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HUMAN
BIOLOGICAL AGING
HUMAN
BIOLOGICAL AGING
From Macromolecules to
Organ Systems
Glenda Bilder
Gwynedd Mercy University, Gwynedd Valley, PA, USA
Copyright 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
Preface vii
About the Companion Website ix
1 ORIENTATION 3
4 AGING OF MACROMOLECULES 53
5 AGING OF CELLS 77
v
vi CONTENTS
Index 323
PREFACE
vii
viii PREFACE
GLENDA BILDER
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE
www.wiley.com\go\Bilder\HumanBiologicalAging
The website includes downloadable photographs, illustrations and tables from the book.
ix
SECTION I
THE FOUNDATION
Chapters 1–3 are foundation chapters that present an overview of the field of biological
aging. Chapter 1 provides a description of aging from the perspectives of established
biogerontologists, introduces the theories of aging, and sets out a working model to
understand aging in relation to other phases of the life cycle. Chapter 2 reviews the
scientific method, assets and pitfalls of study designs used to evaluate aging in man, and
the numerous animal models of aging that provide invaluable insights into conserved
preservation mechanisms. Chapter 3 presents the evolutionary theory of aging, a
persuasive theory that offers a convincing explanation as to why organisms age and
consequently positions aging as a legitimate biological entity.
Human Biological Aging: From Macromolecules to Organ Systems, First Edition. Glenda Bilder.
2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1
1
ORIENTATION
One of many interpretations of Samuel Clemen’s (Mark Twain) famous quote, “Age
is an issue of mind over matter, if you don’t mind, it doesn’t matter,” is that although it
is easy enough to ignore aging, it may not be a wise approach. The reason is that
aging, unlike other stages of the lifespan (prenatal, birth, infancy, childhood,
adolescence, and adulthood) is uniquely different. Distinct and nearly opposite
from that observed in other life stages, the contribution of heredity (genes) to aging
is modest, barely reaching 30%. This allows a larger contribution (near 70%) from the
environment and its interaction with heredity. Thus, the lesser role of genes in aging
allows for a substantial influence of the environment, for example, life style choices
and societal improvements, on the expression of individual aging. The more one
learns of the aging process, the greater will be the understanding of what choices will
make a difference in both quality and quantity of life.
BEGINNINGS OF BIOGERONTOLOGY
Human Biological Aging: From Macromolecules to Organ Systems, First Edition. Glenda Bilder.
2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3
4 ORIENTATION
POPULATION AGING
average or mean lifespan for the particular population under study. For example, an
individual born in 1900 in the United States could expect to live to 47.3 years
compared to an individual born in 2010 in the United States who could expect to live
to 76.2 years (males) and 81 years (females). The mean lifespan nearly doubled over
the last century.
Several key societal advancements contributed to the increase in life expectancy.
Public innovations that occurred in the first half of the twentieth century and slightly
before improved life expectancy to the greatest extent. One important development
was the acceptance of the validity of the Germ Theory of Infectious Disease proposed
by Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, and others. This enlightenment propelled reforma
tions in sewage handling, sanitation, and clean water and led to the availability of
vaccines against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus. Moreover, the launch of
sulfa drugs and antibiotics, for example, penicillin, significantly reduced the number
of infant and childhood deaths from infectious diseases, thereby allowing more
individuals to survive to older ages (Figure 1.1).
Life expectancy increased in the second half of the century for different reasons.
There was a minor reduction in infant mortality brought about by a trend favoring
hospital births over traditional home births. For older individuals, mortality rate
declined as a result of access to successful management of chronic diseases, especially
cardiovascular disease, a major cause of death in the elderly. This came about with the
development of safer drugs, for example, antihypertensive drugs, cholesterol-low
ering drugs, implantable devices, for example, pacemakers, stents, and defibrillators,
and surgical procedures, for example, coronary artery bypass grafts in conjunction
with the establishment of Medicare and Medicaid insurance to pay for this care.
Figure 1.1. Factors that influenced life expectancy from 1900 to present for white males and
females of the United States. (Data obtained from Arias (2014).)
6 ORIENTATION
In sum, multiple and diverse advances in public health and medical science
decreased the mortality rate of our society. These developments initially benefited
infants and adolescents by allowing more of them to survive infectious diseases. More
recently, older individuals have profited from novel therapies and evidenced-based
medicine for the treatment of chronic diseases, but the impact in terms of additional
life expectancy years is generally smaller with only a few years added to those
65 years and older.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGING
variables (the parameters that are measured or are expected to change) and assign
a degree of probability regarding the strength of the association between the
variables. It is an association and no more. It does not establish a cause and effect
relationship where (i) the cause (inducer) produces (ii) the effect (result or
change). A cause and effect connection ensues from experiments in which
variables are manipulated in a way that enables the scientist to assess the cause
and effect relationship with a high degree of assurance. Sadly, the majority of
studies on the aging process are correlative and a change in a selected variable is
statistically associated (or correlated) with an increase in chronological age.
Because these variables are linked statistically, their reliability is modest at best
and data from cause/effect studies are needed for verification.