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ECO-DRIVING
from STRATEGIES to INTERFACES
 Transportation Human Factors:
Aerospace, Aviation, Maritime,
Rail, and Road Series
Series Editor
Professor Neville A Stanton
University of Southampton, UK

Automobile Automation: Distributed Cognition on the Road

Victoria A. Banks, Neville A. Stanton
Eco-Driving: From Strategies to Interfaces
Rich C. McIlroy, Neville A. Stanton
ECO-DRIVING
from STRATEGIES to INTERFACES

Rich C. McIlroy and Neville A. Stanton

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

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Title: Eco-driving : from strategies to interfaces / Rich C. McIlroy, Neville
A. Stanton.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, 2018. | Series:
Transportation human factors : aerospace, aviation, maritime, rail, and
road series | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017019281 | ISBN 9781138032019 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Automobile driving--Energy conservation. | Automobile
driving--Environmental aspects. | Automobile driving--Human factors.
Classification: LCC TL151.5 .M35 2017 | DDC 629.28/30286--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017019281

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 Dedication

For Ire – Rich

For Maggie, Josh, and Jem – Neville
Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii
Acknowledgements................................................................................................... xv
Authors....................................................................................................................xvii
Abbreviations...........................................................................................................xix

Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1
1.1 Background.................................................................................1
1.2 Aims and Objectives..................................................................4
1.3 Book Outline.............................................................................. 5
1.4 Contribution to Knowledge........................................................ 7

Chapter 2 Design, Behaviour and Energy Use......................................................9

2.1 Introduction................................................................................ 9
2.2 Sustainability and Transport...................................................... 9
2.3 Sustainability and Ergonomics................................................. 11
2.4 The Changing Nature of the Driving Task............................... 12
2.5 Design and Persuasion.............................................................. 13
2.6 Energy Use Behaviours in Vehicles......................................... 14
2.7 Safety and Usability................................................................. 17
2.8 Ergonomics and the Design of Low-carbon Vehicle HMIs..... 19
2.8.1 Ecological Interface Design........................................20
2.8.2 Overcoming Range Anxiety.......................................20
2.8.3 Supporting Accurate Mental Models.......................... 21
2.8.4 Workload and Distraction........................................... 22
2.8.5 Dealing with Complexity and Taking
Advantage of Novelty..................................................24
2.9 Conclusions...............................................................................26

Chapter 3 Driving and the Environment: An Exploratory Survey Study............ 29

3.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 29
3.2 Knowledge of and Attitudes Toward Eco-driving................... 30
3.2.1 Perceptions and Self-reported Ability......................... 32
3.2.2 Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviour.......................... 33
3.2.3 Gender, Age and Education.........................................34
3.2.4 Eco-driving Support....................................................34
3.2.5 Summary of Purpose..................................................34
3.3 Survey....................................................................................... 35
3.3.1 Eco-driving Section.................................................... 35
3.3.1.1 Perceptions................................................... 35
3.3.1.2 Knowledge................................................... 35
vii
viii Contents

3.3.2 Environmental Attitudes............................................. 36

3.3.3 Participants and Ethics................................................ 36
3.4 Results...................................................................................... 36
3.4.1 Data Reduction............................................................ 37
3.4.1.1 Eco-driving Knowledge............................... 37
3.4.1.2 Environmental Attitudes.............................. 41
3.4.2 Addressing Research Questions.................................. 43
3.4.2.1 Q1: What Perceptions Do People
Have of Eco-driving and Its Effects?........... 43
3.4.2.2 Q2: What Do People Know of Eco-
driving (i.e. of the Specific Behaviours)?..... 45
3.4.2.3 Q3: Are More Pro-environmental
Individuals More Knowledgeable of
the Means for Eco-driving?......................... 47
3.4.2.4 Q4: Do More Pro-environmental
Individuals Report Performing
Eco-driving Behaviours to a Greater
Extent than Less Pro-environmental
Individuals?............................................... 48
3.4.2.5 Q5: Do People with Greater
Knowledge of Eco-driving Also Report
Performing it to a Greater Extent? .............. 48
3.4.2.6 Q6: How Does Knowledge of and
Propensity to Perform Eco-driving
Behaviours Vary with Age and Gender?..... 48
3.4.2.7 Q7: Do Those with Higher Levels of
General Education Also Have More
Knowledge of Eco-driving Behaviours?...... 49
3.4.2.8 Q8: How Much Are People Willing
to Pay for Eco-driver Training and
In-vehicle, Eco-driving Support Devices?...... 50
3.5 Discussion................................................................................. 50
3.5.1 Q1: What Perceptions Do People Have of
Eco-driving and Its Effects?........................................ 51
3.5.2 Q2: What Do People Know of Eco-driving
(i.e. of the Specific Behaviours)?................................. 51
3.5.3 Q3: Are More Pro-environmental Individuals
More Knowledgeable of the Means for
Eco-driving?...............................................................52
3.5.4 Q4: Do More Pro-environmental Individuals
Report Performing Eco-driving Behaviours to
a Greater Extent Than Less Pro-environmental
Individuals?................................................................. 53
3.5.5 Q5: Do People with Greater Knowledge of
Eco-driving Also Report Performing It to a
Greater Extent? ........................................................... 53
Contents ix

3.5.6 Q6: How Do Knowledge of and Propensity to

Perform Eco-driving Behaviours Vary with Age
and Gender?................................................................. 54
3.5.7 Q7: Do Those with Higher Levels of General
Education Also Have More Knowledge of
Eco-driving Behaviours?............................................. 54
3.5.8 Q8: How Much Are People Willing to Pay for
Eco-driver Training and In-vehicle, Eco-driving
Support Devices?......................................................... 54
3.5.9 Study Limitations........................................................ 55
3.5.10 General Discussion...................................................... 56
3.6 Conclusions............................................................................... 57

Chapter 4 Verbal Reports: An Exploratory On-road Study................................. 59

4.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 59
4.2 Verbal Protocol Analysis.......................................................... 59
4.3 Method...................................................................................... 62
4.3.1 Participants.................................................................. 62
4.3.2 Apparatus.................................................................... 63
4.3.3 Procedure.................................................................... 63
4.3.4 Data Reduction............................................................ 63
4.3.4.1 Vehicle Data................................................. 63
4.3.4.2 Verbal Data..................................................64
4.4 Results...................................................................................... 69
4.4.1 Verbal Protocols ......................................................... 69
4.4.2 Vehicle Data................................................................ 70
4.4.3 Group Differences....................................................... 70
4.5 Discussion................................................................................. 75
4.6 Conclusions............................................................................... 79

Chapter 5 Two Decades of Ecological Interface Design, and the

Importance of the SRK Taxonomy..................................................... 81
5.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 81
5.2 Ecological Interface Design..................................................... 82
5.3 Cognitive Work Analysis..........................................................84
5.4 The Past 22 Years of EID Research......................................... 88
5.5 EID Applications.................................................................... 104
5.5.1 Work Domain Analysis ............................................ 106
5.5.2 Skills, Rules and Knowledge ................................... 108
5.5.3 Reported Use of the Remaining CWA Phases.......... 109
5.5.3.1 Control Task Analysis ............................... 110
5.5.3.2 Strategies Analysis .................................... 111
x Contents

5.5.3.3 Social, Organisational and Cooperation

Analysis .................................................... 112
5.5.3.4 Worker Competencies Analysis ................ 113
5.6 Why the SRK Is Important..................................................... 113
5.7 Can EID Alone Result in Design?.......................................... 118
5.8 General Discussion................................................................. 120
5.9 Conclusions............................................................................. 122

Chapter 6 A Decision Ladder Analysis of Eco-driving: The First Step

Toward Fuel-efficient Driving Behaviour......................................... 125
6.1 Introduction............................................................................ 125
6.2 Decision Ladders.................................................................... 126
6.3 Identification of Activities...................................................... 128
6.4 Method.................................................................................... 129
6.4.1 Focus Group.............................................................. 129
6.4.1.1 Participants................................................ 129
6.4.1.2 Apparatus and Setting............................... 130
6.4.1.3 Procedure................................................... 130
6.4.2 Expert Interviews...................................................... 130
6.4.2.1 Participants................................................ 130
6.4.2.2 Apparatus and Setting............................... 131
6.4.2.3 Procedure................................................... 131
6.5 Results.................................................................................... 133
6.6 Analysis.................................................................................. 134
6.6.1 Deceleration to Lower Speed.................................... 134
6.6.2 Deceleration for Road Curvature.............................. 137
6.6.3 Deceleration for Full Stop More Likely.................... 139
6.6.4 Acceleration............................................................... 141
6.6.5 Headway Maintenance.............................................. 143
6.7 Implications for Design.......................................................... 145
6.7.1 Supporting Skill-based Behaviour with Haptic
Feedback.................................................................... 147
6.7.2 Haptic Information in Vehicles................................. 148
6.8 Conclusions............................................................................. 151

Chapter 7 In-vehicle Information System Design.............................................. 153

7.1 Introduction............................................................................ 153
7.2 The System ............................................................................ 153
7.3 Initial Pilot Studies................................................................. 158
7.3.1 Stimulus Levels ........................................................ 158
7.3.2 Route Development and Testing ............................... 159
7.3.3 Software Integration.................................................. 162
7.3.4 Setting the Thresholds and Testing the System........ 164
7.4 Conclusions............................................................................. 167
Contents xi

Chapter 8 Ecological Driving with Multisensory Information.......................... 169

8.1 Introduction............................................................................ 169
8.2 Background: A Recap............................................................. 169
8.3 Experimental Aims................................................................ 172
8.4 Method.................................................................................... 174
8.4.1 Participants................................................................ 174
8.4.2 Apparatus.................................................................. 174
8.4.2.1 Driving Simulator...................................... 174
8.4.2.2 Driving Scenarios...................................... 175
8.4.2.3 Information System Functioning and
Data Capture.............................................. 175
8.4.2.4 Questionnaires........................................... 176
8.4.3 Procedure.................................................................. 177
8.5 Results.................................................................................... 179
8.5.1 Objective Measures................................................... 180
8.5.2 Subjective Measures.................................................. 189
8.6 Discussion............................................................................... 191
8.7 Conclusions............................................................................. 197

Chapter 9 When to Give Those Good Vibrations.............................................. 199

9.1 Introduction............................................................................ 199
9.2 Method.................................................................................... 201
9.2.1 Participants................................................................ 201
9.2.2 Apparatus.................................................................. 201
9.2.2.1 Driving Simulator and In-vehicle
Information................................................ 201
9.2.2.2 Questionnaires...........................................202
9.2.2.3 Driving Scenarios...................................... 203
9.2.3 Procedure..................................................................204
9.3 Results....................................................................................205
9.3.1 Part One: Lead Time Manipulation..........................205
9.3.2 Part Two: With and without Vibrations..................... 212
9.4 Discussion............................................................................... 213
9.5 Conclusions............................................................................. 216

Chapter 10 Conclusions and Future Work........................................................... 219

10.1 Introduction............................................................................ 219
10.2 Theoretical Developments...................................................... 220
10.3 Methodological Implications..................................................224
10.4 Practical Implications............................................................. 226
10.4.1 Introduction............................................................... 226
10.4.2 Which Behaviours to Support?................................. 226
10.4.3 Linking Results......................................................... 228
10.4.4 Focusing on Priorities............................................... 228
xii Contents

10.4.5 Testing Timings......................................................... 229

10.4.6 In-vehicle Implementation......................................... 230
10.5 Future Work............................................................................ 230
10.6 Conclusions............................................................................. 234
References.............................................................................................................. 235
Appendix A: NASA Task Load Index – Raw TLX............................................ 259
Appendix B: Van Der Laan Acceptance Scale................................................... 261
Appendix C: Eco-driving Survey – Driving and the Environment................. 263
Appendix D: Environmental Attitudes Inventory – Short................................ 273
Author Index......................................................................................................... 281
Subject Index......................................................................................................... 285
Preface
The work presented in this book, representing the output of five years of research,
was initially motivated by two broad factors: a belief in the society-wide need to
reduce global resource consumption, and an interest in ecological interface design,
and the skills, rules and knowledge taxonomy, to both describe human behaviour and
to inform design. At the beginning of the research journey, the low-carbon vehicle
domain (e.g. hybrid and electric vehicles) was chosen as an appropriate field within
which to address these two factors. As the reader will discover, this soon developed
into a broader eco-driving focus (i.e. the driving behaviours associated with low
energy consumption), across not only low-carbon vehicles but also road vehicles of
any type. One aim of this book, therefore, is to shed further light on this increasingly
studied topic. This is done so via the use of a variety of human factors methods; as
will be seen, some of these methods were more enlightening than others.
With regard to the theoretical motivation to the research, rather than attempt to
apply the full ecological interface design method to in-vehicle interface design, the
focus was narrowed to include only a small subset of its core principles. This led to
the exploration of the theoretical justifications for the use of in-vehicle haptic stimuli
for the support of certain in-vehicle behaviours. This book therefore provides the
interested reader with a relatively in-depth discussion of the ability of multisensory
information to support behaviour at different levels of cognitive control, a key con-
cern of the ecological interface design methodology.
Finally, this book has an additional, purely practical aim, to provide those working
in the automotive vehicle industry with advice on how to help drivers make the most
out of their vehicle’s energy reserves, in whatever form that energy may be stored.
To this end, we provide an argument for the support of anticipatory behaviours in the
vehicle, the uptake of which would not only be beneficial for fuel economy (the focus
of this book), but also for safety. The technologies required to make such a system
as that described in the latter chapters of this book are not far away, and it is now, in
the earliest stages of product development, that the application of human factors can
provide most benefit.

xiii
Acknowledgements
We would first like to acknowledge the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
Council (EPSRC) and Jaguar Land Rover. Without their financial support this
research would not have been possible.
We must also thank Antony Wood and Louise Godwin who, at the time, were
based at the Institute of Sound and Vibration Research’s electronics workshop.
Without their help and expertise we would have had no in-vehicle system to test.
Paul Salmon and Miles Thomas at the University of the Sunshine Coast,
Queensland, also deserve considerable thanks for providing us with a significant
amount of data. Although we did not enjoy the arduous task of transcribing it, with-
out said data this book would be one chapter shorter.
And finally, to all the people who participated in the simulator studies, responded
to the survey and allowed us to interview them. We did not pay any of you for your
time, yet you still provided it – for this, we thank you. Without such people none of
this research (or, indeed, the vast majority of human-based research) would have
been possible at all. And for those in whom we induced unbearable sickness in the
simulator and had to leave early, we are sorry, and thank you for not soiling the car.

xv
Authors
Dr Rich C. McIlroy received a BSc (Hons) degree in psychology and an MSc degree
in research methods in psychology from the University of Southampton, UK, in 2008
and 2009, respectively. He was recently awarded his engineering doctorate by the
same university, having been based in the Transportation Research Group, Faculty of
Engineering and the Environment. He has published over 16 articles across a variety
of topics including eco-driving and the effect of in-vehicle information on driving
behaviour and fuel use, the effect of multisensory information on responding, the
general utility of ecological interface design, the link between expertise develop-
ment and verbal reporting, the use of non-intrusive verbal reporting for information
acquisition, and the ability of cognitive work analysis and its various components to
support decision-making and system design in a variety of domains, from rail trans-
port to system requirements specification.

Professor Neville A. Stanton, PhD, DSc, is a chartered psychologist, chartered

ergonomist and chartered engineer. He holds the Chair in Human Factors Engineering
in the Faculty of Engineering and the Environment at the University of Southampton
in the United Kingdom. He has degrees in occupational psychology, applied psychol-
ogy and human factors engineering and has worked at the Universities of Aston,
Brunel, Cornell and MIT. His research interests include modelling, predicting,
analysing and evaluating human performance in systems as well as designing the
interfaces and interaction between humans and technology. Professor Stanton has
worked on the design of automobiles, aircraft, ships and control rooms over the past
30 years, on a variety of automation projects. He has published 35 books and over
280 journal papers on ergonomics and human factors. In 1998, he was presented
with the Institution of Electrical Engineers Divisional Premium Award for research
in system safety. The Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors in the United
Kingdom awarded him the Otto Edholm Medal in 2001, the President’s Medal in
2008 and the Sir Frederic Bartlett Medal in 2012, which were awarded for his con-
tributions to basic and applied ergonomics research. The Royal Aeronautical Society
awarded him and his colleagues the Hodgson Prize in 2006 for research on design-
induced, flight-deck error published in The Aeronautical Journal. The University of
Southampton awarded him a Doctor of Science in 2014 for his sustained contribution
to the development and validation of human factors methods.

xvii
Abbreviations
AA Automobile Association
ACC Automatic Cruise Control
ADAS Advanced Driver Assistance System
ADS Abstraction Decomposition Space
AH Abstraction Hierarchy
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
BA Bachelor of Arts
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
BSc Bachelor of Science
BWR Boiling Water Reactor
CAN Controller Area Network
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
ConTA Control Task Analysis
CWA Cognitive Work Analysis
DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change
DfT Department for Transport
DL Decision Ladder
DMI Direct Manipulation Interfaces
DURESS Dual Reservoir System Simulation
EID Ecological Interface Design
EU European Union
FIT Feedback Intervention Theory
GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education
GPS Global Positioning System
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle
HMI Human Machine Interface
HTA Hierarchical Task Analysis
Hz Hertz
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
ICU Intensive Care Unit
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
KBB Knowledge-Based Behaviour
KM Kilometres
KMH Kilometres per Hour
MANOVA Multivariate Analysis of Variance
MPG Miles per Gallon
MPH Miles per Hour
ORCa On Road Capability
PCM Perceptual Cycle Model
PHEV Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
RBB Rule-Based Behaviour

xix
xx Abbreviations

REEV Range-Extended Electric Vehicle

RPM Revolutions per Minute
SBB Skill-Based Behaviour
SOCA Social Organisation and Cooperation Analysis
SRK Skills, Rules and Knowledge
StrA Strategies Analysis
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UK United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
US United States (of America)
USAF United States Air Force
VPA Verbal Protocol Analysis
WCA Worker Competencies Analysis
WDA Work Domain Analysis
 1 Introduction

1.1 BACKGROUND
The research presented in this book was motivated, in the main part, by two princi-
pal factors: (1) a belief in the necessity to protect the environment we inhabit through
the minimisation of our usage of the planet’s natural resources and (2) an interest in
the ability of a particular theoretical taxonomy to both describe human behaviour
and cognition, and to inform system design. The combination of these two motiva-
tional forces (alongside a number of other less significant, yet nonetheless important
influences) guided the overarching focus of the research presented in the coming
pages: the encouragement and support of eco-driving in the private road vehicle.
The first point above stems from the growing concern surrounding anthropomet-
rically caused climatic change (IPCC 2014), and the issue of sustainability (World
Commission on Environment and Development 1987). As shall be discussed in more
detail in subsequent chapters of this book, it is the transport domain in particular that
is lagging behind, with other sectors (e.g. domestic, industry) showing far greater
improvements in energy use and emissions reductions (Department of Energy and
Climate Change 2012a). Indeed, despite a 24% decrease in total emissions between
1990 and 2009 across the EU, transport’s emissions rose by 29% (Hill et al. 2012).
Moreover, when looking at transport’s share of resource consumption and emis-
sion volumes more closely, we find that it is private road transport that features
most highly. Across the EU in 2012, road transport accounted for 17.5% of all
greenhouse gas emissions, emissions that include those from all forms of trans-
port, industry, domestic use, agriculture, and electricity production (European
Commission 2015). Although we have seen a decrease in emission volumes over
the past 7 years, levels are still 20.5% above those seen in 1990 (ibid.).
Private road transport, that is, the cars in which we travel to and from work,
to visit relatives, or to take the kids to school (e.g.), plays an especially significant
role, accounting for more than half of all the emissions from transport in the UK
(Commission for Integrated Transport 2007). There has, in the past 5 years or so,
been a significant increase in the number of hybrid and electric vehicles registered in
the UK (Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders 2016) (Figure 1.1). In Europe
at least (The Shift Project 2015), these types of vehicles certainly contribute to
reductions in energy usage and emission volumes across their lifespan (Hawkins
et al. 2013); however, alongside opportunities, these vehicles, by nature of both their
novelty and their complexity (particularly for hybrids, in which two different fuel
systems and/or drivetrain technologies are present), give rise to a number of chal-
lenges (see Chapter 2).
There is no doubt that technological advancement, in both vehicles and infrastruc-
ture, has a huge part to play in our journey towards a fully sustainable transport system.

1
2 Eco-driving

80,000
Pure electric
Plug-in hybrid
70,000 Other hybrid

60,000
Number of vehicles

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Year

FIGURE 1.1 T
otal number of pure electric, plug-in hybrid, and other hybrid vehicles
(i.e. non-plug-in) registered in the UK annually. (Data from http://www.smmt.
co.uk/category/news-registration-evs-afvs)

This is not, however, the only way in which sustainability can be achieved, and it is
not the focus of this book. Rather, the work presented herein approaches the problem
from a behavioural perspective. The question is: how can we help people make the
behavioural changes necessary to take full advantage of these new lower-emission
technologies?
The reader will see in Chapter 2 that the initial focus of the research project
described in this book was on low-carbon technologies, namely hybrid and electric
vehicles. However, as will be discussed, simply buying a hybrid or electric car does
not automatically make for a sustainable transport system; the way in which it is
driven is also important. Of course, not driving at all is arguably the most sustain-
able way to reduce emissions; however, it is a flight of fancy to expect all drivers
to suddenly abandon their cars in favour of walking or cycling for all of their jour-
neys. A more realistic goal would be to aim for the widespread adoption of sustain-
able behaviours in the vehicle. When we consider that the average driver could save
around 10% of the fuel they use simply by modifying the way in which they drive
(Barkenbus 2010), the significance of the total potential energy and emission savings
that would result if every driver were to adopt a fuel-efficient driving style becomes
abundantly clear.
Although one could argue that the adoption of an economical driving style is
especially important in electric vehicles (given, e.g. the need to deal with the range
limitations not inherent to vehicles equipped with an internal combustion engine
Introduction 3

(ICE) (see Chapter 2)), such a practice can result in fuel savings in any road vehicle.
From Chapter 3 onwards, this book therefore focuses not on hybrid and electric
vehicles, but on the behaviours that characterise fuel-efficient driving in any private
road vehicle. These behaviours are collectively known as ‘eco-driving’, and are cen-
tral to this body of work. The primary question addressed in this book is how to best
encourage the uptake of such behaviours. In other words, how do we help drivers
behave in a more fuel-efficient manner when in control of the vehicle? As will be
discussed, there are a variety of ways in which this can be done, from pre-trip eco-
driving training to post-trip presentation of energy consumption figures (Barkenbus
2010). This book is focused on just one; the provision of in-vehicle information,
presented concurrently with the driving task.
In the following chapter more time is devoted to discussing the importance of
in-vehicle information design. As aforementioned, the chapter pays particular atten-
tion to low-emission vehicles, and the potential for the encouragement of new,
fuel-efficient driving habits. This is not simply a question of efficiency, but also
safety. When adding information to the in-vehicle environment, care must be taken
to ensure that it does not negatively affect performance of the primary driving task
e.g. through increasing workload or causing distraction (e.g. Harvey et al. 2011a).
The design of the information, therefore, is critical.
In the latter part of Chapter 2, ecological interface design (Rasmussen and Vicente
1989; Vicente and Rasmussen 1992) is introduced, and argued to be a potentially
promising method for the design of an in-vehicle information system. We will not
go into great detail here in describing the method; significant time is devoted to the
topic in later chapters. For the purposes of this introductory chapter, however, it is
useful to outline its core principles, and how these have shaped this research project.
Ecological interface design is partly based on the skills, rules and knowledge
taxonomy of human behaviour (Rasmussen 1983), the theoretical taxonomy alluded
to in this chapter’s opening paragraph. The three terms describe the levels of cogni-
tive control with which an actor interacts with the environment; skill-based behav-
iour involves automatic, direct interaction; rule-based behaviour involves associating
familiar perceptual cues in the environment with stored rules for action and intent;
knowledge-based behaviour involves analytical problem-solving based on symbolic
reasoning and stored mental models. The ecological interface design method aims to
produce an interface that supports behaviour at all three levels of cognitive control,
by supporting interaction via time-space signals (for skill-based behaviour), by pro-
viding consistent mapping between constraints in the environment and cues at the
interface (for rule-based behaviour), and by representing the system’s structure via
an externalised mental model (for knowledge-based behaviour).
In the early stages of this project, ecological interface design was considered as an
appropriate methodology for the design of in-vehicle systems for alternative drivetrain
vehicles due to its ability to help in the design of systems that support the development
of accurate mental models of complex systems, allowing for behaviour at all three
levels of cognitive control. As the research progressed, however, the focus shifted away
from low-carbon vehicles specifically, and also began to concentrate on the first of
the design method’s three principles; to support interaction via time-space signals in
order to encourage behaviour at the skill-based level. This shift was inspired, in part,
4 Eco-driving

by research reported by Birrell, Young and colleagues (Birrell, Fowkes, et al. 2014;
Birrell and Young 2011; Young et al. 2011). These articles reported on an in-vehicle
interface, designed using the principles of ecological interface design, which not only
attempted to display domain constraints, but also to provide information on the specific
ways in which drivers could alter their behaviour to improve safety and fuel economy.
This concept, of guiding the fuel-efficient behaviours themselves (as opposed to
attempting to provide an externalised model of the system), gave direction to the infor-
mation gathering activities and experimental work presented in Chapters 6 to 9 of
this book. As shall be discussed in the coming chapters, the expert eco-driver per-
forms the task in a way that approaches automaticity, that is, they are performing at
the skill-based level of cognitive control. One of the questions that guided the design
of the information system described in Chapter 7, and the design of the experiment
described in Chapter 8, was whether or not vibrotactile information, presented at the
site of control (see Chapters 5 and 6), can support this type of responding in the novice
eco-driver, that is, can it support eco-driving behaviours at the skill-based level of cog-
nitive control? Not only did this present some interesting practical questions (regarding
the actual fuel saved with use of such a system, and the acceptance of that system by
participants), but also presented a number of theoretical issues regarding the ways in
which multisensory individuals interact with their multi-modal environment.

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The main aim of this research project was to investigate the potential for in-vehicle
information to support eco-driving in the road vehicle (be that a fully electric vehicle,
a hybrid, or one equipped only with an ICE) in a way that neither increases workload
nor distracts the driver from the primary driving task and, additionally, in a way
that drivers are willing to accept and use. It is important to state that this research is
not an investigation of the psychophysiological effects of stimuli of differing inten-
sities and frequencies, nor is it a technically focused description of the algorithms
and computations required to integrate information from radar, GPS or a vehicle’s
CAN bus in order to provide stimuli for the encouragement of eco-driving. For more
information regarding the first of these research areas the reader is directed to work
by, for example, Michael Griffin and colleagues of the University of Southampton’s
Institute of Sound and Vibration Research (Forta et al. 2011; Gu and Griffin 2012). For
the integration of topographical and digital map data with sensor and engine data, the
reader is referred to work surrounding Continental’s eHorizon project (Continental
2015). This project involves the optimisation of engine control, transmission control
and, importantly, driver assistance systems, via the use of information regarding the
stretch of road ahead of the vehicle (Varnhagen and Korthaus 2010).
The research presented in this book is an investigation of the effects on human
behaviour, and on system acceptance, of the kinds of in-vehicle information that
are either currently available, or that are likely to be possible in the near future and,
additionally, of how best to present that information. Furthermore, there was an aim
to investigate the potential for in-vehicle information provided at the site of control
(i.e. through the accelerator pedal, as will be revealed in the latter half of this book)
to support skill-based behaviour in the novice eco-driver. This first aspect, simply to
Introduction 5

encourage fuel-efficient use of the vehicle, provides the more practically focused side
of this book; the second aspect, related to the skills, rules and knowledge taxonomy,
presents the theoretical aspect.

1.3 BOOK OUTLINE

This book is organised into 10 chapters, this introductory chapter being the first.
Below, each of the remaining nine chapters is introduced in turn.
Chapter 2: Design, Behaviour and Energy Use
This provides the backdrop to the book by bringing together various strands of
research, including the effect of the design of a technological object on behaviour,
the inter-related nature of goals and feedback in guiding performance, the effect
on fuel economy of different driving styles, and the various challenges brought
about by hybrid and electric vehicles including range anxiety, workload and dis-
traction, complexity and novelty. This chapter also introduces ecological interface
design, arguing it to be well suited to deal with the novelty of the low-carbon vehicle,
particularly through its ability to support the development of accurate mental models
of the system. The discussion is couched in terms of the support of energy-efficient
use of the vehicle.
Chapter 3: Driving and the Environment: An Exploratory Survey Study
This chapter is concerned with the general public’s knowledge and perceptions
of eco-driving as a practice, their awareness of and propensity to perform specific
eco-driving behaviours, and the relationships these variables have with demograph-
ics (both general and driving-specific) and environmental attitudes. A survey of 321
respondents revealed that the majority are aware of eco-driving and have a posi-
tive attitude towards it; however, knowledge of the specific behavioural strategies
for fuel-efficient driving was not high. Although relationships were found between
energy use attitudes and both knowledge of and propensity to perform eco-driving
behaviours, these relationships were weak.
Chapter 4: Verbal Reports: An Exploratory On-road Study
In order to begin to understand the actual behaviours exhibited, and cognitive
structures held by individual drivers, Ericsson and Simon’s verbal protocol analy-
sis technique (Ericsson and Simon 1980, 1993) was applied in an on-road setting.
Twenty participants each drove a 15 to 20 minute route, during which they were
required to ‘think aloud’. The transcripts of 19 of these participants were tran-
scribed verbatim and a coding scheme iteratively developed, partly based on theory
(i.e. top-down), partly on the content of the transcripts themselves (i.e. bottom-up).
The coding scheme was then applied to all the transcripts, thereby categorising each
identifiable unit of speech into the various codes. Objective vehicle data were also
recorded, at 10 Hz, and included measures such as vehicle speed and accelerator
pedal position. Although every effort was made to link objectively measured driving
behaviours with the content of the transcripts, no relationships could be found.
Chapter 5: Two Decades of Ecological Interface Design, and the Importance of
the SRK Taxonomy
In a momentary departure from the driving focus of the book, this chapter deals
only with ecological interface design, providing a review of the past two decades
6 Eco-driving

of the method’s applications published in the academic literature. The method is

described in more detail, and the importance of the skills, rules and knowledge
(SRK) taxonomy to the framework is specifically discussed following the finding
that 40% of reviewed applications do not cite this component, despite its centrality
to the method.
Chapter 6: A Decision Ladder Analysis of Eco-driving: The First Step Towards
Fuel-efficient Driving Behaviour
This chapter draws heavily on the SRK taxonomy in a decision ladder analysis
of eco-driving, discussing results in terms of how this can inform the design of an
in-vehicle, eco-driving support system. A review was conducted of the academic lit-
erature, and of more publicly available resources (i.e. free to access, those not requir-
ing subscription), identifying four largely distinct driving activities that each play a
central role in the use of fuel in the private road vehicle. A focus group involving
four researchers in the transport ergonomics field, followed by a series of five inter-
views with eco-driving experts, served to validate, supplement and further specify
the models.
Chapter 7: In-vehicle Information System Design
Based on the arguments arising from the decision ladder analysis of eco-driving
presented in Chapter 6, a system was developed that aimed to encourage fuel-
efficient driving in the novice eco-driver; this chapter describes the design process of
that system, and the resulting components and functions. The chapter also provides
information regarding the Southampton University driving simulator, and presents
results of the pilot testing of the system and of the driving scenarios that were to be
used in the experiment described in Chapter 8.
Chapter 8: Ecological Driving with Multisensory Information
This chapter presents the first experimental evaluation of the in-vehicle eco-­
driving support system described in Chapter 7. Behaviour when driving ‘normally’
was compared to that exhibited when participants were asked to drive economi-
cally, and to that exhibited when provided with feedback in three sensory modes
(audition, vision, touch), individually and in all combinations thereof. Results sug-
gested that participants were already largely aware that harsh acceleration is to be
avoided when eco-driving; however, significantly greater coasting distances (when
approaching slowing events) were seen only under conditions of feedback. Few dif-
ferences were seen between the different sensory modes and combinations; how-
ever, for some measures visual-only information was shown to be less effective than
combinations involving auditory and vibrotactile stimuli. Although it encouraged
compliance, the auditory stimulus was not well received by participants. Results are
discussed in terms of the ability of feedback in different sensory modes to support
eco-driving in different drivers, and in relation to the SRK taxonomy.
Chapter 9: When to Give Those Good Vibrations
In the second experimental analysis of the eco-driving support system, only hap-
tic (vibrotactile) information was investigated. The research presented in this chapter
had a more practical focus (rather than theoretical), and investigated only the encour-
agement of coasting when approaching slowing or stopping events. The simulator
study assessed the effects of three different time-to-event stimulus timings on objec-
tive driving performance, and on subjective measures of acceptance, ease of use
Introduction 7

and intention to use. The shortest time-to-event had a marginally damaging effect
on performance, and was not well received by participants. Both medium and long
time-to-event stimuli performed well on subjective measures, and both facilitated
increased eco-driving performance. The longest lead-time stimulus was the most
effective, resulting in 11% fuel savings compared to baseline. Findings are discussed
in terms of the importance of the timing of information, and regarding the need for
longer-term research on the potential effects of system failure on performance and
safety.
Chapter 10: Conclusions
The final chapter of this book summarises the work undertaken and described in
the preceding eight chapters. Methodological, practical and theoretical contributions
are outlined, implications of the research are discussed, and avenues for future work
are suggested.

1.4 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

The work presented in the coming chapters contributes, to varying degrees, to our
understanding of eco-driving as a means for reducing the impact of road transport on
the environment, to the literature concerning haptic information in the vehicle, and
to the theory underlying the first of ecological interface design’s three principles; to
support skill-based behaviour with time-space signals. Regarding the first point, it
was already clear from the existing literature that eco-driving can have a significant,
beneficial effect on energy use in the vehicle. The research described in this book
adds to extant knowledge by demonstrating the effectiveness of a method by which
these benefits might be realised; namely, to provide information that directly sup-
ports smoother acceleration profiles and increased coasting behaviours (two behav-
iours identified in this book to be of particular significance in eco-driving). This is
in contrast to the majority of previous research that provides feedback regarding
current energy usage levels, or information detailing the vehicle’s remaining energy
reserves. Results of the experimental work (Chapters 8 and 9) led to the further sug-
gestion that focusing solely on the support of coasting may be more suitable (in terms
of acceptance and effectiveness) than attempting to support both enhanced coasting
behaviours and smooth acceleration.
With regard to the second point above, this book adds to the body of knowledge
surrounding the effects of accelerator-based haptic feedback in the vehicle by com-
paring the effects of information presented across different sensory modes. Though
such comparisons have, in the past, been made between haptic and visual infor-
mation, this book goes further by also looking at auditory information, suggesting
that vibrotactile information is as effective as auditory (in encouraging compliance;
visual being less effective), but with far higher user acceptance. This book also
investigates a vibrotactile haptic stimulus rather than force- or stiffness-feedback,
methods far more commonly reported in the literature. Additionally, the timing of
the coasting advice, that is, the distance ahead of a slowing event at which informa-
tion suggesting removal of the foot from the accelerator pedal is presented, is shown
to be important for both system effectiveness (in reducing fuel consumption) and for
user acceptance.
8 Eco-driving

Finally, in terms of the contributions to the ecological interface design and SRK
theory, this book provides a thorough review of the past two decades of the design
method’s applications, argues for the importance of the SRK framework as a funda-
mental part of the method, and significantly furthers the discussion of the ability of
haptic information, provided at the site of control, to support behaviour at different
levels of cognitive control. This final point is of particular significance when we con-
sider that the vast majority of research surrounding ecological interface design, and
indeed the SRK taxonomy, be it theoretical or applied, focuses almost exclusively on
visual interfaces (with a small number of notable exceptions, as will be discussed).
Although results from the experiments described in the latter part of this book can-
not definitively answer all of the questions arising from the discussions presented
herein, headway has been made.
Another random document with
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of American
politics (non-partisan) from the beginning to
date
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: American politics (non-partisan) from the beginning to date

embodying a history of all the political parties, with their
views and records on all important questions. Great
speeches on all great issues, and tabulated history and
chronological events.

Author: Thomas V. Cooper

Hector T. Fenton

Release date: August 27, 2023 [eBook #71502]

Language: English

Original publication: Philadelpia: Fireside Publishing Company,

1892

Credits: Richard Tonsing, David Edwards, and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
(This file was produced from images generously made
available by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN

POLITICS (NON-PARTISAN) FROM THE BEGINNING TO DATE ***
Transcriber’s Note:
New original cover art included with this eBook is
granted to the public domain.
 AMERICAN POLITICS
(NON-PARTISAN)

FROM THE BEGINNING TO DATE.

EMBODYING

A HISTORY OF ALL THE POLITICAL

PARTIES,
WITH

THEIR VIEWS AND RECORDS ON ALL

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS.
GREAT SPEECHES ON ALL GREAT ISSUES,
AND

TABULATED HISTORY AND

CHRONOLOGICAL EVENTS.

By HON. THOMAS V. COOPER,

Member Pennsylvania House of Representatives, 1870–72. Senate, 1874–84.
Chairman Republican State Committee of Pennsylvania, 1881–82–83–84–85–
86–87.

AND
 HECTOR T. FENTON, Esq.,
Of the Philadelphia Bar.

FIFTEENTH AND REVISED EDITION.

PHILADELPHIA:
FIRESIDE PUBLISHING COMPANY.
1892.
 Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1892, by the
FIRESIDE PUBLISHING COMPANY,
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.

ALTEMUS’ BOOK BINDERY,

PHILADELPHIA.

Respectfully Dedicated
TO THE

PROPOSITION
THAT ALL AMERICAN CITIZENS SHOULD TAKE AN INTEREST
IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS.
 PREFACE.

The writer of this volume, in the pursuit of his profession as an

editor, and throughout an active political life, has always felt the
need of a volume from which any important fact, theory or record
could be found at a moment’s glance, and without a search of many
records. He has also remarked the singular fact that no history of the
political parties of the country, as they have faced each other on all
leading issues, has ever been published. These things prompted an
undertaking of the work on his own part, and it is herewith presented
in the hope that it will meet the wants not only of those connected
with politics, but of all who take an interest in public affairs. In this
work very material aid has been rendered by the gentleman whose
name is also associated with its publication, and by many political
friends, who have freely responded during the past year to the calls
made upon them for records, which have been liberally employed in
the writing and compilation of this work.

THOS. V. COOPER.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 BOOK I.—HISTORY OF THE POLITICAL PARTIES.
PAGE.
Colonial Parties—Whig and Tory 3
Particularists and Strong Government Whigs 5
Federals and Anti-Federals 6
Republicans and Federals 8
Downfall of the Federals 12
Democrats and Federals 17
Jefferson Democrats 19
Hartford Convention 20
Treaty of Ghent 20
Congressional Caucus 21
Protective Tariff 21
Monroe Doctrine 23
Missouri Compromise 24
Tariff—American System 25
Tenure of Office—Eligibility 27
Nullification—Democrats and Federals 29
United States Bank 31
Jackson’s Special Message on the United States Bank 33
Conception of Slavery Question 35
Democrats and Whigs 37
The Hour Rule 39
National Bank Bill—First 41
„ „ „ Second 43
Oregon Treaty of 1846 47
Treaty of Peace with Mexico 49
Clay’s Compromise Resolutions 51
Abolition Party—Rise and Progress of 53
Kansas-Nebraska Bill 55
Ritual of the American Party 57
Kansas Struggle 71
Lincoln and Douglas Debate 73
Charleston Convention—Democratic, 1860 81
Douglas Convention, 1860, Baltimore 86
Breckinridge Convention, 1860, Baltimore 86
Chicago Republican Convention, 1860 86
American Convention, 1860 87
Secession—Preparing for 87
Secession—Virginia Convention, 1861 91
„ Inter-State Commissioners 96
„ Southern Congress, Proceedings of 97
„ Confederate Constitution 97
„ Confederate States 98
Buchanan’s Views 99
Crittenden Compromise 104
Peace Convention 106
Actual Secession 109
„ „ Transferring Arms to the South 109
Fernando Wood’s Secession Message 112
Congress on the Eve of the Rebellion 113
Lincoln’s Views 115
Judge Black’s Views 115
Alexander H. Stephens’ Speech on Secession 116
Lincoln’s First Administration 120
Confederate Military Legislation 128
Guerrillas 129
Twenty-Negro Exemption Law 130
Douglas on the rebellion 130
Political Legislation Incident to the War 130
Thirty-Seventh Congress 131
Compensated Emancipation 135
Lincoln’s Appeal to the Border States 137
Reply of the Border States 138
Border State Slaves 139
Emancipation 141
„ Preliminary Proclamation of 141
„ Proclamation of 143
Loyal Governors, the Address of 144
Fugitive Slave Law, Repeal of 145
Financial Legislation 149
Seward as Secretary of State 149
Internal Taxes 151
Confederate Debt 152
Confederate Taxes 153
West Virginia—Admission of 158
Color in War Politics 159
Thirteenth Amendment—Passage of 167
Louisiana—Admission of Representatives 168
Reconstruction 169
Arkansas—Admission of 170
Reconstruction Measures—Text of 171
Fourteenth Amendment 174
McClellan’s Political Letters 175
Lincoln’s Second Administration 177
Andrew Johnson and his Policy 178
„ „ —Impeachment Trial 179
Grant 191
Enforcement Acts 193
Readmission of Rebellious States 193
Legal Tender Decision 194
Greenback Party 194
Prohibitory Party 196
San Domingo—Annexation of 196
Alabama Claims 197
Force Bill 197
Civil Service—Order of President Hayes 198
Amnesty 199
Liberal Republicans 199
Reform in the Civil Service 200
Credit Mobilier 200
Salary Grab 214
Returning Boards 217
Grangers 218
„ —Illinois Railroad Act of 1873 218
Civil Rights Bill—Supplementary 221
Morton Amendment 222
Whisky Ring 222
Belknap Impeached 223
White League 223
Wheeler Compromise—Text of 226
Election of Hayes and Wheeler 228
Electoral Count 229
Title of President Hayes 233
Cipher Despatches 234
The Hayes Administration 239
Negro Exodus 240
Campaign of 1880 242
Three Per Cent. Funding Bill 244
History of the National Loans 245
Garfield and Arthur—Inauguration of 253
Republican Factions 253
The Caucus 256
Assassination of Garfield 260
Arthur, President 261
Boss Rule 261
Readjusters 263
Mormonism—Suppression of 264
„ Text of the Bill 265
South American Question 269
Star Route Scandal 277
The Coming States 278
Chinese Question 281
„ „ —Speech of Senator Miller on 281
„ „ —Reply of Senator Hoar 285
Merchant Marine 296
Current Politics 298
Political Changes in 1882, 1883, 1884 304–
318
Cleveland’s Administration 321
Contests of 1885, 1886, 1887 321
The Campaigns of 1884, 1886, 1887, 1888 318–
335
The National Conventions of 1888 336
The Presidential Election of 1888 337
President Harrison’s Message on the Chilean Troubles 339
The National Conventions of 1892 347
 BOOK II.—POLITICAL PLATFORMS.
Virginia Resolutions, 1798 2003
Virginia Resolutions, 1798—Answers of the State Legislatures 2006
Resolutions of 1798 and 1799 2010
Washington’s Farewell Address 2014
All National Platforms from 1800 to 1892 2021–
2079
Comparison of Platform Planks on Great Questions 2079–
2104

BOOK III.—GREAT SPEECHES ON GREAT ISSUES.

James Wilson’s Vindication of the Colonies 3003
Patrick Henry before Virginia Delegates 3007
John Adams on the Declaration 3008
Patrick Henry on the Federal Constitution 3010
John Randolph against Tariff 3013
Edward Everett on the Example of the Northern to the
Southern Republics of America 3018
Daniel Webster on the Greek Question 3019
John Randolph’s Reply to Webster 3020
Robert Y. Hayne against Tariff 3021
Henry Clay on his Land Bill 3023
John C. Calhoun’s Reply to Clay 3024
Robt. Y. Hayne on Sales of Public Land—the Foote Resolution 3025
Daniel Webster’s Great Reply to Hayne 3048
John C. Calhoun on the Rights of the States 3080
Henry Clay on the American Protective System 3086
James Buchanan on an Independent Treasury 3095
Lewis Cass on the Missouri Compromise 3096
Clement L. Vallandigham on Slavery 3097
Horace Greeley on Protection 3099
Henry A. Wise Against Know-Nothingism 3109
Kenneth Raynor on the Fusion of Fremont and Fillmore
Forces 3112
Religious Test—Debate on the Article in the Constitution in
Regard to it 3114
Henry Winter Davis on the American Party 3115
Joshua R. Giddings Against the Fugitive Slave Law 3116
Robert Toombs in Favor of Slavery 3117
Judah P. Benjamin on Slave Property 3119
William Lloyd Garrison on the Slavery Question 3120
Theodore Parker Against the Fugitive Slave Law and the
Return of Sims 3121
William H. Seward on the Higher Law 3122
Charles Sumner on the Fallibility of Judicial Tribunals 3123
Galusha A. Grow on his Homestead Bill 3123
Lincoln and Douglas Debate—
„ „ „ Douglas’s Speech 3126
„ „ „ Lincoln’s Reply 3133
„ „ „ Douglas’s Rejoinder 3143
Jefferson Davis on Retiring from the United States Senate 3147
Henry Wilson on the Greeley Canvass 3149
Oliver P. Morton on the National Idea 3151
J. Proctor Knott on “Duluth” 3154
Henry Carey on the Rates of Interest 3159
Simon Cameron on Internal Improvements 3163
John A. Logan on Self-Government 3165
James G. Blaine on the “False Issue” 3171
Roscoe Conkling on the Extra Session of 1879 3176
Lincoln’s Speech at Gettysburg 3186
John M. Broomall on Civil Rights 3186
Charles A. Eldridge against Civil Rights 3189
A. K. McClure on “What of the Republic?” 3191
Robt. G. Ingersoll Nominating Blaine 3201
Roscoe Conkling Nominating Grant 3202
James A. Garfield Nominating Sherman 3203
Daniel Dougherty Nominating Hancock 3205
George Gray Nominating Bayard 3205
William P. Frye Nominating Blaine (at Chicago) 3206
Senator Hill’s Denunciation of Mahone 3207
Senator Mahone’s Reply 3217
Justin S. Morrill on the Tariff Commission 3223
J. Don Cameron on Reduction of Revenue as Affecting the
Tariff 3233
Thomas H. Benton on the Election of Presidents 3237
James G. Blaine’s Eulogy on President Garfield 3240
G. H. Pendleton on Civil Service 3251
John J. Ingalls Against Civil Service 3262
Samuel J. Randall on the Tariff 3274
William McKinley, Jr., on the Tariff 3277
Chauncey M. Depew Nominating Harrison 3283
Leon Abbett Nominating Cleveland 3285

BOOK IV.—PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE, Etc.

Declaration of Independence 4003
Articles of Confederation 4006
Jefferson’s Manual 4022

BOOK V.—TABULATED HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGICAL

POLITICS.
Statistics of General Information 5003–
5024
Chronological Politics 5025
AMERICAN POLITICS.
 BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE POLITICAL PARTIES
OF THE
UNITED STATES.