Environment and

Biodiversity
for
Civil Services Examinations

Australia • Brazil • India • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Environment and © 2018 Cengage Learning India Pvt. Ltd.
Biodiversity
for ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be
Civil Services reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic,
Examinations or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing,
taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all
requests online at
www.cengage.com/permissions

Further permission questions can be emailed to

India.permission@cengage.com

ISBN-13: 978-93-86858-50-4
ISBN-10: 93-86858-50-9

Cengage Learning India Pvt. Ltd.

418, F.I.E., Patparganj
Delhi 110092

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations
around the globe, including Australia, Brazil, India, Mexico, Singapore, United Kingdom and
United States. Locate your local office at: www.cengage.com/global

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.

For product information, visit www.cengage.co.in

 CONTENTS

Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii
List of Videos xix
Chapter-wise Break up of Previous Year’s Questions (Prelims) xx

UNIT I ECOLOGY

1 ECOLOGY–BASICS 3
1 Primary Producers (Autotrophs) 3
2 Consumers (Heterotrophs) 3
Phagotrophs 4
Osmotrophs 4
3 Species 4
Competition 4
Predation 4
Parasitism 5
Mutualism 5
Commensalism 5
Determinants of the Behaviour of a Species—Genotype and Phenotype 5
4 Productivity (in Ecology) 9
Primary Production 9
Secondary Production 10
Practice Questions 10
Perfecting Past Prelims 14

2 FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM 15
1 Food Chain 15
Types of Food Chain 15
2 Food Web 16
iv
iv Contents

3 Ecological Pyramid 17
Upright Pyramid 17
Inverted Pyramid 17
Bioaccumulation 18
Bioconcentration 19
Biomagnification 19
4 Biogeochemical Cycle 19
5 Important Biogeochemical Cycles 20
Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle) 20
Carbon (C) Cycle 22
Nitrogen Cycle 22
Practice Questions 24
Perfecting Past Prelims 28

3 FOREST ECOSYSTEM 31
1 Types of Forests in India 32
Tropical Evergreen Forest (or Tropical Rainforests) 32
Semi-Evergreen Forests 32
Tropical Deciduous Forests 32
Tropical Thorn Forests 32
Montane Forests (Alpine Vegetation) 33
Mangroves 33
2 Forest Cover in India 35
The India State Forest Report, 2015 36
3 Important Tree Varieties of Each State and Union Territory 37
4 National Tree of India 38
Practice Questions 38
Perfecting Past Prelims 41

4 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM 45
1 Sunlight 45
2 Dissolubility of Oxygen 45
Why Does Oxygen Dissolve More in Cold Water? 46
3 Temperature 47
4 Lake Ecology/Lake Ecosystem 47
Classification of Lakes 47
5 Eutrophication 48
Cultural Eutrophication 48
Consequences of Eutrophication 48
 Contents v

6 Wetland Ecosystem 49
Importance of Wetlands 49
Wetlands of India 50
National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP) 50
Threats 50
7 Estuary Ecosystem 50
Characteristics of Estuaries 50
Estuaries in India 50
8 Coral Reefs 51
Requirements for the Survival of Coral Organisms 51
Symbiotic Relationship of Coral Organisms 51
Advantages of Coral Reefs 51
Classification and Location of Coral Reefs in India 52
Coral Bleaching 52
9 Water Resources of the World 53
How Is Fresh Water Different from Saline Water? 53
Water Resources of India 53
Water Stress in India 53
10 Water Conservation 54
Techniques of Water Conservation 55
Practice Questions 57
Perfecting Past Prelims 64

UNIT II ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

5 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 69
1 Causes of Environmental Degradation 69
Social Factors 69
Economic Factors 70
Institutional Factors 70
2 Pollution 71
3 Air Pollution 71
Primary Pollutants 71
Secondary Pollutants 72
4 National Air Quality Index 73
AQI Category, Pollutants and Health Breakpoints 73
List of Eight Pollutants under National AQI 75
5 Vehicle Pollution 75
Present Status of Bharat Stage (BS) Norms 75
vi
vi Contents

6 Persistent Organic Pollutants 76

7 Fly Ash 76
8 Water Pollution—Point and Nonpoint Sources 77
Effects of Water Pollution 77
Hazards of Groundwater Pollution 80
Oil Spills 80
9 Radioactive Pollution 80
Radioactivity 80
Types of Radiations 81
10 Electronic Waste 82
Types of e-Waste 82
11 Solid Waste 83
Plastic Waste 83
12 Environment-Related Diseases 83
Minamata Disease 83
Itai-Itai Disease 84
Blue Baby Syndrome 84
Pneumoconiosis Disease 84
Asbestosis 84
Silicosis 84
Emphysema 84
Sick Building Syndrome 84
Health Effects of Certain Substances 84
Practice Questions 85
Perfecting Past Prelims 89

6 ENVIRONMENT RESTORATION TECHNIQUES 93

1 Treatment and Disposal of Solid Waste 93
Open Dumps 93
Landfills 93
Sanitary Landfills 93
Incineration 93
Pyrolysis 93
Composting 94
Vermiculture 94
Pelletisation 94
2 Bioremediation 94
Strategies of Bioremediation 94
3 Environment Impact Assessment 96
EIA in India 97
4 Ganga Action Plan 98
Recent Efforts to Clean Ganga 99
 Contents vii

5 Habitat Fragmentation 100

6 Run-of-the-river (ROR) Hydroelectric Power Projects 100
7 Drawdown Technique of Desilting 101
Practice Questions 101
Perfecting Past Prelims 105

7 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 107

1 What Is Sustainable Development? 107
Sustainable Development—A Broader Term 107
History of Sustainable Development 107
What Are Sustainable Development Goals? 108
2 Measures of Sustainability 108
Carbon Footprint 108
Ecological Footprint 109
Comparison between Demand and Supply of Natural Resources 109
Biotic Potential 109
3 Permaculture 110
Organic Farming 110
History 111
Integrated Pest Management 114
Organic Pesticides 114
Weed Management 114
What Does Organic Farming Exclude? 115
4 Soil 115
Soil Profile 115
Soil Degradation and Soil Erosion 116
Soil Conservation 117
Practice Questions 119
Perfecting Past Prelims 122

UNIT III BIODIVERSITY

8 BIODIVERSITY 129
1 What Is Biodiversity? 129
Why Is Biodiversity Important? 129
Biodiversity in India 130
Modes of Conservation of Biodiversity 130
Species Richness in India 131
viii
viii Contents

Measurement of Biodiversity 131

Practice Questions 132
Perfecting Past Prelims 134

9 ANIMAL DIVERSITY 135

1 Vertebrates 135
Fishes 135
Amphibians 136
Reptiles 136
Birds 136
Mammals 136
2 Invertebrates 137
Annelids 137
Molluscs 137
Echinoderms 137
Protozoans 137
Arthropods 138
3 Endangered Species 138
Classification of Species by IUCN 138
4 List of Important Animal Species Threatened in India 139
Mammals (Terrestrial) 139
Mammals (Marine) 147
Birds 148
Reptiles 149
Practice Questions 152
Perfecting Past Prelims 156

10 PLANT DIVERSITY 161

1 Plant Diversity 161
Description of Various Plant Groups 162
2 Reproduction in the Flowering Plants 163
3 What Are Herbs and Shrubs? 164
4 Effects of Abiotic Components on Plants 165
Effects of Light on Plants 165
Effects of Temperature on Plants 165
5 Insectivorous Plants 166
Why Do Insectivorous Plants Feed on Insects? 166
6 Parts of a Tree 166
 Contents ix

Practice Questions 167

Perfecting Past Prelims 169

11 MARINE BIODIVERSITY 171

1 Planktons 171
Phytoplanktons 171
Zooplanktons 172
2 Sea Grass 172
3 Algaculture 173
Practice Questions 174
Perfecting Past Prelims 175

UNIT IV BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION EFFORTS

12 PROTECTED AREA NETWORK 179

1 Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks 179
Differences between National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary 179
Procedure for Declaration of Protected Areas 179
2 Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves 181
Conservation Reserves 181
Community Reserves 181
3 International Initiative to Declare Protected Areas 182
4 Biosphere Reserves 182
Criteria for the Selection of Biosphere Reserves 182
National Biosphere Reserve Programme 186
How Is a Biosphere Reserve Declared? 187
World Network of Biosphere Reserves 187
Biosphere Reserves in India Recognised under MAB Programme 187
Difference between Biosphere Reserves and Other Protected Areas Such As
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries 187
5 Biodiversity Hotspots 188
Biodiversity Hotspots in India 188
6 World Heritage Sites 189
Cultural Criteria 189
Natural Criteria 190
Practice Questions 190
Perfecting Past Prelims 195
xx Contents

13 CONSERVATION EFFORTS FOR PARTICULAR SPECIES 199

1 Efforts for Conservation of Tiger Population 199
Project Tiger 199
The NTCA 199
Tiger Census 199
2 Efforts for Conservation of Elephant Population 201
Project Elephant 201
3 Efforts for the Conservation of Vulture Population 201
Vulture 201
4 Indian Rhino Vision 2020 202
5 Project Snow Leopard 203
6 Sea Turtle Project 203
7 Indian Crocodile Conservation Project 203
8 Project Hangul 203
9 Ganges Dolphin 203
Practice Questions 204
Perfecting Past Prelims 206

UNIT V CLIMATE CHANGE

14 CLIMATE CHANGE 211

1 Global Warming 211
Greenhouse Effect or Glass House Effect 211
Important Greenhouse Gases 211
Factors Affecting Climate Change 213
Implications of Global warming 213
Evidence of Global Warming 214
Practice Questions 214
Perfecting Past Prelims 217

15 ACIDIFICATION 219
1 Ocean Acidification 219
Factors Which Influence Ocean Acidification 219
Impact of Ocean Acidification on Calcium Carbonate Shells of Marine Life 219
Upwelling 220
Overall Impact of Ocean Acidification 220
 Contents xi

2 Acid Rain 221

Acidity of Polluted Rain Water 222
Impact of Acid Rain 222
Difference between Naturally and Anthropogenically Acidified Lakes 223
Practice Questions 223
Perfecting Past Prelims 225

16 OZONE HOLE 227

1 Ozone Depletion 227
Harmful Consequences of UV Rays 227
Ozone Hole 227
Ozone Depleting Substances 228
Role of Polar Stratospheric Clouds in Ozone Depletion 229
Measurement of Ozone 229
Practice Questions 230
Perfecting Past Prelims 231

17 CARBON MITIGATION STRATEGIES 233

1 Carbon Sequestration 233
Techniques of Carbon Sequestration 233
Carbon Sink 233
2 Geoengineering 234
3 Greenhouse Gas Protocol 235
Practice Questions 235
Perfecting Past Prelims 237

18 INDIA AND CLIMATE CHANGE 239

1 National Action Plan on Climate Change or Measures of India to
Reduce Climate Change 239
National Solar Mission or Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission 239
National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency 239
National Mission for Sustainable Habitat 240
National Water Mission 240
National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem 240
National Mission for Green India 240
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture 241
xii
xii Contents

National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change 241

2 Other Initiatives to Reduce Climate Change 241
National Bioenergy Mission 241
Green Building 242
BSE Greenex 242
Science Express Train 243
Practice Questions 243
Perfecting Past Prelims 245

19 INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO REDUCE CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS 247

1 Earth Summit 247
Kyoto Protocol 247
2 Differences Among Developed and Developing Nations on Emission Reduction
Responsibilities 249
Views of Developed Nations 249
Views of Developing Nations 249
3 Paris Climate Change Agreement (2015) 250
4 India’s Emission Reduction Targets 251
5 Other Important Matters Related to Negotiations on Climate Change 251
6 Other Institutions to Deal with Climate Change 252
7 Carbon Tax 252
Cess on Coal Producers in India 252
Practice Questions 253
Perfecting Past Prelims 256

UNIT VI ENVIRONMENT INSTITUTIONS

20 ENVIRONMENTAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA 263

1 Important Laws to Protect Environment 263
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 263
Environment Protection Act, 1986 263
Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 1991 264
Forest Conservation Act, 1980 264
2 Statutory bodies 265
National Green Tribunal 265
National Board for Wildlife 265
Animal Welfare Board of India 266
Central Zoo Authority 266
 Contents xiii

National Biodiversity Authority 266

State Biodiversity Boards 267
National Ganga River Basin Authority or the National Council for River Ganga 267
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority 267
3 Non-Statutory Bodies 267
National Mission for Clean Ganga 267
Wildlife Institute of India 268
National Afforestation and Eco-development Board 268
Central Pollution Control Board 268
Zoological Survey of India 269
Botanical Survey of India 269
4 Other Measures by Government 270
National Clean Energy Fund 270
National Bamboo Mission 270
Eco Mark 270
Joint Forest Management 270
Social Forestry 271
Vanjeevan 271
Traditional Knowledge Digital Library 271
5 Non-Governmental Organisations 272
Bombay Natural History Society 272
TERI 272
Wildlife Trust of India 273
Practice Questions 273
Perfecting Past Prelims 276

21 INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS FOR PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT 279

1 Agreements and Conventions 279
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 279
Convention on Biological Diversity 279
Agenda 21 279
Mangroves for the Future 280
Montreux Record 281
Ramsar Convention 281
Vienna Convention 281
Montreal Protocol 282
Kigali Agreement 283
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna 284
Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species (Bonn Convention) 284
Basel Convention 284
Rotterdam Convention 285
xiv
xiv Contents

Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems 285

2 International Environment Organisations 285
International Solar Alliance 285
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 286
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) 286
Traffic 286
Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking 287
United Nations Forum on Forests 287
Global Tiger Forum 288
International Whaling Commission 288
South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network 288
Billion Tree Campaign 288
Biocarbon Fund 289
Bird Life International 289
World Wide Fund for Nature 289
Wetlands International 289
International Water Management Institute 290
Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research 290
Stockholm International Water Institute 290
Sustainable Development Solutions Network 291
World Happiness Report, 2017 291
3 Important International Events to Protect Environment 291
Earth Day 291
Earth Hour 291
International Day of Biological Diversity 292
World Environment Day 292
International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer 292
International Day of Forests 292
World Habitat Day 292
Practice Questions 293
Perfecting Past Prelims 298

Solutions for Practice Questions and Perfecting Past Prelims 305

 PREFACE

If you ever happen to be walking down the streets of places where preparation for Civil Services is done,
it will not be uncommon for you to come across or make the acquaintance of ‘several’ starry eyed yet
completely committed IAS aspirants. Yet, ‘several’ would be an understatement given the number that
runs into lakhs! But when we say committed, we mean it; these young men and women are ready to
sacrifice almost all their youthful follows including sleep, comfort and even a semblance of a normal life
to achieve one goal—IAS!
Sadly, this dream remains a distant one for a large majority of these aspirants in spite of the endless
hours of study and sleep forsaken nights. When we tried to unravel WHY, the responses were almost
synchronous:

“The subject was so vast that there was too much to cover and I could never complete it.”
“I read so much but could not retain it.”
“I studied something but was quizzed on something else in the exam.”
“I kept reading but did not attempt to solve the past year papers or give a mock exam.”
“Subscribing to several sources of information/preparation such as a coaching class, the internet and
books was futile; after all there are only 24 hours in a day.”
“My almirah was full of too many books,but I could barely complete a few.”

And while the candid answers stated above clearly gave us a challenging problem—we did not attempt to
solve it. We instead focused on a holistic solution—the synchronizing of effort i.e. Learning and Positive
Results!
It is with this aim that we—PrepMate collaborated with Cengage India—are continuously striving to
develop a comprehensive learning model that is a combination of online and offline so as to effectively
address the issues that most aspirants grapple with.

About the Online–Offline Learning Model

The learning model initiates the process with a series of books targeted at cracking the UPSC exam. The
books stand apart from others available because of the following unique features:

„ We use a conceptual approach, simple language, explain concepts with diagrams, cite sufficient
examples, pose pertinent questions in a reader friendly format—to ensure that the contents of
these books can be read and assimilated in a time-bound manner.
 xvi Preface

„ The content is specially designed taking into account the trend in UPSC exams in recent years.
We have also included the previous years’ questions (with solutions) after every chapter.
„ The Practice Questions at the end of each chapter are exhaustive to provide sufficient preparation
to crack the exams.
„ We have tried to encapsulate all that is required to be learnt for a particular subject into a single
book.

Usually, an aspirant purchases a book, but never gets a chance to contact the authors. We believe that the
contact among aspirants and authors is important for learning and motivation of the aspirants. That is
precisely why we have developed an application and a web portal to answer your queries and provide you
with continuous support during your preparation.
It is through this online system that we provide the following services:

1. Videos covering important and difficult topics

2. Daily prelims quiz
3. Assistance in interview preparation
4. Regular updates
5. Daily current affairs
6. Monthly current affairs magazine
7. Radio news analysis
8. Educational videos
9. Previous years’ papers and solutions
10. Free study materials

Looking forward to being your partner in the journey towards achieving your dream!
In case you have any specific queries or constructive feedback you can always share the same with us
via e-mail at info@prepmate.in.

PrepMate
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

“We cannot accomplish all that we want to do without working together”

The complete UPSC learning module by Prepmate has been the culmination of more than a year of
ideation and brain storming with a lot of people. It is only natural that we should gratefully acknowledge
their valuable contribution sincerely. Nirmal Singla, Ramnik Jindal, Sharat Gupta, Subhash Singla and
Vijay Singla—thank you for your continuous support and motivation.
We would also like to thank Maninder Mann, Rajinder Paul Singla and Sundeep Singh Garha who
helped us in first conceiving and later developing the synergistic online–offline model of the project—
without you we would be missing our competitive edge.
Implementation of strategy can more often than not prove challenging and the development of the
online module did prove to be tougher than we had envisaged. But our technical team was focused on
enabling our dream and delivering the best and they surely did. With a specific mention to the testing of
both the website and the application,we would like to thank Parth, Tanvir and Surabhi who did their job
patiently and effectively in spite of the road blocks.
Our videos and books could not have been possible without the help of our graphics design team—
Sandeep, Manjeet, Sukhjinder, Roshni and Uday toiled endlessly to ensure the best designed audio-
visuals.
It is an understatement to state that the sourcing and reviewing of existing content and the generation
of missing content was the most crucial part of this project and the backbone of our Learning Module.
This would just not have been possible without our team of content contributors: Isha Gupta, Shelly
Jindal, Gurdeep, Surabhi, Shantnu, Tanvir, Anmol, Kriti, Tanya, Sahil, Suraj and Dilshad, who left no
stone unturned in their pursuit of excellence—your pivotal contributions are gratefully acknowledged.
We would like to extend a special thanks to our staff members Geeta, Jitender, Manoj and Pinki,
who helped us in the most laborious job i.e. typing through the several manuscripts of our books—your
contribution is sincerely appreciated.
It is imperative that we thank Isha Gupta, Shelly Jindal, Anjum Diwan, Rajesh Goel, Shikha Sharma
and Ravinder Indoura, for their critical yet constructive feedback that identified and subsequently
rectified the errors that crept in during the development process. We will never be able to thank them
enough for this—you fortified the very foundation of our model.
We sincerely acknowledge the initiatives and support from the entire editorial team of Cengage India
in the process of publishing this book.

PrepMate
 LIST OF VIDEOS

1. Carbon (C) Cycle

2. Tropical Evergreen Forest (or Tropical Rainforests)

3. Coral Reefs

4. Bioremediation

5. Classification of Animals

6. List of Important Animal Species Threatened in India

7. Plant Diversity

8. Ocean Acidification

9. Ozone Depletion
 Chapter-wise Break Up of Previous Year’s Questions (Prelims)

Chapter names 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 Total
1. Ecology–Basics 1 1 2
2. Functions of Ecosystem 3 2 1 1 1 8
3. Forest Ecosystem 1 3 1 2 2 2 1 12
4. Aquatic Ecosystem 1 1 1 1 1 5
5. Environmental Degradation 1 1 2 3 1 8
6. Environment Restoration Techniques 1 1 2
7. Sustainable Development 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 17
8. Biodiversity 1 2 3
9. Animal Diversity 1 2 2 4 4 3 2 1 1 20
10. Plant Diversity 1 1 1 1 1 5
11. Marine Biodiversity 1 1 2 4
12. Protected Area Network 2 3 2 1 3 3 2 16
13. Conservation Efforts for Particular
1 1 3 5
Species
14. Climate Change 1 1 2 1 5
15. Acidification 1 1 1 3
16. Ozone Hole 1 1 2
17. Carbon Mitigation Strategies 1 1 1 3
18. India and Climate Change 1 1 2
 Chapter names 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 Total
19. International Efforts to Reduce Climate
2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 12
Change Effects
20. Environmental Institutions in India 2 2 2 2 1 9
21. International Efforts for Protection of
2 6 3 4 1 16
Environment
Total 12 20 16 26 20 20 20 17 2 6 159

Number of Questions Asked under Environment and

Biodiversity Section
30
26
25
20 20 20 20
20
17 16
15
12
10
6
5
2
0
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
 Unit - I

ECOLOGY
 Chapter
1 ECOLOGY–BASICS
Ecology is the analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment.
Ecology consists of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. Abiotic components include
sunlight, precipitation, wind, topography, humidity, soil, temperature, etc.
Biotic components refer to living organisms. Biotic components can be classified as:

BIOTIC COMPONENTS

AUTOTROPHS
HETEROTROPHS
(Producers)

PHAGOTROPHS OSMOTROPHS BIOPHAGES SAPROPHAGES

(Consumers) (Decomposers) (Feeding on (Feeding on
living dead
organisms) organisms)

1 PRIMARY PRODUCERS (AUTOTROPHS)

Autotrophs are called so because they produce their own food. They have the ability to synthesise
carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight, for example, green plants,
algae, etc.

2 CONSUMERS (HETEROTROPHS)
Heterotrophs do not produce their own food. They consume either plants (primary consumers) or
animals (secondary consumers). Heterotrophs are further of two types—Phagotrophs and Osmotrophs.
 4 Ecology

Phagotrophs
Phagotrophs digest their food either derived by plants or animals or both. Phagotrophs are also called
macroconsumers.
Phagotrophs are further classified into three types:
1. Herbivores: Animals that feed on plants.
2. Carnivores: Animals that feed on other animals.
3. Omnivores: Animals that feed on both plants and animals.

Osmotrophs
Osmotrophs are those organisms which convert their food into simple substances and absorb those
substances. Osmotrophs are also called microconsumers.
Osmotrophs include bacteria and fungi which decompose organic matter to gain nutrients from
dead organic substances. The decomposed organic waste is called detritus. Earthworm and certain soil
organisms are detritus feeders. These organisms which feed on detritus are called detritivores.
Heterotrophs can also be classified into biophages and saprophytes.
1. Biophages: Organisms that derive nourishment for its existence from other living organisms.
2. Saprophytes: Organisms that derive nourishment by feeding on dead organisms.

3 SPECIES
A species is a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing an offspring. Organisms of a
species interact with other organisms, both intra- and inter-species, in a variety of ways.
There are five common types of interaction among species.

Competition
Competition is described as a relationship in which different individuals attempt to use the same limited
resource. Competition harms the individuals of the species. Competition can also occur within a
population, since all the members require the same resources.
Competition can occur both directly and indirectly. For example, indirect competition can occur
between two birds that feed on the same insect; however, one species may eat at day, and the other at
night. Direct competition occurs between deer and goat in grassland for the same food sources and
territory.

Predation
This type of interaction occurs when one organism, the ‘predator’ feeds upon another organism, known
as ‘prey’. In this interaction, one organism benefits, while the other organism is harmed. Predation is a
complex web to understand, for, one predator can be the prey to another species.
 Ecology–Basics 5

Parasitism
The relationship between the parasite and the host is known as parasitism. Parasitism is similar to
predation, in that it does cause harm to its host, but it does not necessarily ‘kill’ its host. Some common
parasites are ticks, fleas, tapeworms and leeches.
Mutualism
Some species tend to rely on one another for survival, and there are times when neither of the organisms
can survive without the other. This close relationship between two species in which each species provides
a benefit to the other is known as mutualism.
For example, in the human body, intestinal bacteria use the warm, nutrient-rich walls of the intestine
and help regulate our digestive tract by breaking down foods we cannot digest on our own.
Commensalism
Commensalism is the relationship between two species in which one species benefits, while the other
species involved in the relationship is not affected. For example, vultures follow closely behind tigers in
India, to feed on the tiger’s kills.
Another type of relationship, opposite to commensalism is amensalism. Amensalism is any relationship
between organisms of different species in which one organism is inhibited or destroyed, while the other
organism remains unaffected.
A simple example is the shading out of certain plants under tall trees. The trees reduce the available
sunshine at ground level, and numerous plants cannot find adequate light in the shade.
Antibiosis is a specific type of amensalism in which one organism produces a metabolite that is toxic
to other organisms.
A common example of amensalism is the release of chemical toxins by plants that can inhibit the
growth of other plant species.

The interactions among many species involve a relationship in which two organisms live in close
association with one another, which is also known as symbiosis. In order for an interaction to be labelled
as an example of symbiosis, at least one organism must be benefitted (such as in predation, commensalism
and mutualism).
Determinants of the Behaviour of a Species—Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype is the complete heritable genetic identity. The word genotype can also refer just to a particular
gene or a set of genes carried by an individual. For example, if one carries a gene linked to diabetes, one
may refer to his genotype just with respect to this mutation without consideration of all the other gene
variants that one may carry.
In contrast, phenotype is a description of actual physical characteristics. This includes straightforward
visible characteristics like height and eye colour, and also overall health, and even one’s behaviour.
Most phenotypes are influenced by both genotype and by the unique circumstances in which one
has lived, including one’s experiences. Thus, our phenotype is a result of two inputs: ‘nature’, the unique
genome we carry, and ‘nurture’, the environment in which we have lived our lives.
Many terms are used to denote different species based on their role, importance or origin.
 6 Ecology

Keystone Species
A keystone species is a species that play a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological
community. It affects many other organisms in an ecosystem and helps determine the types and numbers
of various other species in the community. Without keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically
different or cease to exist altogether. For instance, tigers are keystone species in the terrestrial ecosystem.
If the population of tigers decreases in the ecosystem, the population of the deer would rise. The increase
in deer population means more consumption of grass; thus, other species dependent upon grass may not
be able to survive.

Flagship Species
A flagship species is a species selected to act as an ambassador, icon or symbol for a defined habitat,
issue, campaign or environmental cause. Flagship species are usually relatively large, and considered to
be ‘charismatic’.
The concept of flagship species has its genesis in the field of conservation biology. The concept of
flagship species holds that by raising the profile of a particular species, it can successfully leverage more
support for biodiversity conservation at large level.

Foundation Species
Foundation species is used to refer to a species that has a strong role in structuring a community.
A foundation species can occupy any trophic level in a food web (i.e., they can be primary producers,
herbivores or predators).
The term ‘foundation species’ was coined by Paul K. Dayton in 1972, who applied it to certain members
of marine invertebrates and algae communities. Dayton’s view was that focusing on foundation species
would allow for a simplified approach to more rapidly understand how a community as a whole would
react to disturbances, such as pollution, instead of attempting the extremely difficult task of tracking the
responses of all community members simultaneously.

Indicator Species
An indicator species is any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment. For
example, a species may delineate an ecoregion or indicate an environmental condition such as a disease
outbreak, pollution, species competition or climate change. Indicator species can be among the most
sensitive species in a region, and sometimes act as an early warning to monitoring biologists.

Indigenous Species
In biogeography, a species is defined as indigenous or native to a given region or ecosystem, if its presence
in that region is the result of only natural process, with no human intervention.
A species may be introduced by human activity; it is then referred to as an introduced species.

Endemic Species
In ecology, endemic means exclusively native to the particular region. An indigenous species may occur
in areas other than the one under consideration. Thus, an indigenous species is not necessarily endemic.
The terms ‘endemic’ and ‘indigenous’ do not imply that an organism necessarily originated or evolved
where it is found.
 Ecology–Basics 7

Introduced or Exotic Species

An introduced, alien, exotic, non-indigenous, or non-native species or simply an introduction, is a
species living outside its native distributional range, which has arrived there by human activity, either
deliberate or accidental. Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem.

Invasive Species
Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are called
invasive species. Most introduced species may have no negative effect or only minor impact. In some
instances, the potential for being beneficial or detrimental in the long run remains unknown.

Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) Species

The EDGE species represent a disproportionate amount of unique evolutionary history. They have few
close relatives, or often the only surviving member of their genus, and sometimes the last surviving
genus of their evolutionary family. Some examples of EDGE species are elephants and pandas.

Umbrella Species
Umbrella species are species selected for making conservation-related decisions, typically because
protecting these species indirectly protects many other species that make up the ecological community
of its habitat.

Important Terms Related to Ecology

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components
of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic
and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.
Ecosystems can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces (although some
scientists say that the entire planet is an ecosystem).

Ecotone
Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. It can be local or regional,
narrow or wide. Here, the conditions are intermediate between the two adjacent systems and hence
it is also a zone of tension.
For instance, the coastal areas represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem.

Ecocline
Ecocline is a variation of the physico-chemical environment dependent of one or two physico-
chemical factors of life (say, temperature), and it leads to presence or absence of certain species. It
can be understood as ‘physical transition zone’.
 8 Ecology

For example, an ecocline can be a thermocline, chemocline (chemical gradient), halocline

(salinity gradient) or pycnocline (variations in the density of water induced by temperature or
salinity).

Niche or Ecological Niche

A niche refers to the unique functional role or place of a species in an ecosystem. A species’ niche
includes the physical, biological and chemical environment to which it is adapted as well as its role
as producer and consumer of food resources.

Niche Construction
Niche construction is the process by which an organism alters its own (or another species’)
environment. These alterations can be a physical change to the organism’s environment or even
encompass when an organism leaves one habitat to another.

Habitat
A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal,
plant or other type of organism. The term typically refers to the zone in which the organism lives
and where it can find food, shelter, protection and mates for reproduction.

Home Range
A home range is the area in which an animal lives and moves on a periodic basis. An associated
concept is the utilisation distribution which examines where the animal is likely to be at any given
time. Earlier, data for mapping a home range was used to be gathered by careful observation, but
nowadays, the animal is fitted with a transmission collar or similar GPS device.
Home range includes the territory of an animal. Territory is an area in which an animal, or
group of animals, is protected from incursions by others of its species. Territorial boundaries may
be marked by sounds such as bird song or scents such as pheromones secreted by the skin glands
of many mammals.

Biosphere
The biosphere (from Greek word bios = life and sphaira = sphere), is the layer of the planet Earth
where life exists. This layer ranges up to the height of 10 km above the sea level, used by some
birds in flight, to ocean depths of more than 8 km such as the Puerto Rico trench. However, in
general, the layer of the Earth containing life is thin. The upper atmosphere has little oxygen and
very low temperature; similarly, ocean depths greater than 1 km are dark, cold and lack oxygen.
 Ecology–Basics 9

Biome
Biome refers to enormous regions sharing similar climatic conditions, soil type, flora and fauna.
Five biomes in India are:
a. Tropical humid forests: These are found in the Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas.
b. Tropical deciduous forests: Majority of forests in India are of tropical deciduous type.
c. Deserts and semi-desert vegetation: This is found in the Western Rajasthan.
d. Coniferous forests: These are found in the Middle Himalayas.
e. Alpine meadows: These are found at Higher Himalayas.

4 PRODUCTIVITY (IN ECOLOGY)

In ecology, productivity or production refers to the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem. It is
usually expressed in units of mass per unit area (or volume) per unit time, for instance, grams per square
metre per day. Productivity of autotrophs such as plants is called primary productivity, while that of
heterotrophs such as animals is called secondary productivity.

Primary Production
Primary production is the synthesis of new organic material from inorganic molecules such as water
and carbon dioxide. It is dominated by the process of photosynthesis which uses sunlight to synthesise
organic molecules such as sugars. Organisms responsible for primary production include plants, algae
and some bacteria (including cyanobacteria).

Gross Primary Production (GPP)

It is the amount of organic matter synthesised by producers per unit area in unit time. In other
words, it refers to the total production including the energy utilised for respiration by the producers.
Mathematically,
GPP = Rate of increase in body weight or rate of organic matter synthesised by producers
+ the rate of respiration (R) and other utilisation of mass by primary producers.

Net Primary Production (NPP)

It is the amount of organic matter stored by producers per unit area in unit time. In other words, it refers
to the net productivity that is converted to organic matter excluding the energy utilised for respiration
and other purposes by the producers.
Mathematically,
NPP = Rate of organic matter synthesised by photosynthesis by producers
– the rate of energy utilised for respiration and other purposes.
 10 Ecology

Secondary Production
Secondary production is the generation of biomass by heterotrophic (consumer) organisms in a system.
This is driven by the transfer of organic materials between trophic levels, and represents the quantity of
new tissue created through the use of assimilated food.
Organisms responsible for secondary production include animals, protists, fungi and many bacteria.
Compounds that are considered organic must contain carbon bound to hydrogen, and possibly, other
elements. By this definition, carbon dioxide is inorganic in nature.

Practice Questions
1. The biomass available for consumption on biotic and abiotic components of its
by the herbivores is called: ecosystem?
(a) Gross primary production (a) Ecotone
(b) Net primary production (b) Ecological niche
(c) Secondary production (c) Ecocline
(d) None of the above (d) Trophic level
2. Amensalism is an association between 5. A transition zone or region separating
two species where: two biomes is known as:
(a) One species is harmed and the (a) Ecocline
other is benefitted. (b) Ecological niche
(b) One species is harmed and the (c) Ecotone
other is unaffected. (d) Ecotype
(c) One species is benefitted and the
other is unaffected. 6. Which of the following statements
(d) Both the species are harmed. correctly explains the phenomenon of
Antibiosis?
3. A high density of tiger population in an
area can result in: (a) One species kills to feed on the
other species.
(a) Predation on one another (b) An organism benefiting from the
(b) Mutualism other organisms.
(c) Intra species competition (c) Production of secretions by an
(d) Inter species competition organism which is harmful to other
4. Which one of the following terms is organisms.
related to the impact of an organism (d) Competition between organisms of
the same species.
 Ecology–Basics
7. Which among the following correctly
describes ‘homeostasis’?
(a) It refers to the gradual process
by which communities in the
ecosystems change and develop
over time.
(b) It is the process by which an
organism maintains a stable
internal environment despite
changes in external conditions.
(c) It is the process of transfer of
energy from one trophic level to
another in a grazing food chain.
(d) It is the gradual process through
which energy requirement in an
ecosystem is balanced with the
energy available to the ecosystem.
8. Which of the following best describes
an indicator species?
(a) It is a species that has a
disproportionately large effect on
the ecosystem in which it occurs.
(b) It is a species which is of invasive
nature.
(c) It is a species which is introduced
to balance the species composition
in an ecosystem.
(d) It is a species whose presence,
absence or abundance reflects a
specific environmental condition.
9. Which one of the following is the best
description of the term ‘ecosystem’?
(a) Flora of a particular geographical
area.
(b) Flora and fauna of a geographical
area.
11
(c) Flora and Fauna along with their
environment.
(d) Flora and fauna of a continent.
10. The ability of an ecosystem to self
regulate itself is
(a) Accommodation
(b) Adaptation
(c) Homeostasis
(d) Evolution
11. In an ecotone, the species which is
expanding to other ecosystems on its
own are called:
(a) Invasive species
(b) Edge species
(c) Keystone species
(d) Adaptive species
12. Two animals can be conclusively said to
belong to the same species if they:
(a) Have same biological evolution
(b) Have similar genetic makeup
(c) Look similar and possess similar
physical makeup
(d) Can reproduce freely with each
other
13. Which of the following is not an
example of mutualism?
(a) Algae and fungus
(b) Rhizobium bacteria and
leguminous plants
(c) Coral polyps and Zooxanthellae
algae
(d) Leech and cattle
12 Ecology

14. Consider the following pairs: 16. Which of the following is/are the
types of positive interaction in a biotic
Population Interaction
community?
1 Mutualism Both the species 1. Colonisation
are benefitted 2. Competition
2 Competition Both the species 3. Protocooperation
are harmed Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
3 Commensalism One species is
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
harmed and
(c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
the other is
unaffected  Note: Colonisation or colonization is
the process in biology by which a species
4 Amensalism One species is
spreads to new areas. Colonisation often
benefitted and
refers to successful immigration, where
the other is
a population becomes integrated into a
unaffected
community, having resisted initial local
Which of the pairs given above is/are extinction.
correctly matched?
Protocooperation refers to the manner
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only of interaction between organisms
(c) 1, 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 which is beneficial to both of them.
15. With reference to keystone species, 17. Consider the following statements with
consider the following statements: reference to primary productivity of
1. A keystone species exhibits ecosystem:
disproportionately large effect 1. Net primary productivity is gross
on its environment relative to its primary productivity minus the
abundance. amount of biomass consumed by the
2. Tigers are keystone species as they primary consumers.
determine the species composition 2. Primary productivity of water bodies is
in a forest. more than the terrestrial environment.
Select the correct answer using the Which of the statements given above is/
codes given below: are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
 Ecology–Basics
 Note: Presently, 85% of biomass is
produced in terrestrial environment
and only 15% biomass is produced in
aquatic environment.
18. Which of the following are the abiotic
components of the ecosystem?
1. Water
2. Insolation
3. Winds
4. Decomposers
5. Soil
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
(a) 1 and 5 only
(b) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only
19. Consider the following statements:
1. Ecotone is the transitional area
between two biomes or diverse
ecosystems.
2. Ecological niche is the role of a
species in an ecosystem.
3. Ecocline refers to the combination of
all physical and chemical factors that
play a role in an ecosystem.
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
13
20. Consider the following statements:
1. A dominant species refers to a
species which contributes to the
highest percentage of biomass in an
ecosystem.
2. A keystone species is one that has
the greatest effect on all the other
species in an ecosystem.
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
21. In which of the following relationships
does one species benefit by harming
another species?
1. Parasitism
2. Predation
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
22. Which of the following terms defines the
gradual change in certain characteristics
exhibited by communities along with
the gradual change in one or more
environmental gradients?
(a) Ecotone
(b) Ecocline
(c) Ecotype
(d) Ecological niche
 14 Ecology

PERFECTING
PERFECTING PAST PRELIMS
PRELIMS
1. Which one of the following terms (a) A community of organisms
describe not only the physical space interacting with one another.
occupied by an organism, but also its (b) That part of the Earth which is
functional role in the community of inhabited by living organisms.
organisms? (2013) (c) A community of organisms together
(a) Ecotone with the environment in which
(b) Ecological niche they live.
(c) Habitat (d) The flora and fauna of a
(d) Home range geographical area.

2. Which one of the following is the best

description of the term ‘ecosystem’?
(2015)

; ANSWER KEYS

Practice Questions Perfecting Past Prelims

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 1. (b) 2. (c)

6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c)
16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (b)
 FUNCTIONS OF
Chapter
2 ECOSYSTEM
1 FOOD CHAIN
Food chain is a sequence that describes which organism is consumed or eaten by the other organism.
It also explains the transfer of energy from plants to primary consumers, from primary consumers to
secondary consumers and so on.
Food chain consists of levels called trophic levels. These trophic levels describe the flow of energy
among the organisms in a food chain. In other words, the organisms at lower trophic levels are consumed
by the organisms at higher level. Usually, the number of trophic levels is not more than four, because
the energy loss at each level is very high. Energy loss is high because most of the energy derived by an
organism from consuming another organism is required to carry out day to day activities.

Primary Secondary
consumer consumer

Sun
Grasshopper
Frog

Snake
Tertiary
consumer
Producer
Fungi
Hawk

Decomposer Final
consumer

Types of Food Chain

There are two types of food chain, namely grazing food chain and detritus food chain.
 16 Ecology

Grazing Food Chain

This type of food chain begins from plants at the base and the primary consumers are herbivores.

Examples
1. In terrestrial ecosystem, grass is eaten up by a caterpillar which in turn is eaten by a lizard and the
lizard is eaten by a snake.
Grass → Caterpillar → Lizard → Snake
2. In aquatic ecosystem, phytoplanktons (primary producers) are eaten by zooplanktons which are eaten
by fishes and fishes are eaten by Pelicans.
Phytoplankton → Zooplankton → Fish → Pelican
Detritus Food Chain
This type of food chain begins from dead organic matter. Dead organic matter is consumed by detritivores
which are eaten by other predators.
Dead organic matter → Earth worm → Chicken → Hawk
The distinction between these two food chains is the source of energy for the first level consumers. In
the grazing food chain, the primary source of energy is green plants, and in the detritus food chain, the
primary source of energy is dead organic matter. The initial energy source for detritus food chain is the
dead organic matter which is derived from the grazing food chain.

2 FOOD WEB
A network of food chains is called food web. Typically, the same food resource is a part of more than one
food chain, especially when that resource is at the lower trophic level.

Foxes Owls
Birds

Rabbits Mice Grasshoppers

Carrots Grasses Grains

 Functions of Ecosystem 17

3 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
An ecological pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars depicting specific trophic levels which
are arranged sequentially from primary producers to top carnivores. The ecological pyramid is used to
depict the amount of energy, biomass and number of organisms at each trophic level.

Upright Pyramid
Usually, the pyramid of energy depicting biomass and the number of organisms is upright.

7RS&DUQLYRUH (DJOH
N
J

3ULPDU\&DUQLYRUH

NJ
6QDNH

+HUELYRUH
NJ
5DEELW

3URGXFHUV
NJ
*UDVV

8SULJKW3\UDPLGRI%LRPDVVLQD7HUUHVWULDO(FRV\VWHP

In the given pyramid, the number of individuals decreases as we move to higher trophic levels in the
food chain.
Similarly, the amount of biomass and energy available at higher trophic levels significantly reduce as
most of the energy is consumed by the organisms to carry out their day-to-day activities and only some
energy is passed to the next trophic level.

Inverted Pyramid
In rare circumstances, a pyramid of number may be inverted. For instance, a tree provides food to many
birds and a bird is a food for many parasites.
Similarly, a pyramid of biomass can also be inverted. It can be inverted in aquatic ecosystems, since the
primary producers (phytoplanktons) make up less biomass than the primary consumers (zooplanktons).
 18 Ecology

Zooplanktons have high biomass, because their rate of reproduction is very high. Pyramid of biomass
in aquatic ecosystems is also inverted because the biomass of fishes far exceeds than that of the
phytoplankton.
However, a pyramid of energy is never inverted even in rare circumstances because when energy is
transferred from a particular trophic level to the next trophic level, some energy is always lost at each step.

Hyperparasites

Tick Flea

Parasites
Mite Louse

Herbivores

Producers

Limitations of Ecological Pyramids

1. It never takes into account, the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
2. It assumes a simple food chain, something that almost never exists in nature. It does not accommodate
a food web.
3. Saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids, even though they play an important role
in the ecosystem.

Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation refers to increase in the concentration of harmful substances in our body with the
passage of time. These substances do not degrade and their rate of discharge from the body is less than
their rate of absorption from the environment.
 Functions of Ecosystem 19

Due to our interaction with the environment, we consume certain fat and water-soluble substances.
These water-soluble substances are discharged regularly by our body through urine. Fat-soluble
substances do not get dissolved in water and may remain concentrated in our body.

Bioconcentration
Bioconcentration refers to the accumulation of harmful substances in our body from the intake of
polluted water. Thus, when bioaccumulation occurs from the consumption of polluted water, it is called
bioconcentration.

Biomagnification
Biomagnification (also called, ‘biological magnification’) refers to the tendency of toxic substances to
progressively increase in concentration as these substances move up to higher levels of food chain. Human
beings are at the highest risk due to biomagnification, because they are at the top of the food chain.
Mercury contamination is a good example of the bioaccumulation process. Typically, mercury (or a
chemical version called ‘methylmercury’) is taken up by the bacteria and phytoplankton. Small fishes
eat the bacteria and phytoplankton. Mercury accumulates in bodies of small fishes. The small fishes
are in turn eaten by larger fishes, which can become food for humans and animals. The result can be
progressive increase in the concentrations of mercury in humans and animals.

4 BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
A biogeochemical cycle or substance turnover or cycling of substances is a pathway by which a
chemical substance moves through both the biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere) components of Earth.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus constitute 97% of the mass of our body and more
than 95% of the mass of all the living organisms. In addition, 15 to 25 other elements are needed by
plants and animals. These elements keep on circulating in the environment.
The common pattern of movement of a substance in a biogeochemical cycle is illustrated in the
diagram given below:

Producer

Soil Consumer

Decomposer
 20 Ecology

On the basis of replacement period of nutrients, biogeochemical cycles are classified as perfect and
imperfect cycles.
A perfect cycle is a cycle in which nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilised. Most gaseous
cycles are perfect cycles.
An imperfect cycle is a cycle in which nutrients remain stored for a long period and thus, could not
be brought to utilisation.

5 IMPORTANT BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)

The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the H2O cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water on, above and below the surface of the earth.

WATER CYCLE

Condensation

Precipitation
Transpiration
Evaporation
from Plants
from Oceans,
Lakes & Streams

Groundwater
Surface Runoff

The water cycle is explained below:

„ First, water on the surface of the earth evaporates and is converted into water vapour. Similarly,
plants, through the process of transpiration convert water into vapour form.
„ Then, water in the form of water vapour gets collected in the sky. This water rises upwards and
forms clouds.
„ Next, the water in the clouds gets colder and gets converted into liquid again. This process is
called condensation.
„ Then, the water falls from the sky as rain, snow, sleet or hail. This process is called precipitation.
„ The water sinks into the surface and also gets collected in the lakes, oceans, or aquifers. It again
gets converted into vapour form through evaporation and transpiration. The process continues
forever.
 Functions of Ecosystem 21

What Is Cloud Seeding?

Seeding involves spraying chemicals into clouds. Cloud seeding is a form of weather modification.
It is a way of changing the amount or type of precipitation that falls from clouds, by dispersing
substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei, which alter the microphysical
processes within the cloud. The usual intent is to increase precipitation (rain or snow), but hail and
fog suppression are also widely practiced in airports.

How Does It Work?

The most common chemicals used for cloud seeding include silver iodide, potassium iodide and
dry ice (solid carbon dioxide). Liquid propane, which expands into a gas, has also been used. This
can produce ice crystals at higher temperatures than silver iodide. After promising research, the
use of hygroscopic materials such as table salt, is becoming more popular.
Introduction of a substance such as silver iodide, which has a crystalline structure similar to that
of ice, induces freezing nucleation (molecules gathering in clusters). In mid-latitude clouds, the
usual seeding strategy has been based on the fact that the equilibrium vapour pressure is lower over
ice than over water. The formation of ice particles in super-cooled clouds allows those particles to
grow at the expense of liquid droplets. If sufficient growth takes place, the particles become heavy
enough to fall as precipitation from clouds that otherwise would produce no precipitation. This
process is known as ‘static’ seeding.

Beginning of Cloud Seeding

China used this technique during the 2008 Olympics to veer rain away from the inaugural venue
and now it has a full-fledged department that blasts rockets into clouds to induce rain and control
pollution.

Cloud Seeding in India

The Government of Maharashtra has decided to respond to frequent droughts in Vidarbha with a
three-year cloud seeding experiment.

Cloud Seeding Experiment

1. During monsoon 2017, weather scientists sprayed silver iodine over clouds. Airplanes were
used to spray the chemical. However, the cloud seeding experiment failed to increase rainfall.
Government has decided to continue with the experiment to get insights into cloud seeding
technique.
2. The programme coordinated by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, was the first
controlled experiment to quantify the extent to which clouds form water drops large enough
to make rain.
 22 Ecology

Carbon (C) Cycle

Carbon cycle is classified as a short-term and a long-term cycle. Short-term carbon cycle involves the
movement of carbon from animals to plants. Carbon dioxide released by animals through respiration
is taken up by plants during the process of photosynthesis. Plants in turn produce carbohydrates and
oxygen which are consumed by animals.
Combustion
C CO2
in fossile fuels,
e.g. coal, in air and water
oil and gas Photosynthesis
Cell respiration Combustion
incomplete in forest
decomposition fires
and fossilization
Cell respiration
C Cell respiration
C
in organic compounds
in organic compounds
in saprotrophic
in producers
bacteria and fungi Death

Feeding
Death C
in organic compounds
in consumers

Feeding

‘C’ is a symbol for Carbon

Some of the carbon enters the long-term carbon cycle. Carbon enters the long-term cycle in the
following ways:
1. It accumulates in soil in the form of organic content.
2. Mineral carbonates such as calcium carbonates (limestone) remain stored in the earth’s crust for a
long period of time.
3. In deep oceans, organic content in the soil and mineral carbonate remain stored over millions of years.
4. Carbon present in the dead plants and animals remain stored as a part of fossil fuels for millions of
years. This carbon is released into the atmosphere only when fossil fuels are burnt.
5. Moreover, some of the carbon from atmosphere is also transferred to ocean waters.
6. Some of the atmospheric carbon remains stored in polar ice caps in the form of dry ice.

Nitrogen Cycle
Our atmosphere is comprised of a large amount of nitrogen (78% of atmosphere). It is the building block
of all the living organisms. Sixteen percent of proteins by weight in the living organisms are comprised
of nitrogen.
 Functions of Ecosystem 23

Even though nitrogen is available in the atmosphere in large quantities, it cannot be used directly
by most of the living organisms. Atmospheric nitrogen needs to be fixed or converted into ammonia
(NH4), nitrites (NO2) and nitrates (NO3) before it is taken up by the plants. Plants further convert
these nitrogen compounds into amino acids and proteins which are consumed by human beings and
animals.

Atmospheric nitrogen (N2)

Plants

Assimilation

Denitrifying
bacteria

Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria living in Nitrates(NO3−)
legume root nodules
Decomposers
(aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria and fungi)
Nitrifying
Ammonification Nitrification bacteria
Ammonium
(NH4+) Nitrites(NO2−)

Nitrogen-fixing Nitrifying bacteria

soil bacteria

Nitrogen fixation can be accomplished in three ways:

1. By man-made activities such as production of fertilisers.
2. Small amount of nitrogen is also converted through natural processes such as thunder and lightning.
Natural processes convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia and nitrates which fall upon the earth
through precipitation. Ammonia and nitrates are consumed by various plants.
The amount of nitrogen fixed by man-made activities far exceeds than the nitrogen fixed by the
natural process.
3. Certain microorganisms are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia such as free-living
nitrifying bacteria like aerobic Azotobacter and anaerobic Clostridium.
24 Ecology

Nitrifying bacteria such as Rhizobium, which converts nitrogen into simple compounds, live in
symbiotic relationship with leguminous crops (i.e. pulses, etc.). Nitrifying bacteria such as blue green
algae also lives in symbiotic relationship with non-leguminous plants.
Ammonia can be directly taken by some plants or oxidised to nitrite or nitrates by some types of
bacteria before being utilised by the plants. Ammonia is transformed into nitrites by a bacteria called
Nitrosomonas. Nitrites are further transformed into nitrates by the bacteria called Nitrobacter.
The nitrates are taken up by the plants and converted into amino acids which are used to build
proteins. These amino acids are eaten by herbivores which are further eaten by the organisms present
at the higher levels of food chain.
During excretion and on the death of an organism, the nitrogen is returned to soil in the form of
ammonia.
Denitrifying bacteria such as Pseudomonas convert the nitrates in the soil to free atmospheric
nitrogen. Pseudomonas can reduce the amount of fixed nitrogen by up to 50 percent, depleting the
soil fertility and reducing the agricultural productivity. Without denitrification, the Earth’s supply
of nitrogen would eventually accumulate in the oceans, since nitrates are highly soluble and are
continuously leached from the soil into the nearby bodies of water.

Practice Questions

1. Accumulation of non-biodegradable (c) There will be no impact on the

pesticides in the food chain in increasing population of both the tiger and
amount at each higher trophic level in a grass.
food chain is called: (d) The population of tiger decreases
(a) Eutrophication and the population of grass
(b) Biomagnification increases.
(c) Bioaccumulation
3. Consider the following options. Which
(d) Bioconcentration
one does correctly depict the flow of
2. What will happen if deer are missing in carbon in a carbon cycle?
the food chain given below? (a) CO2 in atmosphere → carbon in
Grass → Deer → Tiger soil → carbon in animals → carbon
(a) The population of both the tiger in plants
and grass increases. (b) CO2 in atmosphere → carbon in
(b) The population of both the grass plants → carbon in animals →
and tiger decreases. carbon in soil
 Functions of Ecosystem
(c) Carbon in soil → carbon in plants
→ carbon in animals → CO2 in
atmosphere
(d) Carbon in animals → CO2 in
atmosphere → carbon in plants →
carbon in soil
4. The nitrogen molecules present in the
air can be converted into ammonia by
which of the following microorganisms?
(a) Azotobacter (b) Nitrosomonas
(c) Nitrobacter (d) Pseudomonas
5. One of the following processes is not
a part of the water-cycle operating in
nature?
(a) Evaporation (b) Transpiration
(c) Photosynthesis (d) Precipitation
6. When we breathe in air, nitrogen also
goes inside along with oxygen. What is
the fate of the nitrogen?
(a) It moves along with oxygen into
the cells.
(b) It comes out with the CO2 during
exhalation.
(c) It is absorbed only by our body cells.
(d) Nitrogen concentration is already
high in our body cells, so it is not
absorbed.
7. In the nitrogen cycle, soil nitrates can
be transformed into free nitrogen by:
1. Nitrifying bacteria
2. Denitrifying bacteria
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
25
8. Consider the following statements
concerning food chains and say which
of the following statements is correct:
(a) Removal of 80% tigers from an area
result in the increased growth of
vegetation.
(b) Removal of most carnivores will
result in reduced population of deer.
(c) The length of food chains is
generally limited to 3-4 trophic
levels due to energy loss.
(d) None of the above.
9. What is cloud seeding?
(a) Planting seeds in anticipation of
expected rains.
(b) A method of faster data transfer
using cloud computing.
(c) A method to produce artificial rain.
(d) A method to produce highly
productive varieties of plants.
10. Bald Eagle has been at the high risk of
extinction due to its:
(a) Large size
(b) Low reproductive potential
(c) High trophic level
(d) Migration to new habitats
11. An inverted pyramid of biomass in a
food chain can be found in which of the
following ecosystems?
(a) Forest (b) Marine
(c) Grass land (d) Tundra
12. If the carbon atoms fixed by producers
have already passed through two
species, the trophic levels of the last
species would be:
26
(a) Scavenger
(b) Tertiary producer
(c) Secondary consumer
(d) Tertiary consumer
13. Of the solar energy coming into the
biosphere, what percentage of it is
actually used in the photosynthesis?
(a) Less than 1%.
(b) Between 1% and 1.5%.
(c) Between 1.5% and 2%.
(d) More than 2%.
14. Which of the following pyramids in a
food chain is always upright?
(a) Pyramid of energy
(b) Pyramid of number
(c) Pyramid of biomass
(d) None of the above
15. Consider the following statements:
1. Bioconcentration occurs due to the
consumption of polluted water.
2. Water-soluble harmful substances
are secreted out of our body
periodically.
3. Biomagnification refers to increase
in the concentration of harmful
substances as they move up to higher
trophic levels.
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
16. Which of the following forms of
nitrogen can be absorbed by the plants?
1. Atmospheric nitrogen
2. Nitrates
Ecology
3. Nitrites
4. Ammonia
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
17. Consider the following statements:
1. The water cycle involves the processes
of evaporation, condensation,
precipitation and transpiration.
2. Both water and carbon cycles are
examples of perfect cycles.
3. Nitrogen can be consumed by plants
directly from the atmosphere.
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
18. Which of the following is an ecosystem
service provided by a natural ecosystem?
1. Cycling of nutrients.
2. Prevention of soil erosion.
3. Pollutant absorption and reduction
of the threat of global warming.
4. Generation of biomass.
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
19. Consider the following statements
regarding ecological pyramids:
1. Pyramid of number and biomass can
be both upright and inverted.
2. Pyramid of energy can never be
inverted.
 Functions of Ecosystem 27

Which of the statements given above is/ 23. Consider the following statements:
are correct? 1. Biomagnification refers to increase
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only in concentration of a toxin at
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 successive trophic levels.
2. Bioaccumulation is the gradual
20. For a chemical to be of concern for
increase in concentration of a
biomagnification, it must be:
toxin over a period of time in an
1. Short-lived. organism.
2. Mobile and biologically active. Which of the statements given above is/
3. Soluble in water. are correct?
Select the correct answer using the (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
codes given below: (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 24. The process of transpiration helps plants
in which of the following functions?
21. Which among the following is/are the
1. To pull water to the upper portion of
sedimentary nutrient cycles?
the plants.
1. Carbon cycle 2. Maintaining water pressure within
2. Phosphorus cycle the body cells.
3. Sulphur cycle 3. Regulation of temperature.
Select the correct answer using the code Select the correct answer using the
given below: codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
22. Consider following statements 25. Consider the following statements
regarding ecological pyramids: regarding biomagnification:
1. Both food chain and food web can 1. Biomagnification refers to the
be represented in an ecological absorption of toxicant by an organism
pyramid. from its abiotic environment.
2. Saprophytes are not given any place 2. It happens when toxic substances
in the ecological pyramids. accumulated in an organism cannot
Which of the statements given above be metabolised or excreted.
is /are correct? Which of the statements given above is/
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only are correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
28
26. Consider the following statements:
1. The green plants in a terrestrial
ecosystem capture about only 1%
of the solar energy falling on their
leaves.
2. Only 10% of the energy is transferred
from one trophic level to the other
via the food chain.
PERFECTING PAST PRELIMS
1. A pesticide which is a chlorinated
hydrocarbon is sprayed on a food crop.
The food chain is: Food crop → Rat →
Snake → Hawk. In this food chain, the
highest concentration of the pesticide
would accumulate in which one of the
following? (2010)
(a) Food crop (b) Rat
(c) Snake (d) Hawk
2. Consider the following: (2011)
1. Photosynthesis
2. Respiration
3. Decay of organic matter
4. Volcanic action
Which of the above add carbon dioxide
to the carbon cycle on earth?
(a) 1 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4
3. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
describes the following major categories
of ecosystem services: provisioning,
supporting, regulating and cultural.
Ecology
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Which one of the following is a
supporting service? (2012)
(a) Production of food and water.
(b) Control of climate and disease.
(c) Nutrient cycling and crop
pollination.
(d) Maintenance of diversity.
 Note: Ecosystem services are grouped
into four broad categories: provisioning,
such as the production of food and
water; regulating, such as the control of
climate and disease; supporting, such
as nutrient cycles and crop pollination;
and cultural, such as spiritual and
recreational benefits.
4. With reference to food chains in
ecosystems, consider the following
statements: (2013)
1. A food chain illustrates the order
in which a chain of organisms feed
upon each other.
2. Food chains are found within the
population of a species.
 Functions of Ecosystem 29

3. A food chain illustrates the numbers (d) Oxygen is taken in, and carbon
of each organism which are eaten by dioxide and water vapour are given
others. out.
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct? 7. Which one of the following is the correct
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only sequence of a food chain? (2014)
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None (a) Diatoms-Crustaceans-Herrings
(b) Crustaceans-Diatoms-Herrings
5. Which of the following adds/add (c) Diatoms-Herrings-Crustaceans
nitrogen to the soil? (2013) (d) Crustaceans-Herrings-Diatoms
1. Excretion of urea by animals.
2. Burning of coal by man.  Note: Diatoms are unicellular algae.
Crustaceans are sub-class of arthropods
3. Death of vegetation.
(explained later). Herrings is a type of
Select the correct answer using the
fish.
codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 8. Which of the following adds/add
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on
the planet Earth? (2014)
6. Which one of the following process
involves photosynthesis? (2014) 1. Volcanic action
2. Respiration
(a) Potential energy is released to form
3. Photosynthesis
free energy.
4. Decay of organic matter
(b) Free energy is converted into
Select the correct answer using the
potential energy and stored.
codes given below:
(c) Food is oxidised to release carbon
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
dioxide and water.
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

; ANSWER KEYS

Practice Questions Perfecting Past Prelims

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (d)
16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (b)
26. (c)
 Solutions for
Practice
Questions and
Perfecting Past
Prelims