Memetic Computation The Mainspring

of Knowledge Transfer in a Data Driven

Optimization Era Abhishek Gupta
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/memetic-computation-the-mainspring-of-knowledge-tr
ansfer-in-a-data-driven-optimization-era-abhishek-gupta/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Evolutionary Computation in Combinatorial Optimization

Arnaud Liefooghe

https://textbookfull.com/product/evolutionary-computation-in-
combinatorial-optimization-arnaud-liefooghe/

Optimization and Control for Systems in the Big Data

Era Theory and Applications 1st Edition Tsan-Ming Choi

https://textbookfull.com/product/optimization-and-control-for-
systems-in-the-big-data-era-theory-and-applications-1st-edition-
tsan-ming-choi/

R D Management in the Knowledge Era Challenges of

Emerging Technologies Tu■rul Daim

https://textbookfull.com/product/r-d-management-in-the-knowledge-
era-challenges-of-emerging-technologies-tugrul-daim/

Data Visualisation A Handbook for Data Driven Design

Andy Kirk

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-visualisation-a-handbook-
for-data-driven-design-andy-kirk/
Data Visualisation: A Handbook For Data Driven Design
Andy Kirk

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-visualisation-a-handbook-
for-data-driven-design-andy-kirk-2/

Numeric Computation and Statistical Data Analysis on

the Java Platform Advanced Information and Knowledge
Processing Chekanov Sergei V

https://textbookfull.com/product/numeric-computation-and-
statistical-data-analysis-on-the-java-platform-advanced-
information-and-knowledge-processing-chekanov-sergei-v/

Data Publics: Public Plurality in an Era of Data

Determinacy Peter Mörtenböck

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-publics-public-plurality-
in-an-era-of-data-determinacy-peter-mortenbock/

Data-driven Multivalence in the Built Environment

Nimish Biloria

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-driven-multivalence-in-the-
built-environment-nimish-biloria/

All Data Are Local Thinking Critically In A Data Driven

Society Yanni Alexander Loukissas

https://textbookfull.com/product/all-data-are-local-thinking-
critically-in-a-data-driven-society-yanni-alexander-loukissas/
Adaptation, Learning, and Optimization 21

Abhishek Gupta
Yew-Soon Ong

Memetic
Computation
The Mainspring of Knowledge Transfer
in a Data-Driven Optimization Era
Adaptation, Learning, and Optimization

Volume 21

Series editors
Yew-Soon Ong, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
e-mail: asysong@ntu.edu.sg

Meng-Hiot Lim, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

e-mail: emhlim@ntu.edu.sg
The role of adaptation, learning and optimization are becoming increasingly
essential and intertwined. The capability of a system to adapt either through
modification of its physiological structure or via some revalidation process of
internal mechanisms that directly dictate the response or behavior is crucial in many
real world applications. Optimization lies at the heart of most machine learning
approaches while learning and optimization are two primary means to effect
adaptation in various forms. They usually involve computational processes
incorporated within the system that trigger parametric updating and knowledge
or model enhancement, giving rise to progressive improvement. This book series
serves as a channel to consolidate work related to topics linked to adaptation,
learning and optimization in systems and structures. Topics covered under this
series include:
• complex adaptive systems including evolutionary computation, memetic com-
puting, swarm intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy systems, tabu search, sim-
ulated annealing, etc.
• machine learning, data mining & mathematical programming
• hybridization of techniques that span across artificial intelligence and compu-
tational intelligence for synergistic alliance of strategies for problem-solving.
• aspects of adaptation in robotics
• agent-based computing
• autonomic/pervasive computing
• dynamic optimization/learning in noisy and uncertain environment
• systemic alliance of stochastic and conventional search techniques
• all aspects of adaptations in man-machine systems.
This book series bridges the dichotomy of modern and conventional mathematical
and heuristic/meta-heuristics approaches to bring about effective adaptation,
learning and optimization. It propels the maxim that the old and the new can come
together and be combined synergistically to scale new heights in problem-solving.
To reach such a level, numerous research issues will emerge and researchers will find
the book series a convenient medium to track the progresses made.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8335

Abhishek Gupta Yew-Soon Ong
•

Memetic Computation
The Mainspring of Knowledge Transfer
in a Data-Driven Optimization Era

123
Abhishek Gupta Yew-Soon Ong
School of Computer Science School of Computer Science
and Engineering and Engineering
Nanyang Technological University Nanyang Technological University
Singapore, Singapore Singapore, Singapore

ISSN 1867-4534 ISSN 1867-4542 (electronic)

Adaptation, Learning, and Optimization
ISBN 978-3-030-02728-5 ISBN 978-3-030-02729-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02729-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018958923

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

Beginning with single-celled organisms that came into existence billions of years ago,
the guiding principles of evolution have gradually shaped ecosystems characterized by
astonishing biodiversity. What is more, the mechanism of natural selection (or simply,
survival of the fittest) has endowed living organisms with consummate problem-
solving ability; as a way to cope and adapt to the many challenges that may be posed by
the natural world. However, biological evolution is an extremely slow process, espe-
cially when viewed against the incredible speed of technological evolution in the
present-day. Notably, while it took millions of years for multicellular organisms to
evolve from (single-celled) bacteria, human civilization has been able to progress from
the world’s first land-based mechanical vehicles to supersonic jets, spacecraft,
unmanned drones, etc., within a span of merely three centuries. Such radical trans-
formation of society through technical development is governed by processes similar
to that of evolution, albeit occurring in a completely different space—namely that of
scientific knowledge, culture, and ideas that exist in our brains and can be disseminated
almost instantly (at least in comparison to the rate of dissemination of genetic traits)
across populations. Though evolutionary models of cultural information (knowledge)
propagation have been studied since the time of Darwin, it was only in Richard
Dawkins’ 1976 book “The Selfish Gene” that the topic was first captioned by the term
memetics—with the basic unit of transferrable information being labelled as a meme.
This is a book about memetic computation (MC)—a novel computational
paradigm that explicitly incorporates the aforementioned notion of memes as
building blocks of knowledge for boosting the performance of artificial evolu-
tionary systems in the domain of search and optimization. While the advantages of
exploiting heuristic information to speed up search have been well established for
decades, the uniqueness of MC lies in the fact that the heuristics need no longer be
manually specified. In its place, by taking a data-driven view of optimization, it
becomes possible to uncover and exploit patterns from the data generated online
during the course of a search, so as to autonomously orchestrate custom search
behaviors on the fly—in turn, paving the path to optimizers with general purpose
problem-solving ability (aka, artificial general intelligence). What is more, akin to
their sociocultural origins, the computational manifestations of memes need not be

v
vi Preface

restricted to a single optimizer (read: “hypothetical brain”), but can be sponta-

neously propagated across distinct optimizers catering to different tasks (read: “leap
from brain to brain”). We perceive this outcome as a kind of machine thinking that,
at least in principle, promises to take the human out of the loop of algorithm design.
It must be emphasized that the motivation behind writing this book is not to
come up with yet another nature-inspired global optimization algorithm. We further
clarify that neither is our exposition limited to the existing (rather narrow) inter-
pretation of memetic algorithms as a hybridization of manually specified local
search heuristics with some base evolutionary optimizer. In contrast, our goal is to
shed light on the comprehensive realization of MC as a simultaneous problem
learning and optimization paradigm that can potentially showcase human-like
problem-solving prowess. To this end, we describe a series of data-driven
approaches that enable optimization engines to acquire increasing levels of intel-
ligence over time, primarily through the adaptive integration of diverse (compu-
tationally encoded) memes accumulated with experience and/or via interactions
with other engines/systems. In this regard, it is worth mentioning that the practical
deployability of the methods put forward in the book is deemed to be well aligned
with modern computing platforms like the cloud and the Internet of Things—which
promise to facilitate large-scale data storage and seamless communication between
machines. With the widespread adoption of these technologies, it is believed that
the salient features of MC are primed to take center stage in the optimization
engines of the future.
The book is divided into two parts. For readers interested in the history and rise
of memetics in computing, a general overview of the so-called first generation of
meme-inspired optimization algorithms is provided in Part I (comprising Chaps. 2
and 3). Chapter 3, in particular, offers a first glimpse of data-driven adaptations in
optimization, especially pertaining to the automatic integration of human crafted
local search heuristics. On the other hand, for those readers who are only interested
in the latest ideas in MC, we encourage them to skip ahead to Part II—which can be
read and understood independently from the first. Over Chaps. 4–7, the concept of
memes is set free from the narrow scope of hybrid (global + local search) algo-
rithms, and takes flight to embody potentially diverse forms of fully machine
uncovered problem-solving knowledge.
Throughout our discussions, we make it a point to concisely present the relevant
theoretical arguments that help explain the methodological developments. As such,
we have made an effort to keep the contents of the book accessible to any researcher
familiar with the classical techniques and terminologies of evolutionary computa-
tion. Yet, there are certain subject matters that had to be included that may be
considered uncommon to the field. Unfortunately, a detailed exposition of all the
necessary ingredients, from the ground up, proved to be too extensive for the
compact book that we set out to write. Thus, from Chap. 3 onwards, a prior
(undergraduate level) reading of probability, statistics, and basic machine learning is
recommended for a full appreciation of the mathematical formalizations and algo-
rithmic descriptions. Furthermore, prior know-how about surrogate-assisted/
Bayesian optimization techniques is deemed helpful, albeit not essential.
Preface vii

Finally, before we set sail, there is indeed a long list of people who must be
acknowledged for having influenced our work, either directly or indirectly, during
and prior to the period the book was written. However, a comprehensive recol-
lection of all the names is practically impossible. Therefore, just to keep it short, we
take this opportunity to extend our sincere gratitude to those whose research or
advice is immediately reflected in the pages of the book. They are: Dr. Liang Feng,
Dr. Ramon Sagarna, and doctoral students (at the time of writing) Bingshui Da,
Kavitesh Bali, Xinghua Qu, and Alan Tan Wei Min.

Singapore Abhishek Gupta

Yew-Soon Ong
Contents

1 Introduction: The Rise of Memetics in Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Simulating Evolution for Search and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 The Achilles Heel of Evolutionary Computation . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Expert Knowledge, Learning, and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Stepping-Stones to Comprehensive Memetic
Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 7
1.3 Outline of Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 11

Part I Human Crafted Memes

2 Canonical Memetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Local Versus Global Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Pseudocode of the CMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.1 Lamarckian Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.2 The Baldwin Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Some Numerical Revelations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.1 Experiment Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.2 Results and Discussions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Data-Driven Adaptation in Memetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1 Adaptive Meta-Lamarckian Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.1 Sub-problem Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.2 Reward-Proportionate Roulette Wheel Selection . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 The Evolvability Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.1 Statistical Learning of Evolvability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3 Meme Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.1 Memeplex Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3.2 Learning the Memeplex Network Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

ix
x Contents

3.4 Multi-surrogates in Expensive Global Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.4.1 Mixture of Experts . . . ................... . . . . . . . . 39
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... . . . . . . . . 42

Part II Machine Crafting Memes

4 The Memetic Automaton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1 Multi-problems: A New Optimization Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.1 Qualitative Feasibility Assessment of Meme Transfer . . . . 50
4.1.2 The Importance of Search Space Unification . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 A Probabilistic Formalization of Memes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2.1 The Effect of a Large and Diverse Knowledge Base . . . . . 56
4.3 Categorizing Multi-problem Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5 Sequential Knowledge Transfer Across Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.1 A Brief Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.2 Overview of Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 Meme Integration Via Mixture Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.3.1 Learning Optimal Model Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.3.2 Theoretical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.4 An Adaptive Memetic Transfer Optimizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.5 Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.5.1 A Toy Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.5.2 A Practical Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.6 Knowledge Transfer in Expensive Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.6.1 Mixture Modeling for Regression Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.6.2 A Study in Engineering Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6 Multitask Knowledge Transfer Across Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.1 A Brief Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.2 Overview of Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6.3 An Adaptive Memetic Multitask Optimizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.4 Numerical Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.4.1 A Toy Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.4.2 A Practical Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7 Future Direction: Compressed Meme Space Evolutions . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.1 Classification-Based Discrete Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.2 Neural Network-Based Compressed Representation . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.2.1 Application to Knapsack Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Contents xi

7.3 Numerical Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

7.4 Closing Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Chapter 1
Introduction: The Rise of Memetics
in Computing

The word meme was coined in a sociological context by Richard Dawkins in his
1976 book The Selfish Gene [1]. Drawing an analogy to our understanding of genes
as basic units of biological heredity, the concept of memes was introduced for
representing basic units of cultural information transfer. In other words, the new
science of memetics serves as a means of explaining the propagation of information
through and across populations, leading to the proliferation of ideas, catch-phrases,
fashions, behavioral patterns, etc., based on principles similar to that of Darwinian
evolution. To quote Richard Dawkins: “Just as genes propagate themselves in the
gene pool by leaping from body to body via sperms or eggs, so memes propagate
themselves in the meme pool by leaping from brain to brain via a process which, in
the broad sense, can be called imitation.” Put simply, genetics combined with the
notion of memes provides a way to understand the biological evolution of popu-
lations in conjunction with their observed behavioral and cultural traits.
Interestingly, the implications of the underlying principles are not merely restricted
to the realm of sociology and evolutionary biology, but have also penetrated the
field of computer science, particularly enriching the nature-inspired subfield of
computational intelligence (CI) [2]. However, it is worth noting that while algo-
rithms mimicking facets of genetic evolution have been around for several decades,
it is still early days for memetics in this regard.
In today’s world, where the internet makes it possible for virtually anyone to
access large volumes of information from anywhere on the globe, memetics is
beginning to play an ever greater role in shaping society. As a routine specimen of
the impact of memetics on our lives, imagine being confronted with a never before
seen task at the workplace. Given the typically pressing deadlines to be met, our
instictive reaction in such situations is seldom to start inventing a novel solution
from scratch. Instead, the usual course of action is to simply query our most
preferred web search engine or virtual assistant, with the hope of finding a relevant
solution that may have previously been suggested by someone else. In other words,
our thoughts are allowed to be constantly molded by the ideas (memes) of others.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

A. Gupta and Y.-S. Ong, Memetic Computation, Adaptation, Learning,
and Optimization 21, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02729-2_1
2 1 Introduction: The Rise of Memetics in Computing

We, in turn, can pass on the acquired knowledge to our colleagues, friends, and so
on, endowing a good idea with the property of spreading through a population. This
indeed makes a lot of practical sense, as leveraging on the easily accessible data/
knowledge implies a much more time/cost-efficient path to an answer, as opposed
to reinventing the wheel each time. What is interesting is that, more often than not,
we seem to find some solution that precisely fits the requirements of our problem,
and can therefore be directly imitated/replicated.
In addition to providing responses that serve to answer a specific query, the
internet exposes our brains to a variety of other information streams, including
product advertisements, music videos, photographs of friends and family, etc. Any
content uploaded on the web in one corner of the world can almost instantly be
viewed by everyone, thereby accelerating the rate at which the brains of consumers
are affected by these internet memes. In fact, the reach of the internet is so wide-
spread that many businesses have begun to exploit the viral transmission of memes
on social media platforms as a way to market their products and services.
In this book, we put forward the view that over and above the growing societal
impact of memetics, the associated concepts are set to alter the course of compu-
tational approaches to problem-solving as well. In this regard, of particular interest
is the development of powerful search and optimization capabilities, which form
the backbone of any decision support system and artificial intelligence pipeline. As
can be seen from the optimization literature, traditional techniques have taken a
chiefly tabula rasa–style approach to tackling a particular task at hand. That is to
say, given a new problem to be solved, the search for desirable candidate solutions
commences from scratch, using standard search operators, and assuming a zero
prior knowledge state; i.e., with little consideration on whether (or not) similar
problems may have been seen in the past. Clearly, many such existing computa-
tional practices do not align with the manner in which humans are known to
function. In contrast, the distinguishing feature of a meme-inspired algorithm is the
strong emphasis placed on incorporating diverse forms of domain-knowledge or
domain-specific heuristics as a means of improving performance characteristics of
the search. Notably, such knowledge can either be manually specified by a human
expert, or, as is more recently the pursuit, automatically learned from data generated
by related sources. Thus, from an algorithmic point of view, memes have come to be
viewed as building-blocks of knowledge expressed in arbitrary computational
representations that can be learned from experience and adaptively transmitted for
reuse across problems.
With modern computing infrastructures such as the cloud and the Internet of
things (IoT) offering large-scale data storage and seamless communication facilities,
next-generation intelligent systems will be short-changed if they are not equipped to
take advantage of the vast pools of accessible data. As can be gathered from our
own experiences, important practical problems have a tendency of being repetitive.
Apart from exceptional cases, problems that affect us are likely to have affected
others as well, implying that solutions can be reached more efficiently via knowl-
edge sharing. Taking this cue, it is contended that even in computational domains,
1 Introduction: The Rise of Memetics in Computing 3

ignoring the knowledge contained in related data streams can only lead to delete-
rious overheads in attempting to solve (mostly repetitive) problems from scratch.
This chapter presents the backdrop of research activities in CI that led to the rise of
memetics in computing. The unique facets of a meme-inspired computational para-
digm are disclosed, highlighting how it aligns with the imminent era of data democ-
ratization fueled by ubiquitous internet connectivity. We provide a brief summary of
various types of algorithmic manifestations of memetics that have surfaced over the
years, beginning with (i) the realization of memes as hand-crafted heuristics or locally
exact solvers hybridized with general-purpose global search algorithms, to (ii) the
adaptive online selection and integration of manually specified memes from a
stipulated catalogue of choices, and eventually, (iii) the formulation of memes as
computational entities housing potentially diverse forms of (domain-specific)
problem-solving knowledge that can be uncovered from data corresponding to one
problem and spontaneously transmitted to another. The chapter is concluded with a
general outline of the topics covered in the subsequent pages of the book.

1.1 Simulating Evolution for Search and Optimization

In this section, we provide an impression of some of the basic principles of bio-

logical evolution, computational analogues of which are routinely embedded as the
core functional modules within a family of nature-inspired CI algorithms. The
essential simplicity, and yet remarkable effectiveness, of processes in the natural
world (which often create the illusion of intelligent design by endowing living
organisms with consummate problem-solving ability), has ignited a belief that
appropriately simulating them may lead to successful creation of machine intelli-
gence. Broadly speaking, of significant interest has been the design of artificial
intelligence capabilities that showcase proficiency in search, optimization (for
prescriptive analytics), and machine learning (for predictive modeling).
Nevertheless, as the contents of this book are primarily geared towards the global
optimization literature, it is this aspect of CI that we most strongly emphasize. Over
the years, significant scientific progress has been made in this arena, with a number
of popular books published [3–5]. Most importantly, numerous practical applica-
tions serve as a testament to its efficacy in comparison to classical (purely math-
ematical) procedures, especially in terms of the ease with which CI enables
real-world peculiarities to be incorporated into problem formulations [6].
The theory of biological evolution via natural selection (also referred to as the
survival of the fittest [7])—as formulated by Charles Darwin in the mid-19th cen-
tury [8]—has been the cornerstone for studying the spread of genetic traits through
populations. In general terms, the theory provides a recipe for populations to adapt,
often over a period of time spanning several successive generations, to complex and
dynamic environments. Specifically, individuals that display higher fitness tend to
4 1 Introduction: The Rise of Memetics in Computing

survive longer and produce more offspring in comparison to others. As a result, the
transmission of genetic building-blocks from generation to generation (i.e., from
parents to their offspring) dictates that the overall population is gradually suffused
with individuals that share those genetic traits that are most conducive to survival.
Over past decades, computational analogues of stochastic evolutionary processes,
including selection, genetic crossover, and mutation, have surfaced as essential
ingredients in several randomized search algorithms.
The family of algorithms that are inspired by some form of biological evolution
have cumulatively come to be referred to as evolutionary computation (EC). One of
the salient features of EC is that its stochastic search mechanisms require little
domain expertise on the part of the user, which is one of the main reasons why it is
regarded as a potential stepping-stone towards achieving artificial general intelli-
gence, i.e., general-purpose problem-solving ability. This is much in contrast to
many classical procedures that require a careful setup of the problem statement to
meet the scope of the algorithm. To elaborate, in a typical EC approach, the onus is
placed on an imprecise simulation of biological evolution to take control, such that
good (fit) solutions are preserved while the inferior (unfit) ones are gradually
eliminated. Remarkably, variants of this seemingly straightforward idea have been
applied with considerable success to a range of problems dealing with the search for
preferred solution configurations in an unknown space of possibilities. Especially
for problems showcasing real-world peculiarities, algorithms that simulate basic
evolutionary principles, given sufficient computation time, have generally been
found to converge to satisfactory results.
First steps in the simulation of evolution for the purpose of search and opti-
mization can be traced back to works on evolutionary strategies (ES) by
Rochenberg and Schwefel in the early 1970s [9, 10]. At around the same time, John
Holland popularized the so-called genetic algorithm (GA), demonstrating theoret-
ically that genetic building-blocks (namely, short low-order schemata) with above
average fitness increased exponentially in frequency over successive generations of
the algorithm [11]. This was deemed by many to be an important result, providing
preliminary insights into the success of GAs in practice. In addition to the above, a
plethora of nature-inspired stochastic algorithms have appeared in the literature in
past decades. Some of the most prominent examples include ant colony opti-
mization [12], particle swarm optimization [13], differential evolution [14], etc. For
simplicity of exposition, we shall henceforth use the term evolutionary algorithm
(EA) to refer to any one of these approaches, as all of them have come to be
considered as part of the EC family. To prevent any ambiguity, we clarify that an
EA, herein, simply denotes an algorithm that employs a population (i.e., set) of
individuals (i.e., candidate solutions) that are iteratively updated from generation
to generation following stochastic individual creation and selection operations.
1.1 Simulating Evolution for Search and Optimization 5

1.1.1 The Achilles Heel of Evolutionary Computation

Despite a number of success stories over the years, it is noted that beyond incre-
mental modifications, the pace of algorithm development in EC has lately begun to
show signs of stagnation. It so happens that the stagnation is particularly con-
spicuous relative to other artificial intelligence technologies (especially in the arena
of predictive modeling) that have recently taken significant strides in exploiting the
data deluge made possible by the internet. While the onset of cloud computing and
the IoT have provided increased connectivity of physical devices, as well as the
proliferation of diverse information streams in all facets of human and industrial
activity, it is striking that the methods of EC (in fact, search and optimization
algorithms in general) have, for the most part, continued to adhere to a traditional
tabula rasa-style approach to tackling a problem at hand.
Taking a step back, imagine the process of designing and manufacturing a new
engineering product. This is a domain in which EAs have been widely adopted in
the past [15], due to their ability to cope with black-box design optimization set-
tings in which analytical forms of the objectives (and/or constraints) of interest are
unknown—as is true for many engineering applications that frequently rely on time
consuming physical experimentation or approximate numerical simulations for
evaluation. For the purpose of this discussion, it is important to recognize that most
engineering products typically undergo only gradual enhancements over time. This
is because engineers routinely make use of “lessons learned” from the past,
explicitly incorporating aspects of previously completed designs that are known to
work well (such as the architecture, material constituents, etc.), into the develop-
ment of a new target design. From a practical standpoint, this has the effect of
greatly reducing the exorbitant effort it would otherwise take to evolve a completely
original product from the ground up.
As alluded to above, vanilla EAs are infamous for consuming massive com-
putational resources to even begin producing meaningful results. This is far from
surprising, as the process of evolution in the natural world itself is characterized by
astronomical time-scales. While a simulation of biological evolution may indeed
promise a path to artificial general intelligence, without the incorporation of any
external knowledge, it is likely that purely evolutionary processes will simply be too
slow to support the fast design and production cycles demanded by the competitive
markets of today. It may be argued that with the rapid progress in hardware tech-
nologies offering immense compute power at affordable prices, algorithms that
naively employ brute-force enumerative or stochastic search techniques (such as
EAs) may still be useful across a variety of problems. In practice however, such
approaches will seldom suffice, as the failure to take advantage of what has been
learned in the past, or by others, will inevitably lead to considerable computational
overheads in re-exploring similar search spaces from scratch. It is this realization
that laid the foundation for the notion of memetics in CI, such that “learning” could
take center stage as a fundamental aspect of search. In particular, it led to the advent
of the first-generation of meme-inspired algorithms [16].
6 1 Introduction: The Rise of Memetics in Computing

1.2 Expert Knowledge, Learning, and Optimization

Based on its sociological interpretation, memetics provides a fitting metaphor for

describing algorithms that synergize stochastic evolutionary mechanisms with the
exploitation of all available information about a particular task of interest [17].
Looking into the future, it is important to realize that real-world problems seldom
exist in isolation. A practically useful system, especially one in an industrial setting,
must be expected to tackle a large number of problems over a lifetime; many of
which will either be repetitive or at least display domain dependent idiosyncrasies.
It therefore makes a lot of sense to devise new problem-solving strategies that take a
leaf out of human-like behavior, learning from what has been seen (either by
oneself or by others) to deal more efficiently with never before seen problems.
In general, any piece of transferrable information, typically expressed in the form
of a higher-order model capturing some recurring domain-specific pattern/regularity,
can constitute a computational realization of a meme. In the natural world, our brains
are exposed to a barrage of socio-cultural memes throughout the day, only few of
which get lodged in our brains and can be recalled in the future. The mode of meme
transmission, and the types of the memes themselves, can be varied. For instance, the
inception of memes (ideas) in our mind can occur while listening to a lecture, reading
an article or book, watching a film, etc. Nowadays, given the long hours that we
usually spend browsing the internet, it is notable that the effect of internet memes is
beginning to assume significant potency. In any case, under the explicit guiding
hand of the potentially useful building-blocks of knowledge acquired from different
sources, a smoother path to desired solutions to complex problems/situations can be
expected by executing the instructions inferred from what has been learned.
A computationally motivated view of the general facets of human-like problem-
solving is depicted in Fig. 1.1. Therein, while the base search/optimization algo-
rithm, e.g., EA, performs an exploration over the space of possible solution con-
figurations, the memetics module kicks-in to deploy and activate the most relevant
building-blocks of knowledge (i.e., memes). The online marshalling of all available
resources augments the evolutionary processes to better adapt to the requirements of
the task at hand, facilitating more effective and efficient search behaviors. In other
words, a simultaneous problem learning and optimization cycle ensues [18]. The
distinguishing feature of the framework is that the memes can either be learned on
the fly from data generated during the course of the search, and/or be drawn from
past experiences (that are housed in the hypothetical brain of the optimizer). Most
importantly, the memes can be propagated across distinct but possibly related
problem-solving exercises. Similar to the case of humans, no requirements are
strictly imposed on the use of any particular meme representation. Based on these
basic concepts, memes have been defined in the context of computing as recurring
patterns or domain-specific knowledge encoded in arbitrary computational rep-
resentations for the purpose of effective problem-solving [19]. In turn, the term
memetic computation (MC) has been coined to denote any computational paradigm
that captures the aforementioned notion of memes [20].
1.2 Expert Knowledge, Learning, and Optimization 7

Fig. 1.1 The salient feature of the memetic computation paradigm is its simultaneous problem
learning and optimization approach. Computationally encoded knowledge memes learned from a
particular problem-solving exercise can be spontaneously propagated from one brain to another
(i.e., transferred across problems), mimicking the viral transmission of memes in their social
connotation. In this manner, a base search/optimization algorithm (e.g., EA) can take advantage of
what has been learned from relevant experiences elsewhere to deal better with new (never before
seen) tasks

1.2.1 Stepping-Stones to Comprehensive Memetic

Computation

The first-generation of meme-inspired algorithms, popularly referred to simply as

memetic algorithms (MAs) [16], are perhaps, to the present day, the most widely
recognized instantiation of the MC paradigm. While being somewhat limited in
scope relative to the numerous possibilities that a comprehensive realization of MC
has to offer, MAs nonetheless mark a significant step forward in capturing the notion
of memes as building-blocks of domain-knowledge capable of enhancing the
effectiveness of general-purpose search algorithms. In particular, MAs can be seen as
hybrid algorithms, prescribing a marriage between a population-based global search
(EA) and one or more local search schemes (such as heuristic solution refinements,
gradient descent procedures, etc.). The specific choice of local search procedure, one
that aligns with the idiosyncrasies of a certain class of problems, is interpreted as the
computational manifestation of a meme; offering the opportunity for domain experts
to inject their knowledge (albeit manually) into the search. Consider the example of
the widely studied discrete 0-1 knapsack problem, which asks for items to be placed
in a knapsack such that the accumulated profit is maximized without violating the
knapsack’s capacity constraint [21]. If the knapsack gets overstuffed, a commonly
8 1 Introduction: The Rise of Memetics in Computing

applied solution repair heuristic (meme) is to start removing items from the knapsack
in increasing order of efficiency (i.e., profit-to-weight ratio). Notice that the afore-
mentioned meme encapsulates a reasonably deep understanding of the properties of
the knapsack problem, and, as a result, generally leads to considerable performance
speedup in comparison to a base optimizer relying on purely evolutionary mecha-
nisms. However, in canonical forms of the MA, the onus of soliciting such memes
from an expert lies mainly on the shoulders of the optimization practitioner, as there
is little explicit provision for automatically learning the relevant knowledge from
raw data.
In general, a variety of possible memes can be conceived for a given problem
domain. In such multi-meme settings [22], a natural question that arises is whether
the effect of any subset of memes, when applied in conjunction with the base
optimizer, is equivalent to any other, for all problems in the domain. An affirmation
of this question seems intuitively implausible. In fact, as is theoretically suggested
by the “no free lunch theorem” [23], a subset of memes that does particularly well
on average for one class of problems must be expected to do more poorly over the
remaining problems. Therefore, an appropriate combination of memes must be
deployed each time a new problem is presented. In order to resolve this challenge
without further reliance on human intervention, the subsequent wave of research on
MAs focused on the online adaptation of local search schemes, automating the
process of finding a good match between a particular problem instance and a
possibly large pre-specified catalogue of heuristics (multi-memes). Notably, some
of the most prominent approaches that were put forward in this regard showcased
the efficacy of gleaning patterns from the data generated during the course of a
search/optimization run, so as to quickly ascertain promising combinations of
memes at runtime [24–26]. Substantial performance improvements were reported
while applying adaptive meme selection together with EAs, as the dataset created
during the process of evolving a population of individuals presented a rich source of
information about the task at hand.
Nevertheless, despite providing a glimpse of what simultaneous problem
learning and optimization can achieve in practice, it can be argued that the
second-generation of MAs fell short of unveiling the complete scope of MC. This is
because scientific developments remained limited to the design of hybrid algo-
rithms, and their application to independent optimization problem instances that
were treated largely in isolation. What is more, the need to manually pre-specify the
meme catalogue served as a hindrance in the path toward achieving artificial general
intelligence.
It is only recently, with the rapidly growing pervasiveness of technologies such as
cloud computing and the IoT that the full-fledged implications of MC have begun to
come to the fore. With large-scale data storage and seamless communication facil-
ities offered by modern computing platforms, novel interpretations of memes, not
restricted merely to the narrow scope of hand-crafted local search heuristics, are set
to take flight. The ease of access to large datasets originating from different sources
implies that computational memes can now be directly learned from the available
data. As a result, a new type of multi-meme setting emerges; one in which memes,
1.2 Expert Knowledge, Learning, and Optimization 9

capturing diverse forms of higher-order problem-solving knowledge, are uncovered

by machines, and are thereafter made available for resue across problems. In turn, it
becomes possible for advanced optimizers to automatically harness the transmitted
memes to orchestrate custom search behaviors on the fly; thereby reigniting the path
to artificial general intelligence. The perceived outcome is deemed as a kind of
machine thinking that promises to free humans from the task of painstakingly
specifying all the features of a problem and the actions a program must take to deal
with them. With this, a comprehensive realization of MC, we contend, holds the key
to search and optimization engines of the future, which shall autonomously evolve as
better problem-solvers over time by learning from the past as well as from the
experiences of one another.
To summarize our discussions heretofore, we broadly categorize the timeline of
research activities in MC into three phases, viz., (i) the incorporation of uniquely
specified hand-crafted memes in canonical MAs, (ii) adaptive data-driven selection
and integration of memes from a manually specified catalogue of multi-memes, and
(iii) automated learning and transmission of memes across multiple distinct (but
possibly related) problems. A schematic of the various phases of research pro-
gression is depicted in Fig. 1.2. The remainder of the book is dedicated to a detailed
exposition of each of the three phases, with particular emphasis on the third phase,
which, in our opinion, constitutes the future of data-driven problem-solving in the
new era of internet ubiquity.

Fig. 1.2 A summary of research progress in memetic computation: (i) incorporation of uniquely
specified memes to isolated search/optimization problems in canonical MAs; (ii) data-driven meme
selection and integration at runtime—from a manually specified catalogue of multiple memes;
(iii) the emergence of multi-problem settings with the scope of automated learning and transfer of
knowledge memes across them
10 1 Introduction: The Rise of Memetics in Computing

1.3 Outline of Chapters

The objective of this book is to firmly place the spotlight on MC as the gold
standard for next-generation search and optimization engines. In order to provide
the reader with an appreciation of the various stages of development of MC over the
past four decades, the book is divided into two parts. Part I, comprising Chaps. 2
and 3, gives a general overview of MAs in their most recognizable form, i.e., as
hybrid optimizers combining an EA with one or more local search schemes.
Chap. 2, in particular, introduces the canonical MA in which a unique, and
appropriately tuned, solution refinement procedure must be solicited from a domain
expert prior to algorithm execution. We present empirical studies that demonstrate
the fact that the performance of an MA is indeed strongly dependent on how well
the combined effect of the stochastic evolutionary mechanisms and the nested
heuristic matches with the properties of the problem at hand. With this background,
in Chap. 3 we provide an impression of research works targeted towards relaxing
the excessive reliance on human expertise in canonical MAs. We discuss some of
the most notable data-driven adaptation strategies for MAs that have been con-
ceived, covering theories and practices that realize online meme selection and
integration in multi-meme settings [24–26]. A portion of Chap. 3 is dedicated to the
study of multi-memes—in the form of multiple surrogate approximation models—
occurring in the context of optimization problems that are inherently computa-
tionally expensive [27]; i.e., the cost of evaluating a single candidate solution is
high compared to traditional applications of EAs or MAs.
Part II of the book, comprising Chaps. 4–6, is dedicated to latest insights and
theoretical advances targeting comprehensive realizations of the MC paradigm in
the era of the internet. Chapter 4 sets the stage for subsequent discussions by
shedding light on the concept of a memetic automaton [19], i.e., a software entity or
agent that acquires increasing levels of intelligence through embedded memes
learned independently or via interactions. In order to formalize the idea, we put
forward an abstract interpretation of memes as probabilistic building-blocks of
higher-order (generalizable) knowledge, which can be stored, transmitted, and
reused across distinct problem-solving exercises. Our goal is to set out a rough
blueprint for general-purpose search and optimization engines that are equipped
with learning and adaptive knowledge transfer capabilities, as is deemed funda-
mental to the MC paradigm envisaged by us.
Given a set of multiple optimization problems, the temporal distribution of their
occurrence leads to a division of the instantiations of MC into two separate cate-
gories. The particular case of sequential knowledge transfers [28], encompassing
tasks that occur successively (or can be treated one at a time), is covered in Chap. 5.
In this situation, the adaptive integration of memes drawn from previously
encountered tasks is achieved by extending the algorithmic blueprint set out in
Chap. 4. Specifically, we present a theoretically principled approach for putting
together probabilistic building-blocks of knowledge, resulting in a novel opti-
mization algorithm that is capable of adaptively harnessing the latent relationships
1.3 Outline of Chapters 11

between problems. What is more, we generalize the concept of multiple surrogates

from Chap. 3 to multi-problem surrogates [29]; catering to the description of
memes and their transfer in computationally expensive domains. A series of
numerical examples showcase the efficacy of the proposed algorithms in practice.
Chapter 6 is devoted to the special case of multitask knowledge transfers;
addressing the case of optimization tasks of equal priority occurring concurrently. In
such scenarios, it may not be possible to wait for one task to be completed before
tackling the next. Consequently, the key distinction between sequential transfers and
multitasking is that the former implies a (largely) one-way flow of knowledge memes
from the past to the present, while the latter promotes the omnidirectional transfer of
memes for more synergistic search across multiple problems at once. With this in
mind, the algorithm developed in Chap. 5 is customized to suit the new multitask
optimization setting [28, 30]. Experimental studies reveal that problems can indeed
learn and benefit from one another in the process of being tackled in unison.
Finally, Chap. 7 concludes the book with a glimpse of what lies ahead for MC.
While preceding chapters focus on how the notion of memetics is set to shape the
characteristics of search and optimization algorithms, little is explicitly said about
how the nature of problems themselves will foreseeably be altered under wide-
spread internet connectivity. For one, as the IoT drives the inter-linking of physical
devices, the combined space of possible solution configurations of inter-connected
(multi-component [31]) problems is likely to become much larger than what
existing optimizers are equipped to handle. An emerging opportunity for MC in this
regard lies in dissolving the current distinction between the memetics module and
the base optimizer (as seen in Fig. 1.1), such that the evolutionary processes can be
directly carried over to a compressed meme space housing higher-order problem-
solving knowledge (instead of limiting to the space of low-level genetic building-
blocks)—in the spirit of universal Darwinism [32, 33]. The implications of
achieving such a goal in practice are elaborated in Chap. 7 through preliminary case
studies on a class of large-scale optimization problems that are deemed represen-
tative of what is to be expected in the near future.

References

1. Dawkins, R. (1976). The selfish gene. Oxford University Press.

2. Engelbrecht, A. P. (2007). Computational intelligence: An introduction. New York: Wiley.
3. Goldberg, D. E. (1989). Genetic algorithms in search, optimization, and machine learning,
1989. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
4. Koza, J. R. (1992). Genetic programming: On the programming of computers by means of
natural selection (Vol. 1). MIT Press.
5. Deb, K. (2001). Multi-objective optimization using evolutionary algorithms (Vol. 16). New
York: Wiley.
6. Gilli, M., & Schumann, E. (2014). Optimization cultures. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews:
Computational Statistics, 6(5), 352–358.
12 1 Introduction: The Rise of Memetics in Computing

7. Spencer, H. (1864). The principles of biology (Vols. 2) London: Williams and Norgate.
(System of synthetic philosophy, 2).
8. Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species.
9. Rechenberg, I. (1994). Evolutionsstrategie: Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien
der biologischen Evolution. frommann-holzbog, Stuttgart, 1973.
10. Schwefel, H. P. (1977). Numerische optimierung von computer-modellen mittels der
evolutionsstrategie (Vol. 1). Switzerland: Birkhäuser, Basel.
11. Altenberg, L. (1995). The schema theorem and Price’s theorem. Foundations of Genetic
Algorithms, 3, 23–49.
12. Dorigo, M., Birattari, M., & Stutzle, T. (2006). Ant colony optimization. IEEE Computational
Intelligence Magazine, 1(4), 28–39.
13. Kennedy, J. (2011). Particle swarm optimization. In Encyclopedia of machine learning
(pp. 760–766). Springer US.
14. Storn, R., & Price, K. (1997). Differential evolution–a simple and efficient heuristic for global
optimization over continuous spaces. Journal of Global Optimization, 11(4), 341–359.
15. Tayarani-N, M. H., Yao, X., & Xu, H. (2015). Meta-heuristic algorithms in car engine design:
a literature survey. IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 19(5), 609–629.
16. Moscato, P. (1989). On evolution, search, optimization, genetic algorithms and martial arts:
Towards memetic algorithms. Caltech concurrent computation program, C3P Report, 826.
17. Moscato, P., & Cotta, C. (2010). A modern introduction to memetic algorithms. In Handbook
of metaheuristics (pp. 141–183). Springer US.
18. Lim, D., Ong, Y. S., Gupta, A., Goh, C. K., & Dutta, P. S. (2016). Towards a new Praxis in
optinformatics targeting knowledge re-use in evolutionary computation: simultaneous
problem learning and optimization. Evolutionary Intelligence, 9(4), 203–220.
19. Chen, X., Ong, Y. S., Lim, M. H., & Tan, K. C. (2011). A multi-facet survey on memetic
computation. IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 15(5), 591–607.
20. Ong, Y. S., Lim, M. H., & Chen, X. (2010). Memetic computation—past, present & future
(research frontier). IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine, 5(2), 24–31.
21. Kellerer, H., Pferschy, U., & Pisinger, D. (2004). Introduction to NP-completeness of
Knapsack problems. In Knapsack problems (pp. 483–493). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
22. Krasnogor, N., Blackburne, B. P., Burke, E. K., & Hirst, J. D. (2002, September). Multimeme
algorithms for protein structure prediction. In PPSN (pp. 769–778).
23. Wolpert, D. H., & Macready, W. G. (1997). No free lunch theorems for optimization. IEEE
Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 1(1), 67–82.
24. Ong, Y. S., & Keane, A. J. (2004). Meta-Lamarckian learning in memetic algorithms. IEEE
Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 8(2), 99–110.
25. Le, M. N., Ong, Y. S., Jin, Y., & Sendhoff, B. (2012). A unified framework for symbiosis of
evolutionary mechanisms with application to water clusters potential model design. IEEE
Computational Intelligence Magazine, 7(1), 20–35.
26. Chen, X., & Ong, Y. S. (2012). A conceptual modeling of meme complexes in stochastic
search. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C (Applications and
Reviews), 42(5), 612–625.
27. Zhou, Z., Ong, Y. S., Lim, M. H., & Lee, B. S. (2007). Memetic algorithm using
multi-surrogates for computationally expensive optimization problems. Soft Computing-A
Fusion of Foundations, Methodologies and Applications, 11(10), 957–971.
28. Gupta, A., Ong, Y. S., & Feng, L. (2018). Insights on transfer optimization: Because
experience is the best teacher. IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computational
Intelligence, 2(1), 51–64.
29. Min, A. T. W., Ong, Y. S., Gupta, A., & Goh, C. K. (2017). Multi-problem surrogates:
Transfer evolutionary multiobjective optimization of computationally expensive problems.
IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computing.
30. Gupta, A., Ong, Y. S., & Feng, L. (2017). Multifactorial evolution: toward evolutionary
multitasking. IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computational Intelligence.
References 13

31. Bonyadi, M. R., Michalewicz, Z., Neumann, F., & Wagner, M. (2016). Evolutionary
computation for multicomponent problems: Opportunities and future directions. arXiv
preprint arXiv:1606.06818.
32. Feng, L., Gupta, A., & Ong, Y. S. (2017). Compressed representation for higher-level meme
space evolution: A case study on big knapsack problems. Memetic Computing, 1–15.
33. Hodgson, G. M. (2005). Generalizing Darwinism to social evolution: Some early attempts.
Journal of Economic Issues, 39(4), 899–914.
 Part I
Human Crafted Memes
Chapter 2
Canonical Memetic Algorithms

The remarkable flexibility of evolutionary computation (EC) in handling a wide

range of problems, encompassing search, optimization, and machine learning,
opens up a path to attaining artificial general intelligence [1]. However, it is clear
that excessive reliance on purely stochastic evolutionary processes, with no expert
guidance or external knowledge incorporation, will often lead to performance
characteristics that are simply too slow for practical applications demanding near
real-time operations. What is more, the randomness associated with classical evo-
lutionary algorithms (EAs) implies that they may not be the ideal tool of choice for
various applications relying on high precision and crisp performance guarantees [2].
These observations provided the impetus for conceptualizing the memetic compu-
tation (MC) paradigm, wherein the basic mechanisms of evolution are augmented
with domain-knowledge expressed as computationally encoded memes. In this
chapter, we introduce what is perhaps the most recognizable algorithmic realization
of MC, namely, the canonical memetic algorithm (CMA) [3].
For a detailed exposition of the concepts associated with the CMA, we first
consider an arbitrary optimization problem of the following (standard) form,
maximizex f ðxÞ;
subject to; gi ðxÞ  0; for i ¼ 1; . . .; jGj; ð2:1Þ
and; hi ðxÞ ¼ 0; for i ¼ 1; . . .; jH j:
Here, f ðxÞ represents an objective function value (considered proportional to a
solution fitness measure) that is to be maximized by tuning the solution vector x;
which must lie in the specified search space X . Further, G = {g1, g2, …} and
H= {h1, h2, …} are optional sets of inequality and equality constrains, the satis-
faction of which are necessary to ensure feasibility of a given x. The notation || in
Eq. (2.1) is used to indicate the cardinality of a set. Note that, even for minimization
problems, the formulation in Eq. (2.1) continues to hold by simply multiplying
f ðxÞ by −1.
In CMAs, the notion of memes is generally limited to mathematical procedures or
hand-crafted heuristics that serve as local search schemes which are subsequently
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 17
A. Gupta and Y.-S. Ong, Memetic Computation, Adaptation, Learning,
and Optimization 21, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02729-2_2
18 2 Canonical Memetic Algorithms

hybridized with some population-based stochastic global optimizer (such as an EA).

Similar to general EC methods, the applicability of a CMA does not impose any
restriction on X or f, as long as the nested meme aligns with the peculiarities of the
problem at hand. However, the onus of soliciting such a meme from a domain expert
lies mainly with the optimization practitioner. For instance, CMAs do not place
differentiability requirements on the objective function f. Nevertheless, if the func-
tion is a priori known to be differentiable, with the derivatives analytically defined,
then that knowledge can be exploited while crafting a problem-specific meme.
The main goal of this chapter is to reveal that blindly incorporating memes,
without paying attention to their effects when applied jointly with the base evo-
lutionary mechanisms, can significantly hamper overall performance of CMAs; so
much so that the performance may even be worse than that of an EA alone. As a
result, it has been recognized that the success of CMAs relies strongly on careful
manual adjustment of the local search procedures. In order to highlight this point—
which set the stage for the subsequent wave of adaptive memetic algorithms—we
carry out a set of illustrative experimental studies. Specifically, we demonstrate that
an arbitrary combination of evolutionary operators and memes can lead to delete-
rious consequences with regard to the resultant optimization efficacy.
We first present pseudocodes of the key aspects of a CMA, followed by a
categorization of CMAs depending on the manner in which the adaptations dis-
covered by the application of memes interact with the base optimizer (EA).
Empirical investigations and associated discussions are presented thereafter.

2.1 Local Versus Global Search

A typical population-based optimization algorithm comprises a set of candidate

solutions that are iteratively updated (evolved), following nature-inspired variation
operators, so as to drive the population towards regions of the search space X
yielding favorable values of the objective function f. Genetic crossover operators, in
particular, deal with stochastic recombination of two or more solutions/individuals
from the population to create new offspring individuals. Naturally, the progress of
the search depends on the creation and preservation of solutions with higher fitness;
as is facilitated by computational analogues of the “survival of the fittest” principle.
However, the overall success of the algorithm, in terms of consistently obtaining
solutions that are close to the global optimum, is often influenced by the diversity
level of the evolving population. Greater the diversity, the less likely it is that the
population will prematurely get trapped at an inferior (locally optimal) point. Thus,
in order to ensure sufficient diversity, evolutionary procedures emphasize on
maintaining a distribution of candidate solutions over the search space, even if that
implies preserving some solutions of lower fitness.
In contrast, local searches treat each individual in a population in isolation, and
accept a variation of a solution only if it results in a higher fitness value. To
elaborate, if a given candidate solution is chosen for local search, it undergoes an
2.1 Local Versus Global Search 19

iterative refinement procedure, which continues until some termination criterion is

met. The most commonly encountered termination criteria are the local search
intensity (i.e., the allocated computational budget [4]), or the failure to find any
further fitness improvements. At each iteration, the solution is modified based on
some expert supplied (domain-specific) scheme. If the altered solution configura-
tion is preferable (i.e., it leads to a higher fitness value), then the applied change is
accepted. Otherwise, the modification is rejected and the previous state of the
solution configuration is retained.
As an example, in the domain of continuous and differentiable functions,
modifying a solution x 2 ℝd as,
 
@f @f @f
xmod ¼ x þ c  rf ðxÞ; where rf ðxÞ ¼ ; ; . . .; ; ð2:2Þ
@x1 @x2 @xd

is a widely employed deterministic scheme for local solution refinement. In

Eq. (2.2), rf ðxÞ represents the gradient direction (i.e., the direction of steepest
ascent), and c is a parameter that controls the size of the step taken in that direction.
In many precision driven applications characterized by continuous and multimodal
objective functions, CMAs are equipped to leverage the salient features of
stochastic search and gradient ascent to guarantee high-quality solutions.
Alternatively, for a range of practical problems characterized by real-world
peculiarities including discreteness, non-differentiability, etc., a variety of heuris-
tically tailored methods (that may either be stochastic or deterministic in nature)
have been crafted over the years. Regardless, in almost all cases, the general
workflow of the local search scheme is similar to that sketched in Algorithm 2.1.

Algorithm 2.1: Local Search

1. Input: candidate solution x
2. repeat
3. xmod ← Modify(x)
4. if f(xmod) > f(x) then
5. x ← xmod
6. end if
7. until termination condition of local search met
8. return x, f(x)

2.2 Pseudocode of the CMA

Based on the above, the basic pseudocode of a CMA is outlined in Algorithm 2.2.
Certain steps in Algorithm 2.2 require further explanation. Firstly, it can be seen
that all individuals in the initial population, or all offspring produced by the evo-
lutionary operators, are not necessarily chosen for local refinements. Thus, a
20 2 Canonical Memetic Algorithms

filtering of population individuals is often carried out to ascertain a subset that

eventually undergoes the local search steps. One of the most simplistic ways of
achieving this in practice is to specify a fixed probability of applying the refinement
to an individual. Conversely, in [5], the effect of various probability adaptation
strategies were investigated. Then again, it was shown in [6] that it may be
worthwhile to apply local search on every individual if the computational com-
plexity of the local search is relatively low.

Algorithm 2.2: The Canonical Memetic Algorithm

1. Initialize: Generate initial population
2. repeat
3. for each individual xi ∈
4. fi ← Evaluate xi
5. if xi is chosen for local search
6. xmod, f(xmod) ← Local Search(xi) ## see Algorithm 2.1
7. xi, fi ← Update(xi, fi, xmod, f(xmod))
8. end if
9. end for
10. Apply standard EA operators, namely, generational selection, crossover,
and mutation, on current population to create the next generation
11. until termination criterion of CMA met

Another matter of interest is the manner in which the adaptations discovered by

the local search are updated into the base EA (step 7 of Algorithm 2.2). Local
search in this context can be thought of as being analogous to a kind of learning
that takes place during the lifetime of an individual (solution) in the EA. In par-
ticular, it leads to a classification of CMAs into two categories, viz., Lamarckian
evolution [6, 7] and the Baldwin effect [7, 8], depending on the type of interaction
between the memetics module and the evolutionary processes. These are discussed
next.

2.2.1 Lamarckian Evolution

Lamarckian evolution, named after the French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, sets
forth the view that the genotype (realized as the low-level genetic encoding of a
candidate solution in an EA) as well as the fitness of an individual are simultaneously
modified by the process of lifetime learning. In Algorithm 2.2, this implies that xi
and fi are both replaced by xmod and f(xmod), respectively, by the Update function in
step 7. The rationale behind this approach is based on the assumption that an indi-
vidual is capable of passing the characteristics acquired during its lifetime to its
immediate offspring. In other words, the learning directly alters the genotype of
individuals. While such an effect is deemed to be biologically implausible—causing
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
from this 800 men stated to have been lost before entering Tlascala, not counting
those who fell in other provinces, leaves about 580; yet he acknowledges only 440
alive. Hist. Verdad., 108 et seq. Herrera is also contradictory, admitting in one
place 500, and in another ‘less than’ 400 soldiers and 600 allies. Oviedo reduces
the soldiers to 340. iii. 513. Vetancurt adopts Bernal Diaz’ 440 soldiers and
Herrera’s 600 allies. Prescott hastily declares Gomara as nearest to the truth, yet
he departs from him in the result. With regard to the allies, he reckons the full
number of all who were brought to Mexico, while it is pretty obvious, from figures
and facts, that a portion must have been allowed to return home during the
inaction of the emperor’s captivity. The list of losses, as given by different
authorities, stands as follows: 150 soldiers, over 2000 allies, Cortés; over 200
soldiers, over 2000 allies, Lejalde, Probanza; nearly 200 soldiers, over 1000 allies,
Solis; 300 soldiers, over 2000 allies, at one bridge, Sahagun, 122; 450 soldiers,
4000 allies, Gomara, followed by Ixtlilxochitl, Clavigero, Camargo, and others;
over 500 soldiers in all New Spain, Carta del Ejército; over 600 soldiers,
Robertson; over 600 soldiers, B. V. de Tapia, in Ramirez, Proceso contra
Alvarado, 38; 800 soldiers in all New Spain, Cortés, Residencia, i. 42; 870 soldiers
in all New Spain, Bernal Diaz; 1170 soldiers, 8000 allies, Cano, in Oviedo, iii. 551.

[858] The loss in horses varies from 45, in Cortés, to 56, in Lejalde, Probanza,
both acknowledging 24 left.

[859] ‘Perdidose todo el oro y joyas y ropa,’ etc. Cortés, Cartas, 135. It had been
confided to Tlascaltecs, and was nearly all lost, says their chief. Camargo, Hist.
Tlax., 169-70. The officers testified afterward before public notary: ‘Se perdió todo
el dicho oro é joyas de SS. AA., é mataron la yegua que lo traia.’ Lejalde,
Probanza, in Icazbalceta, Col. Doc., i. 425. Two witnesses during the residencia of
Cortés stated that the general had two mares, one given to carry the royal
treasures and the other laden with his own. The latter being lost, he claimed the
other to be his, and in this manner appropriated 45,000 pesos or more which
belonged to the king. Cortés, Residencia, i. 69, 101-2. Not long after the retreat he
called on all to declare, under penalty, what gold they had saved of that taken from
the unappropriated piles. From those who did so the treasures were taken,
although it was understood that they had been given to them. All this Cortés kept.
Id., 101-2, 241-2; ii. 402. Many refused to surrender, and since the leaders had
also secured shares from the common pile, the order to reveal possession thereof
was not enforced, says Bernal Diaz. He adds that one third was to be retained by
the possessor as a reward. Cortés kept as a forced loan what had been
surrendered. Hist. Verdad., 117-18. The loss of treasure, that thrown away by
carriers and pressed soldiers, or sunken with their bodies, has been estimated at
from several hundred thousand pesos to over two millions, in the values of that
time; to which Wilson sarcastically objects, that ‘nothing was really lost but the
imaginary treasure, now grown inconveniently large, and which had to be
accounted for to the emperor. The Conquistador was too good a soldier to hazard
his gold; it was therefore in the advance, and came safely off.’ Conq. Mex., 412-
13.

[860] ‘Si esta cosa fuera de dia, por ventura no murieran tantos,’ adds Gomara,
Hist. Mex., 161. While grieving he recognized ‘el manifiesto milagro que la reyna
de los angeles su abogada, el apostol San Pedro, y el de los egércitos Españoles
Santiago, habian hecho en haberse escapado él.’ Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., 302.
Vetancurt moralizes on the flight as a chastisement by God, who saved the
remnant to spread the faith. Teatro Mex., pt. iii. 145-6.

[861] On a later page Bernal Diaz says he fell at Otumba. Hist. Verdad., 107, 246.

[862] Herrera attempts to save somewhat the reputation of the astrologer by the
statement that he prophesied death for himself or his brother.

[863] Every one, say Cortés and Herrera; but Ixtlilxochitl states that one sister of
King Cacama was saved, and he intimates that one or two of his brothers also
escaped. He is contradictory, however. Hist. Chich., 302, 390. The one who
escaped must have been Cuicuitzcatl, the newly made king of Tezcuco. Brasseur
de Bourbourg adds two of his brothers, probably from misinterpreting Ixtlilxochitl.
Hist. Nat. Civ., iv. 339.

[864] Ixtlilxochitl names some of the chiefs to whom these offers were made. Hist.
Chich., 302.

[865] Ávila, a veritable martinet, maimed a soldier with a blow for stepping from
the ranks to pluck some fruit. Herrera, dec. ii. lib. x. cap. xii. The same story has
been told of Ávila in Cempoala.

[866] Cortés allows the five scouts to defeat the enemy, who are frightened by the
supposition that a larger force is upon them. Cartas, 137. Herrera is more explicit
with regard to the ambuscade, and makes Ordaz lead up the reinforcements. dec.
ii. lib. x. cap. xii.

[867] ‘Mas no cenar.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 162. Sahagun states, however, that this
was the town to which the Otomís had on the preceding day invited them, chiefly
because they were related to the Otomís of the Tlascaltec division under Cortés.
Hist. Conq., 34-5. A risky proceeding, if true, for an isolated community, on whom
might fall the vengeance of the hostile Mexicans. In the account of the route
followed to Tlascala Cortés is still the best guide, for he not only kept a record, but
wrote his report while the occurrences were yet fresh. He is wanting in details,
however, and fails to give names to localities. These omissions are remedied by
Sahagun, who now seems more reliable. Other authors are vague or misleading
for the route, but the occasional incidents told by them are noteworthy. Bernal Diaz
indicates only one stopping place, Quauhtitlan evidently, before Otumba is
reached. Camargo skips to a place adjoining Otumba, and Ixtlilxochitl takes the
army to Quauhximalpan, a place which modern maps locate south of Remedios.
He resumes the northern route, but names some towns that cannot be identified.
Gomara adheres pretty well to Cortés, but his commentator, Chimalpain, supplies
names for places, which differ from Sahagun and indicate a deviation from the
extreme northern course, as will be seen. Torquemada follows chiefly Sahagun,
whom he recommends. Orozco y Berra has closely studied the journey, and
throws much light on it, more so than any other writer; yet his conclusions are not
always satisfactory. Itinerario del Ejercito Español, in Mex. Not. Ciudad., 246 et
seq. I have already spoken at length, in Native Races, iii. 231-6, on the life and
writings of Father Sahagun, and will here refer only to the twelfth book of his
Historia General, inserted by Bustamante, at the beginning of the set, under the
title of Historia de la Conquista de Mexico. This copy is from one found by Muñoz
in the Franciscan convent of Tolosa, in Navarre. Another copy of the twelfth book,
in possession of Conde de Cortina, claimed as the true original, was published
separately by the same editor, at Mexico, 1840, with lengthy notes from Clavigero
and other writers to complete the chain of events, and to comment on the
suppression in the former issue of statements concerning Spanish misdeeds. It
has also an additional chapter. Neither copy, however, corresponds quite to that
used by Torquemada, who in more than one instance quotes passages that are
startling compared with the modified expressions in the others. The severity of the
friar toward Spanish conquerors was no doubt a strong reason for the suppression
of his work. The twelfth book begins with Grijalva’s arrival and the omens
preceding it, and carries the narrative of the conquest down to the fall of Mexico.
According to his own statement, on page 132, it is founded to a great extent on the
relations given him by eye-witnesses, soldiers who had assumed the Franciscan
robe and associated daily with the friar; but much is adopted, with little or no
critique, from superstitious natives, the whole forming a rather confusing medley,
so that it is difficult to extract the many valuable points which it contains. This
difficulty is, of course, not encountered by such followers as Bustamante and
Brasseur de Bourbourg, and similar supporters of native records or anti-Spanish
versions.
In the Native Races I give the traits which characterize the French abbé and
his famous works on Central American culture and antiquities, and it remains only
to refer briefly to his version of the conquest, comprised in the fourth volume of the
Histoire des Nations Civilisées. His pleasing style lends attraction to every page,
but his faults become more conspicuous from the comparison presented by a vast
array of authorities, revealing the indiscreet and enthusiastic readiness to accept
native tales, or anything that favors the hypotheses by which he is ruled, and in
the disposition to build magnificent structures on airy foundation. His version,
indeed, strives rather to narrate the conquest from a native standpoint, and to use
Spanish chronicles only as supplementary authority. To this end he relies chiefly
on the now well known writings of Sahagun, Ixtlilxochitl, Camargo, and
Torquemada, and it is but rarely that he is able to quote the often startling original
manuscripts possessed only by himself.

[868] ‘Mordiendo la tierra, arrancando yeruas, y alçãdo los ojos al cielo, dezian,
dioses no nos desampareys en este peligro, pues teneys poder sobre todos los
hombres, hazed que con vuestra ayuda salgamos del.’ Herrera, dec. ii. lib. x. cap.
xii.

[869] Herrera conforms to Cortés and Gomara in admitting a stay of two nights at
one place, but makes this Tecopatlan, called ‘duck town,’ from its many fowl. This
is evidently Tepotzotlan. But it was not near the lake like Citlaltepec, and ‘duck
town’ applies rather to a lake town, in this region, at least. Cortés also writes, in
Cartas, 137, ‘fuimos aquel dia por cerca de unas lagunas hasta que llegamos á
una poblacion,’ and this does not apply well to Tepotzotlan, which lies a goodly
distance from the lakes, requiring certainly no march along ‘some’ lakes to reach
it. Hence the Citlaltepec of Sahagun must be meant. This author, however,
supposes the Spaniards to stay one night at each place. Hist. Conq., 36 (ed.
1840), 129. Ixtlilxochitl calls the place after Tepotzotlan, Aychqualco. Hist. Chich.,
302. At Tepotzotlan, says Vetancurt, some of the people remained to receive the
Spaniards—this is in accordance with one of Sahagun’s versions—and here
remained to hide the son of Montezuma, whom he supposes to have escaped with
the troops. Teatro Mex., pt. iii. 144. According to Chimalpain’s interpretation the
Spaniards stay the two nights at Quauhtitlan, and thence proceed by way of
Ecatepec, now San Cristóbal, skirting the northern shore of Tezcuco Lake, and on
to Otumba. Hist. Conq., i. 304-5. This route certainly appears the most direct, but
there is no authority for it. The sentence from Cortés might no doubt be adopted
equally well for this road; but Sahagun, Ixtlilxochitl, and Herrera name towns which
lie east and north of the Zumpango Lake, and during the rainy season now
prevailing the passages between the lakes were rather swampy. Tezcuco was
beside too close for the fleeing army. Alaman accepts the route south of
Zumpango, Disert., i. 122, against which nearly all the above reasons apply.

[870] ‘Nos convenia ir muchas veces fuera de camino.’ Cortés, Cartas, 138.
Owing to the guide’s inefficiency, adds Gomara, Hist. Mex., 162.

[871] Sahagun also calls the mountain, or the slope, Tona. His confusing versions
sometimes reverse all the names. Cortés places it two leagues from the last camp.

[872] ‘Detrás dél [hill] estaba una gran ciudad de mucha gente.’ Cortés, Cartas,
138. Zacamolco is also called a large town. There could hardly be two large towns
so close together in a district like this, so that the other must have been
Teotihuacan, ‘city of the gods,’ with its ancient and lofty pyramids, sacred to all
Anáhuac, and one of the chief centres of pilgrimage. For description of ruins, see
Native Races, iv. 529-44.

[873] ‘Con un golpe de piedra en la cabeza tan violento, que abollando las armas,
le rompió la primera tunica del cerebro.’ So Solis defines the wound, which
afterward grew dangerous. Hist. Mex., ii. 203. He supposes that it was received at
Otumba.

[874] ‘Le comieron sin dexar [como dizen] pelo ni huesso.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex.,
162. ‘La cabeza cupo a siete o ocho.’ The horse was Gamboa’s, on which
Alvarado was saved after his leap. Herrera, ii. x. xii.; Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad.,
107. Ixtlilxochitl says that Zinacatzin, of Teotihuacan, killed it—he whom we shall
find leading the enemy on the morrow.

[875] ‘Y pareció que el Espíritu Santo me alumbró con este aviso,’ exclaims
Cortés, Cartas, 139. Many a soldier carried a comrade on his back. Gomara, Hist.
Mex., 163.

[876] According to Cortés, whose dates I have already shown to be reliable. He

makes it a Saturday. Prescott makes it the 8th, a mistake which has been copied
by several writers, including Brasseur de Bourbourg and Carbajal Espinosa.

[877] ‘Llanos de la provincia de Otupam.’ The battle taking place near Metepec.
Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., 302-3. Plain of Otumpan, also called Atztaquemecan.
Camargo, Hist. Tlax., 170. ‘Los Llanos de Apan.’ ‘El Valle de Otumba.’ Lorenzana,
in Cortés, Hist. N. España, xiv. 148. Clavigero calls it the plain of Tonan, derived
from Sahagun, who applies the name to the slope of the range bordering it.

[878] Following the intimation given by Sahagun, Torquemada states that the
enemy came pouring in from rear and sides to surround the troops, i. 508.

[879] While they were halting, writes Ojeda, a big Indian with club and shield
advanced to challenge any Spaniard to single combat. Ojeda responded, but in
advancing against the man his negro slave followed him, and either the sight of
two frightened the native or he sought to decoy them, for he retreated into a
copse. Herrera, ii. x. xiii.

[880] Camargo, Hist. Tlax., 171-2; Torquemada, i. 509. Ixtlilxochitl spells the name
Zihuatcatlzin, and Oviedo calls it Xiaquetenga, based probably on that of the
Tlascaltec chief. Duran, Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 480. ‘La flor de Mexico, y de Tezcuco, y
Saltocan.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 108.
[881] Solis clears the way with volleys, but only seven muskets remained and no
ammunition.

[882] Camargo states that he lived to an age exceeding 130 years. Heroes in all
ages have enjoyed the privilege of not being tied down to laws governing ordinary
mortals.

[883] An ill-natured brute, which attacked the enemy with teeth and hoofs. He did
good service all through the following campaign, till he fell in one of the last battles
of the great siege. Camargo, Hist. Tlax., 172.

[884] ‘Duró este terrible conflicto por mas de cuatro horas.... Llegado el medio dia,
con el intolerable trabajo de la pelea, los españoles comenzaron á desmayar.’
Sahagun, Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 132.

[885] ‘En vnas Andas, vn Caballero mandando, con vna Rodela Dorada, y que la
Vandera, y Señal Real, que le salia por las Espaldas, era vna Red de Oro, que los
Indios llamaban Tlahuizmatlaxopilli, que le subia diez palmos.’ Torquemada, i.
509. ‘Su vandera tendida, con ricas armas de oro, y grandes penachos de
argenteria.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 108. Ixtlilxochitl calls the gold net
matlaxopili. Hist. Chich., 303. Camargo more correctly agrees with Torquemada.

[886] The accounts of this incident vary greatly. According to Bernal Diaz ‘Cortes
dió vn encuẽtro cõ el cauallo al Capitã Mexicano, hizo abatir su vãdera ... quiẽ
siguiò al Capitan q̄ traia la vandera que aun no auia caido del encuentro que
Cortes le diò, fue vn Juan de Salamanca, natural de Ontiueros, con vna buena
yegua ouera, que le acabò de matar.’ Hist. Verdad., 108. The banner could not
have fallen without the general. Gomara intimates that Cortés charged alone
against the ‘capitan general, y diole dos lançadas, de que cayo y murio.’ Hist.
Mex., 163. This is also substantially the view of Duran and Camargo. Herrera
leaves the impression that Salamanca alone follows Cortés in the charge, and
cuts off the head and banner of the commander after his chief had wounded and
overthrown him. dec. ii. lib. x. cap. xiii. Torquemada, Clavigero, Prescott, and
others, also assume that Cortés lances the generalissimo, but they let the cavalry
follow. Sahagun, who obtained his information from participants that afterward
became friars, merely states that Cortés and one other led the charge, which
resulted in the overthrow of the general and his banner. Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840),
132. Cortés is still more reticent in saying: ‘quiso Dios que murió una persona
dellos, que debia ser tan principal, que con su muerte cesó toda aquella guerra.’
Cartas, 139. The assumption that Cortés overthrew the commander with his lance
rests chiefly on the fact that Cortés as leader of the charge receives credit for
everything that happens. Writers also forget that the commander was carried aloft
in a litter the better to observe the movements of the army. His burdened carriers
would with greater likelihood have been overthrown by the horses or in the
disorder created by their advance. This supposition is confirmed by Cortés’
reference to the affair, wherein he gives credit to none for the act, his usual
custom when some one else performed a noteworthy deed. He was seldom chary
in giving credit to himself for achievements, as may be gathered alone from his
account of the stay in Mexico City, which announces that he it was who tore down
the idols, who captured the temple after another had failed to do so, who single-
handed covered the retreat of his comrades on the Tlacopan causeway on the
morning preceding the flight, and who with less than a score that ‘dared stay with
him’ protected the retreat of the last remnant from the city. The supposition
receives further support from the permission given by the emperor to Salamanca
to add to his escutcheon the trophy taken from the commander. This implies that
although the victory was due to Cortés he could not have inflicted the mortal
wound. Salamanca became alcalde mayor of Goazacoalco. Bernal Diaz, Hist.
Verdad., 108, 111.

[887] ‘Los principales, lleuarõ cõ grã llanto, el cuerpo de su general,’ says Herrera;
but this is doubtful, to judge also from his subsequent observations.

[888] ‘Murieron ... casi todos los amigos de los españoles, y algunos de ellos
mismos.’ Sahagun, Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 132. Solis acknowledges only
wounded, of whom two or three died afterward. Hist. Mex., ii. 203. Cortés did not
escape additional wounds, from which he was soon to suffer intensely.

[889] The natives were particularly ready to testify to this supernatural aid, as
Camargo relates, Hist. Tlax., 172, perhaps for their own credit, as good converts
and brave warriors.

[890] ‘Never,’ writes Gomara, ‘did a man show such prowess as he, and never
were men so well led. He by his own personal efforts saved them.’ Hist. Mex., 163.
‘Se tuuo la vitoria despues de Dios, por el valor de Cortés.’ Herrera, dec. ii. lib. x.
cap. xiii. While quite prepared to uphold the general as a hero, Bernal Diaz takes
exception to this praise as unjust to his many followers, who not only did wonders
in sustaining him, but in saving his life. Hist. Verdad., 111.

[891] Ixtlilxochitl assumes that another army was encountered and routed with
great slaughter, a few leagues ahead, at Teyocan. Hist. Chich., 303.

[892] Ixtlilxochitl. Chimalpain calls it Apam, which appears to have been situated
farther north. Lorenzana refers to all this extent as the plains of Apan, the name
which it now bears. Camargo names the plains of Apantema, Tacacatitlan, and
Atlmoloyan as traversed by the army to reach Tlascala. Hist. Tlax., 172.

[893] Cartas, 140. ‘Pues quizà sabiamos cierto, que nos auian de ser leales, ò que
voluntad ternian.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 108.
[894] Brasseur de Bourbourg gives to a village here the name of Xaltelolco. Hist.
Nat. Civ., iv. 352. Ixtlilxochitl refers to it as Huexoyotlipan, and states that
Citlalquiauhtzin came up with food and presents from the lords.

[895] Cortés calls the town Gualipan; Bernal Diaz, Gualiopar; Gomara, Huazilipan;
Herrera gives it 2000 houses.

[896] ‘Yo queria,’ said Maxixcatzin, ‘yr en vuestra busca con treynta mil guerreros.’
Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 109. This is confirmed by the Aztec version of Duran,
which says that the rumor of Tlascaltec preparations helped to intimidate the
proposed Mexican reinforcements for Otumba. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 483. According to
Oviedo, 50,000 warriors, followed by 20,000 carriers, met the Spaniards at the
frontier, iii. 514. Camargo extends the number to 200,000, ‘who came too late, but
served nevertheless to check pursuit from the enemy.’ Hist. Tlax., 173. Gomara
stamps Oviedo’s statement as hearsay, but adds that the Tlascaltecs declared
themselves prepared to return with the Spaniards at once against Mexico. This
Cortés declined to do for the present, but allowed a few soldiers to join a band in
pursuit of marauding stragglers. Hist. Mex., 164. The delay in collecting the
proposed reinforcements may have been due to the small faction hostile to the
Spaniards, headed by the captain-general, Xicotencatl the younger, who seems
never to have forgiven the disgrace of defeat which they had been the first to inflict
upon him. He had accompanied the lords to Hueyotlipan, perhaps to gloat over the
misfortune of his victors. According to Herrera, Captain Juan Paez—Torquemada
writes Perez—was one of the invalids at Tlascala, and to him 100,000 warriors
had been offered to go to the aid of his general; but he declined, on the ground
that his strict orders were to remain with his 80 men at Tlascala. For this he was
naturally upbraided by Cortés as a coward, fit for hanging. The story is not very
probable. dec. ii. lib. x. cap. xiv,; Torquemada, i. 512.

[897] ‘Que estimó él mucho, y puso por una de sus armas.’ Ixtlilxochitl, Hist.
Chich., 303.

[898] Cortés, Cartas, 140. Bernal Diaz intimates one day.

[899] ‘Cõ mas de duzientos mil hombres en orden: yuan las mugeres, y niños, en
la delantera.’ Herrera, dec. ii. lib. x. cap. xiii. This order may have been intended to
signify peace and welcome.

[900] Camargo differs from Bernal Diaz, in intimating that all were lodged in
Maxixcatzin’s palace, while Ixtlilxochitl assumes that Cortés was the guest of
Xicotencatl. ‘Magiscacin me trajo una cama de madera encajada, con alguna ropa
... y á todos hizo reparar de lo que él tuvo.’ Cortés, Cartas, 141.
 CHAPTER XXVIII.
INVALUABLE FRIENDSHIP.

July-September, 1520.

Divers Disasters to the Spaniards—Mexico Makes Overtures to Tlascala

—A Council Held—Tlascala Remains True to the Spaniards—
Disaffection in the Spanish Army—Cortés again Wins the Soldiers to
his Views—Renewal of Active Operations against the Aztecs—Success
of the Spanish Arms—Large Reinforcements of Native Allies—One
Aztec Stronghold after another Succumbs.

At Tlascala were certain invalid Spaniards, who praised the

natives for their kind treatment, and for the almost universal
sympathy exhibited with regard to the misfortunes at Mexico. The
army now learned that disaster had also befallen the Spaniards in
other parts of the country. The news of the flight had spread with
marvellous rapidity, and Cuitlahuatzin’s envoys had not failed to
magnify the successes of his arms while urging throughout the
country the extermination of the invaders. This advice had found
ready acceptance in the provinces west and south of Tlascala, which
had additional reasons for hostility in the assumption of the little
republic since she became the ally of the strangers.
Shortly after the departure of the army from the coast a party of
fifty men with five horses had followed with baggage and valuables.
At Tlascala a portion of them, with two horses, under Juan de
Alcántara senior, received the portion of treasure set aside during
the late repartition for the coast garrison, estimated at sixty thousand
pesos. With this they set out on their return to Villa Rica,
accompanied by a few invalids. On the way they were surprised and
slaughtered, the treasures and effects being distributed as spoils.
[901]

The larger division of the party, under the hidalgo Juan Yuste,
[902] which were to join Cortés, also picked up some convalescents,
together with additional treasure and baggage, and proceeded to
Mexico by the way of Calpulalpan. They numbered five horsemen,
forty-five foot-soldiers, and three hundred Tlascaltecs, the latter
under command of one of Maxixcatzin’s sons. Advised of their
approach the natives of Zultepec, among others, were induced, more
by cupidity than patriotic zeal, to form an ambuscade along the steep
declivity of a narrow pass which had to be followed. Here they fell
upon the party on all sides as they descended in single file,
encumbered beside by their burdens. Resistance was ineffective,
and those not slain were carried to Tezcuco to be offered up to the
idols, while their effects were distributed, some of the trophies being
dedicated to temples of the Acolhuan capital, there to tell the
mournful tale to the returning conquerors.[903]
About this time a vessel arrived at Villa Rica with three or four
score of adventurers, under Captain Coronado, and being told of the
fabulously rich Mexico they resolved to lose no time in following the
army, in order to secure a share of treasures. It was just after the
flight from Mexico, and the provinces were in arms, elated at the
triumphs at the lake. On approaching the Tepeaca district the party
was surprised, and partly slaughtered, partly captured, the prisoners
being distributed among the towns of the province for sacrifice.[904]
These reports created no small alarm for the safety of Villa Rica,
and several Tlascaltec messengers were sent with letters, by
different routes, to bring news. Orders were also given to the
comandante to forward powder, fire-arms, bows, and other
necessaries that he could spare, together with some men, sailors, if
no others were available. The reply was reassuring, for although the
natives had fuller particulars of the disaster at Mexico than Cortés
had chosen to impart to the garrison, yet everything remained quiet.
The remittance of war material was small, and the men who
convoyed it numbered less than a dozen, men stricken by disease,
and led by Lencero, who became the butt of the drôles de corps.[905]
Every attention and comfort was tendered at Tlascala to the
Spaniards while caring for their wounds and awaiting the
development of projects. Hardly a man had arrived scathless, and
quite a number had received injuries which maimed them for life or
resulted in death.[906] Cortés’ wounds were most serious. The
indomitable spirit which sustained him so far now yielded with the
failing body. Severe scalp cuts brought on fever,[907] which caused
his life to hang in the balance for some time. Finally his strong
constitution and the excellent empiric methods of the native herb
doctors prevailed, to the joy, not alone of Spaniards, but of
Tlascaltecs, who had shown the utmost anxiety during the crisis.
During this period of Spanish inaction the Mexicans were
energetically striving to follow up their blow against the invaders. The
first act after ridding the capital of their presence was one of
purgation, in which the victorious party fell on those whose
lukewarmness, or whose friendly disposition toward Montezuma and
his guests, had hindered the siege operations and aided the enemy.
A tumult was soon raised, wherein perished four royal princes,
brothers and sons of Montezuma,[908] whose death may be
attributed to Cuitlahuatzin’s desire to remove any dangerous rival to
the throne. Not that this was a necessary precaution, since his
standing, as a younger brother of Montezuma, and his successful
operations against the Spaniards, were sufficient to raise him above
every other candidate.[909] Furthermore, as commander-in-chief of
the army and as leader of the successful party, he held the key to the
position, and accordingly was unanimously chosen. About the same
time Cohuanacoch was elected king at Tezcuco, in lieu of the
younger brother forced on the people by Cortés, and
Quauhtemotzin, nephew of Montezuma, rose to the office of high-
priest to Huitzilopochtli. The coronation was the next prominent
event,[910] for which the indispensable captives had already been
secured from the fleeing army. What more precious victims, indeed,
could have been desired for the inaugural than the powerful
Spaniards and the hated warriors of brave Tlascala? And what
grander site for the ceremony than the great temple, recovered from
the detested intruders and purified from foreign emblems? In
connection with this came a series of festivals.[911]
The utmost activity was displayed in repairing the damage
caused by the Spaniards, and in fortifying the city and its approaches
against a possible future invasion. The construction and discipline of
the army were improved in some degree after the examples given by
the Europeans; its tactics were revised, and its arms perfected with
the aid of captured weapons, the Chinantec pike being also
introduced and tipped with Toledo blades or other metal points.
Envoys were despatched to near and distant provinces, bidding for
their support by remission of taxes and tributes, by restoration of
conquered territories, by patriotic appeals, and by roseate views and
promises.[912] The Spaniards were painted as selfish, perfidious,
and cruel, intent on conquering the whole country, on enslaving the
people, on extorting their substance, and on overthrowing social and
religious institutions. Spoils and heads of Spanish men and horses
were sent round to disabuse the people of their supposed
invulnerability; and as a further encouragement the dreaded Cortés
was declared to have fallen.
 The most important missions were those to Michoacan and
Tlascala, the former an independent kingdom of considerable extent,
stretching westward beyond the lake region to the Pacific, over an
undulating, well watered territory, which abounded in all the
resources of a rich soil and a tropic climate. The inhabitants, the
Tarascos, were distinct from the Aztecs in language, but fully their
equals in culture, which was of the Nahua type, and as a rule
successful in resisting the armed encroachments of the lake allies.
The present ruler was Zwanga, who held court at Tzintzuntzan, on
Lake Patzcuaro. He received the embassadors of Cuitlahuatzin with
due attention, but hesitated about the answer to be given. The
Aztecs had from time immemorial been the enemies of his people,
and to aid them would surely bring upon him the wrath of the
Spaniards, who must still be powerful, since the Mexicans came to
plead for his alliance. In this dilemma it was resolved, with the advice
of the council, to send plenipotentiaries to Mexico, in order to learn
more fully the condition of affairs, and there determine what should
be done.[913]
More decisive in its results was the mission to Tlascala.
Regarded as the most important of all, it was intrusted to six
prominent men, of acknowledged talent for negotiation. They came
fortified with choice presents of robes, feathers, salt, and similar
desirable commodities, and were received with customary courtesy
by the assembled lords and council. The eldest was the first to
speak. He recalled the intimate relationship between Mexico and
Tlascala in blood and language, deplored the feud which had so long
existed, and urged the establishment of permanent peace, for mutual
benefit, whereby the Tlascaltecs would gain all the advantages of a
long prohibited trade. One obstacle alone interposed to prevent a
happy harmony, which was the presence of the Spaniards, to whom
was due the unfortunate condition of the whole country. Their only
aim was to make themselves masters, to overthrow the gods of the
natives, to enslave the inhabitants, and impoverish them by
exactions.
The Tlascaltecs would after rendering service be treated with the
same base ingratitude and perfidy as the over generous Montezuma,
and reap not only universal detestation, but the anger of the gods.
Better, therefore, to seize the present favorable opportunity to deliver
themselves from dreadful calamities, to establish prosperity and
independence on a firm basis, and by a joint alliance recover the
alienated provinces and share the revenues therefrom.[914] The first
step to this desirable end was the destruction of the Spaniards, now
at their mercy, whereby they would gain also the gratitude of
neighboring peoples, the fame of patriots, and the blessing of the
gods.
The speech delivered, together with the presents, the envoys
withdrew to let the council deliberate. Bitter as was the enmity
between the two peoples, intensified by the recent defeat, there were
not wanting persons to whom the argument and offers seemed all
that the most brilliant fortune could bring. What, indeed, had they in
common with a strange race by whom they had been conquered,
and whose presence portended many changes in their social and
religious institutions, transmitted by their forefathers, and upheld with
the blood of generations? Their independence would be
endangered. Besides, the invaders had been shamefully defeated,
and might never again hold up their heads. The whole country was
mustering to drive them out, and, if successful, woe to Tlascala, as
their ally. In any case a struggle was in prospect, wherein their sons
and brethren would be sacrificed by the thousands. And for what?
For the benefit of strangers, always ready with their yoke of slavery.
On the other hand, they were offered the peace so long desired, with
its accompanying blessings; deliverance from the trade blockade
and seclusion which had so long afflicted them, together with the
attractive adjunct of assured independence, and the triumphant and
profitable position of conquering allies of the Mexicans.[915]
The strongest advocate of these views was Xicotencatl junior,
who had never forgotten the several Spanish victories that checked
his triumphal career as soldier and general, and humiliated him in
the eyes of the whole people. Yet this feeling was tinged with love for
the independence and welfare of the country, threatened, in his
eyes, by the invaders. With the news of disaster at Mexico his party
had assumed respectable proportions. Some of its members were
impelled by motives similar to his own; some were bribed by
Mexican gifts, and promises of wealth and preferment; some were
tempted by the arms, baggage, and treasure of the fugitives, whom it
seemed easy now to overcome. Not a few considered the burden of
maintaining a horde of strangers, with the prospect of afterward
yielding them service and blood for their aggrandizement. When the
collectors of provisions for the Spaniards made their rounds they
could not but observe the bitter feeling which prevailed in some
quarters.[916] The elder Xicotencatl appears to have remonstrated
with his son for breeding trouble; but this availed little, as may be
supposed. During the deliberation of the council on the Mexican
proposal the young chieftain stepped beyond the timid suggestions
of those who inclined toward an Aztec alliance, and boldly advocated
it as the only salvation for Tlascala.
Next spoke the wise Maxixcatzin, the leading representative of
the republic. In his chivalrous nature devotion to the Spaniards
exercised an influence, while as ruler of the richest district, in
agriculture and trade, he had also an eye to the benefits which would
accrue from an alliance with them. He recalled the many instances of
treachery and want of good faith on the part of the Mexicans to show
how little their promises could be relied on. It was merely the
presence of the Spaniards that prompted their offer of alliance, which
was to restore Mexico to its former terrorizing strength. This
accomplished, the ancient enemy would not fail to remember that
Tlascala, in addition to the old-standing enmity, had been one of the
chief instruments in their late suffering and humiliation, and had
figured as conqueror and master over them. They would lose no time
in avenging themselves, and by the destruction of the republic
remove forever so dangerous an enemy. Far better, then, to maintain
the friendship of the Spaniards, whose good faith had been tried,
and whose prowess was not broken by one defeat. Previous to their
arrival they had been suffering from the want even of necessaries,
and had been exposed to incessant ravages and warfare, which
threatened their very existence. With the Spaniards’ aid they had
been freed from this want and danger; they had enriched themselves
with trade and spoils, and had raised the republic to the most
prominent position it had ever occupied, all far beyond what the
Mexicans would ever permit. What did the gods say? Oracles and
omens had foretold the doom of the empire. It was in vain to struggle
with fate, which had decreed the control to the new-comers. The
interests of the state demanded the friendship of these destined
victors, who offered them wealth and glory, while good faith and
honor demanded loyalty to the invited guests, from whom so many
benefits had already sprung.
Observing the effect of the appeal on the wavering members,
young Xicotencatl hastened to defend his cherished plans, but with
such imprudence as to rouse Maxixcatzin to strike him. He was
thereupon jostled out of the council-chamber, badly bruised and with
torn clothes.[917] Against this expulsion none of his supporters
ventured to remonstrate, and the vote being unanimously in favor of
Maxixcatzin’s views, the Aztec envoys were notified accordingly.[918]
How momentous this discussion! And did the council of Tlascala
realize the full import of their acts? For thereby they determined the
present and permanent fate of many powerful nations besides
themselves. Undoubtedly the country would at some time have fallen
before the dominant power; but, had it been possible for the nations
of the great plateau to combine and act in unison, very different
might have been their ultimate condition. Cortés and his company
owed their safety to a decision which kept alive discord between the
native tribes, while the Tlascaltecs were saved from what probably
would have been a treacherous alliance, perhaps from annihilation,
only to sink into peaceful obscurity and merge into the mass of
conquered people.[919] They endeavored to keep the disagreement
in the council-chamber a secret from Cortés, but he heard of it, and
failed not to confirm Maxixcatzin in his devotion by holding forth the
most brilliant prospects as the result of this alliance. The words by
which the council decided for Cortés were to him as drops of
perspiration on the lately fevered brow, which tell that the crisis is
passed.
There was another cloud about this time appearing on the
horizon of the fortunes of Cortés. During his stay at Tlascala the men
of Narvaez began again to moot the subject of return. The golden
vision of Mexico’s treasures had been rudely dissipated, leaving only
the remembrance of hardships and disgrace. The flowery Antilles
appeared more alluring than ever to these gold-seekers, only too
many of whom were more accustomed to the farm than to the camp.
They could think of nothing but the ease and security of the fertile
plantations, where nature unloaded its wealth, and where docile
natives ministered to every want. In furtherance of this idea it was
urged on Cortés, by Duero and other leaders, to retire, to Villa Rica
before the Mexicans had succeeded in their efforts to cut off his
retreat. There they would intrench themselves while awaiting aid
from the islands and arranging a fresh campaign, having the vessels
to fall back on, if necessary. But to these intimations Cortés would
not for a moment listen. And there were many reasons for this—his
ambition to be all or nothing in this enterprise, his crimes against
Velazquez, his irregularities regarding the king’s interests, which only
brilliant success could redeem. As well might they talk to the
unyielding hills; he would join his dead comrades in the canals of
Mexico, or voluntarily ascend to the sacrificial stone, but he would
not turn back from this adventure.
When the general revealed his firm intention to renew the
campaign as soon as possible, the outcry became loud. The Noche
Triste and the narrow escape at Otumba had left impressions too
horrible to be easily forgotten. They shuddered at the thought of
renewing such risk, and cursed the gold which had allured them to
former discomfitures. If the general wished to throw away his life he
might do so, but they were not such madmen. Moreover, it was
highly imprudent to place so much faith in the Tlascaltecs, who might
at the first encounter with the enemy abandon or betray allies
differing so greatly in language, religion, and customs. A formal
demand was therefore addressed to him, through the notary, to
return to Villa Rica, on the ground of their small number and
dismembered condition, devoid as they were of clothing, arms,
ammunition, and horses, and with so many maimed and wounded.
They were wholly unfit to undertake any campaign, much less
against an enemy who had just defeated them when they were far
stronger in number and armament than now. Declared, as it was, in
the name of the army, though in truth by the men of Narvaez only,
[920]and headed by such persons as Duero, with invocation of the
imperial name, the proposal placed Cortés in a dilemma. Yet it
roused in him only a firmer determination. He was more master now
than ever he could be under the new proposal; and Cortés loved to
be master. The same reasons which had moved him before to
advance into Mexico in quest of independent fame and wealth, and
to evade the prospective disgrace and poverty, imprisonment and
death, were reasons stronger now than ever.
Here was another of those delicate points on which the destiny
of the Estremaduran seemed ever turning. Rousing himself to meet
the issue, though still weak with disease, he summoned an
audience. “What is this I hear?” he asked of the assembled soldiers.
“Is it true that you would retire from the fertile fields of New Spain,
you, Spaniards, Castilians, Christians! leave the ship-loads of gold
which in the Aztec capital we saw and handled; leave still standing
the abominable idols with their bloody ministers, and tamely summon
others to enjoy the riches and glories which you are too craven to
achieve? Alack! for your patriotism, for duty to your emperor, to God,
for the honor of Spanish arms! Know you not that one step further in
retreat than necessary is equivalent to the abandonment of all? Or
perhaps the fault is my own. I have been too careful of mine ease,
too cowardly to expose my person to the dangers into which I
directed you; I have fled before the foe—help me to remember,
friends—I have left my comrades to die unaided on the battle-field
while I sought safety, I have fed while you starved, I have slept while
you labored, or my too sluggish brain has refused the duty due by
your commander.” The speaker paused, but only for a moment. At
this, the very beginning of his plea, a hundred eyes were
affectionately regarding him through their moisture, a hundred
tongues were denying all insinuations of baseness as applied to him,
their great and brave commander. Already their hearts were aflame
with avarice and ambition; aflame, like St Augustine’s, with Christian
zeal and fervency of devotion, soldier fanatics as they were, stern,
forehead-wrinkled men—for fighting men, no less than fighting dogs,
display a gravity in their every-day demeanor unknown to tamer
spirits. “Are not my interests yours, and yours mine?” continued
Cortés. “Therefore, I pray you, ascribe not my views to disregard of
your wishes, but to a desire to promote the good of all. What people
going to war that does not sometimes suffer defeat; but what brave
men ever abandoned a glorious campaign because of one repulse?
And do you not see that it is more dangerous to go than to remain—
that to retreat further would only invite further attack? I will not allude
before soldiers of mine,” concluded the speaker, “to the everlasting
infamy of abandoning these brave Tlascaltecs to the enmity of the
combined forces of the plateau for having stood the Spaniards’ friend
in time of danger. Go, all of you who will! abandon your sacred
trusts, and with them the riches in mines, and tributes here awaiting
you, and fair encomiendas, with countless servants to attend before
your new nobility; for myself, if left alone, then alone will I here
remain and general Indians, since Spaniards have all turned
cowards!”
Hearts of steel could not withstand such words so spoken; and
loud came the shouts of approval from Cortés’ old comrades, who
swore that not a man should be allowed to endanger the common
safety by leaving. This manifestation was in itself sufficient to shame
the disaffected into resignation, although not into silence, for
mutterings were frequent against the quality of persuasion employed
by the general and his beggarly followers, who had nothing to lose
except their lives. In order somewhat to allay their discontent Cortés
promised that at the conclusion of the next campaign their wishes
should be consulted, and the first favorable opportunity for departure
be tendered them—a cool proposal, affecting only those who would
be left of them, yet made with sober visage by the artless Cortés.
[921]

The determination of Cortés was now what it always had been,

namely, to conquer and become master of all New Spain; and the
greater the difficulty the greater the glory. Fearing that further evil
might result from continued inactivity, and from remaining a burden
on the allies, Cortés resolved to lose no time in taking the field.[922]
In the fertile plains to the south of Tlascala lay the rich province of
Tepeyacac,[923] euphonized into Tepeaca, long hostile to the
republic. Intimidated by the subjugation of Tlascala and Cholula, the
three brothers who ruled it[924] had tendered their submission to the
conquerors, only to return to their old masters, the Aztecs, the