has been diligent in reducing the Brahms Intermezzo Op. 117 better than she, a
“entropy” in my office and thereby reversing true metric of artistic achievement and sensi-
the effects of my chaotic ways. I am appre- tivity. I am grateful for her efforts in support
ciative of her daily efforts that have contrib- of this book as well as in many other facets
uted to a more productive work environ- of my life.
C H A P T E R
1
Information Security Threats and Risk
INTRODUCTION
3
4 1. Information Security Threats and Risk
Notably, these strategies include numerous and varied security controls. In fact, there is often
an abundance of IT security data derived from these controls. But it is not clear such data are
yielding insights into risk on a strategic level.
Indeed, IT risk managers are sometimes overwhelmed with data that are intended to iden-
tify the risk of information loss. But such data are traditionally used in support of tactical re-
mediation efforts. Problems often recur because such remedies are inherently narrow in scope.
Sometimes this abundance of data actually blinds organizations to the most significant risk
factors for information compromise, which include business practices, security governance,
physical security of information assets, and user behavior in addition to poor or inappropriate
IT implementation.
One phenomenon that contributes to the ineffectiveness of current security strategies is the
difficulty in quantifying IT risk. Why is this so difficult? The reasons are threefold:
• IT security incidents typically result from the confluence of related issues. The
contributions of each issue can vary and it can be difficult to assess their relative
magnitudes.
• Robust statistics on actual IT incidents are either nonexistent or not particularly helpful in
assessing risk.
• Controlled experiments to determine the effectiveness of risk mitigation in IT
environments are difficult to conduct.
The result is an absence of useful models pertaining to IT risk. So it is not easy to rigorously
confirm the effectiveness of a particular security strategy.
The problem is exacerbated by the fact that IT protocols and systems have antagonistic ob-
jectives: ensuring data security and facilitating communication. To be sure, facilitating com-
munication invites risk. In fact, the very existence of a network is a risk factor for information
compromise. Despite continued efforts to ensure data security, these technologies spawn new
vulnerabilities each day. The popularity of the Internet in conjunction with well-advertised
attacks on systems drives the nearly singular focus on technology as both the culprit and the
cure for information security ills.
Information security risk scenarios can admittedly be complex with interrelated elements.
In many cases this complexity precludes the formulation of reliable risk models. Finally, the
diversity of attackers and their respective motives makes precise statements on the likelihood
of a future incident difficult if not impossible.
1
A visible image results from the reflection or direct transmission of energy within the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The intensity of background light, which lowers the contrast required to discern
individual symbols, constitutes noise in this context.
that are formulated in terms of risk factors such as distance and time. Characterizing a threat
in terms of these risk factors forms the basis for a quantitative model of vulnerability.
Let us be more specific about what is meant by a signal. A signal is a form of energy that is
changed or “modulated” and thereby encoded with information. In other words, the process of
modulation results in the transformation of mere energy into energy with information content.2
A rigorous definition of energy is provided in Chapter 3. For now it is enough to know that both
modulated and unmodulated energy obey the laws of physics. And it is modulated energy that
is the target of attackers, and therefore provides the impetus to implement security controls.
Critical issues in estimating the vulnerability to signal compromise are the sources of am-
bient noise or interference and the physics of energy propagation within materials. Signals
exist as either mechanical or electromagnetic energy, and each behaves quite differently de-
pending on the material in which they propagate. The nature of these energy–matter inter-
actions significantly affects the vulnerability to audible, visible, and electromagnetic signal
compromises.
Environmental features in the path of propagation will affect the signal intensity and there-
by impose detection limits as a function of distance. Developing a model for signal propaga-
tion that accounts for all risk-relevant features, that is, the risk factors, is critical to under-
standing the vulnerability component of risk for a given threat.
The physical nature of signals suggests that they should be detectable by some type of sen-
sor. Furthermore, it would be reasonable to assume that these sensors are designed to detect
specific forms of energy. In fact, it is the signal intensity that evokes a response by the sensor.
Therefore the signal intensity in conjunction with the noise intensity is almost always the key
to successfully estimating the vulnerability to information loss.
An attacker with physical proximity to a signal source could potentially detect and recon-
struct that signal assuming the signal power is sufficiently greater than the ambient noise
power within the signal bandwidth.3 Moreover, signal energy is inherently promiscuous, and
is agnostic to the identity of the individual attempting to detect it.
For example, if a Wi-Fi network is used to access the Internet, the signal is vulnerable to
detection by both authorized users and an attacker sniffing for network traffic. A Wi-Fi signal
carries risk if it is assumed to be undetectable in areas outside an organization’s physical span
of control and this assumption is part of a defensive strategy.
Although strong encryption (eg, WPA2-PSK) is now incorporated into the 802.11 wireless
protocols to address this vulnerability, weaker forms of encryption are still prevalent (eg,
WEP). In one ethical hacking exercise, my company exploited this exact vulnerability to gain
access to a corporate network. In addition, unauthorized users can use other techniques to
2
This statement is admittedly ambiguous due to differences in the meaning of “information.” The colloquial
use of the term refers to any data that convey meaning. The information theoretic interpretation, which will be
investigated more thoroughly in Chapter 6, is the uncertainty or diversity associated with an alphabet or source of
symbols. To illustrate the distinction, if I have a digital transmitter broadcasting all 1’s, this is information in the
colloquial sense. But the signal conveys no information in the information theoretic sense as explained in the same
chapter. However, either interpretation works in this context if it is specified that modulation creates “content”
rather than information.
3
The effect of encryption is neglected here, which will not influence signal detection but is designed to thwart
signal reconstruction if detected.
A user risk profile consisting of these risk factors enables a relative risk ranking of users,
and thereby focuses monitoring and/or remediation efforts. Moreover, security perspectives
at both the user and the device level provide a multidimensional view of risk, and thereby
facilitate more effective risk management strategies.
Five risk factors affect the vulnerability component of risk for the compromise of signals:
1. the form of signal energy (electromagnetic or mechanical);
2. the intervening materials between the radiating source and the point of detection;
3. the physical proximity of a radiating source and the point of detection;
4. the signal bandwidth and the magnitude of ambient noise across that bandwidth;
5. the sophistication of the attacker.
Consider risk factor number three. If the vulnerability to unauthorized signal detection
happens to vary strongly with distance from a radiating source of signal energy, it would be
prudent to maximize the distance between potential adversaries and the signal source in ac-
cordance with this model.
Such insights are admittedly not particularly profound. The real challenge is to determine at
what distance the signal becomes invulnerable to detection. Understanding the precise depen-
dence of signal intensity on distance plus the magnitude of the ambient noise power enables
such a determination. This and similar estimates represent the essence of the information pro-
vided in this book.
A simple graphic depicting the high-level risk factors for threats to radiated signals is
shown in Fig. 1.5. More detailed risk factors for the compromise of radiating signals are pre-
sented in Chapter 6.
Finally, it is useful to create a holistic view of an information security risk assessment that
tells the complete risk story from threats to remediation. It is also helpful to visualize the
process depicted in this linear view since the issues are somewhat self-explanatory when
presented this way, and therefore helps facilitate decisions on mitigation.
Table 1.3 illustrates this format for an abbreviated assessment. Note that it is organized
according to (1.1). In addition, the cost of remediation is included, which facilitates security
decisions.
Hän lähti tänään ulos ensi kerran senjälkeen kuin oli huoneeseen
muuttanut. Kevein askelin hän kiiruhti kapeita portaita alas, ohi
avoimen ravintolahuoneen oven, josta häntä vastaan tuoksahti
lautasten kolina ja ruuanhaju, sekä jatkoi matkaansa portin kautta
kadulle.
Hanna punastui.
»No, no, älkää olko levoton, neiti hyvä; voihan sattua, ettette halua
ilmaista nimeänne. Naisilla on useinkin syynsä hankkia hiukan rahaa
tuntemattomana. Minä ummistan tällä kertaa silmäni. Jättäkää
korunne tänne, ja minä uhraan kaksisataa guldeniani ja jätän teidät
rauhaan kauniitten kasvojenne takia.»
»Mutta ellen halua myydä medaljonkiani?»
»Niin kutsun poliisin.» Hanna ymmärsi nyt, että mies tahtoi hyötyä
hänen kustannuksellaan. Mutta summa oli hänestä toistaiseksi kyllin
suuri — ja mieluummin näin kuin joutua vieraitten ihmisten
kyseltäväksi.
»No mitä te tiedätte kertoa, neiti Milli? Ette kai te vain ole paikatta?
Minulle on sanottu, että Itävallan, Pietarin ja Amerikan saksalaiset
teatterit kiistelevät teistä.»
»Voi teitä härnäilijää», vastasi Milli neiti Wienin murteella. »Te
tiedätte kyllin hyvin, etten pitkiä aikoja kestä samassa paikassa. Olen
taas purkanut tirehtöörini kanssa. Saako tavata tohtoria?»
Hän jatkoi:
Tämän hän esitti paremmin, sillä hän sai laulussa esiin omat
surunsa. Resitatiivin yli hän pääsi onnellisesti. Lyhyiden,
katkonaisten lauseiden välissä oli laulajattarella tilaisuus hengähtää
ja korkean pitkän fissin lauseessa: »Wie schön ist diese Nacht»,
lauloi hän kauniilla, sointuvalla äänellä.
Mutta andante:
Ja vielä kerran:
»Was doch das Herz — Aphroditens be — (korkea fiss)
weeegt…» — mikä viehkeys — »Dass sie der Tugend, der
Tugend» — oi veitikkaa — »nur Fall.»
»No, tämä saa riittää, minun pitää jo lähteä», sanoi hän pannen
hatun päähänsä. »Minulla on niin paljon toimitettavaa. Hyvästi,
lapset!»