PART 1

COMMUNICATION – LANGUAGE – CULTURE.

1.1 COMMUNICATION
Questions
Q What is your definition of communication?
Q What factors inhibit effective communication in the classroom?
Q What processes are involved in communication?
Q How can you communicate more effectively?

1.1.1 Definition of communication

Generally, 'communication' refers to the conveying of and the receiving of a message/
meaning between two or more people (interpersonal communication). Some people refer to
intra-personal communication—communication with oneself. In the past, definitions of
communication focused on the transfer of meaning but more recent definitions of
communication discuss the importance of shared understandings, of the transaction of
meaning. The two parties have to work together to arrive at shared meanings: it is not just
the transfer of a particular meaning to another party. Unfortunately, in many communication
situations, there are differences in interests, needs and beliefs which interfere with the
process of achieving shared meanings. In addition, some people's beliefs about the nature of
communication work against effective communication. These people seem to believe that
communication is merely the transferring of information and therefore do not work at the
sharing and making meaning together. Similarly, a teacher who perceives teaching as the
transferring of information rather than the process of helping learners make their own
meanings will teach ineffectively.
Communication can be defined as the use of language where more than one person is
involved in constructing meaning. This definition of communication is very similar to how
we described the main purpose of language—to construct meaning. It is obvious that
language and communication are therefore central to the process of teaching.
Another way of thinking about communication and language is as a system of signs. A
discipline, called semiotics, is the study of the construction of signs which are used to
convey meaning. Signs are defined as 'artefacts' or acts which refer to something other than
themselves; codes are systems into which signs are organised and which determine how
signs are used in relation to one another. Semiotics classifies signs into three categories:

Icon: a sign which resembles the object it signifies, for example, photographs; some
drawings; road signs such as for restaurants; toilet signs; accommodation
signs; no smoking signs.
Index: a sign that is causally connected to the object it signifies, for example, smoke
to represent fire.
Symbol: a sign that is arbitrarily and conventionally related to its referent or object, for
example words are symbols—we have to learn what meanings are assigned to
 them, the meaning is not instinctively obvious. In literary writing, many
symbols are used by writers to suggest different layers of meanings, for
example, snow can be an index of cold and used to suggest loneliness.

Activities & discussion

Many business logos are symbols.
Q Can you think of any?
Q What sign does the Australian Broadcasting Corporation use as a logo?
Q What logo or crest does your institution possess?
Q Can you think of other examples of literary symbols?

1.1.2 Factors influencing communication

The quality and quantity of meaning constructed in a communication event appears to be
a direct function of a number of factors: the degree of similarity of the participants'
experiential backgrounds; the degree of similarity by which the participants structure their
experience; and the context, the purposes for the communication, and the relationships
between the communicators.
Individuals vary quite considerably in experiential backgrounds and the way they
structure their realities. Variation in experiential background and structuring of experiences
can be explained by viewing the factors as being part of a hierarchy of determinants,
beginning at the level of the individual's potential for language-learning and extending
through to the level of national characteristics. Each level of the hierarchy is viewed as
being embedded within the outer levels and illustrates a progressively broadening scope of
influence. Figure 1.1 illustrates this concept.

Figure 1.1 Nested hierarchy of language-communication determinants

(Cameron & Saunders, ‘An Overview of Language', p. 219)
Level 1: Personal
Genetic endowment established the potential for future language development. This may be
modified adversely by the influence of environmental factors operating on the fetus, or on
the newborn infant prior to the time it functions independently of the mother's physiological
system, or at any time throughout the individual's life. The personal level is the most
important as, at all times, a person's genetic endowment interacts with the environment,
represented in Figure 1.1 by the remaining four levels of the hierarchy.

Level 2: Familial
This level involves the influence of the family, its dynamic interaction with the individual in
terms of qualitative and quantitative physical and psychological factors. The physical
factors consist of the amount and appropriateness of stimuli provided by the family
environment. Early in the individual's life, the family environment provides the majority of
experiences from which the child learns different ways of communicating and of using
language.

Level 3: Social
Socio-economic variables that impinge upon the family environment include:
• physical factors, such as residential location, schooling, social contacts,
possessions, experiences outside the home, which all appear to be directly
related to the degree of wealth in the family.
• psychological factors, such as attitudes and methods of child- rearing,
individual roles within the family, attitudes about life, value placed upon
literacy, the type and quantity of language used within the family, which appear
to be strongly influenced by social groups.
Socio-economic variables that influence the individual directly include variables such as:
peer group, club, religious and school affiliations, type and place of work. These all
influence the development and use of different language codes.

Level 4: Regional
This level covers the influence of broader forces which may be classified by reference to:
• environmental variables, such as urban or rural lifestyles, degree of remoteness,
distinctive geographical features.
• ethnic variables, such as color, religion, customs.
• political variables, such as different legislation from region to region which has
direct and indirect influence on the individual's development and use of
language.

Level 5: National
This level incorporates factors which unite regions having similar:
• political structures
• religious philosophies
• cultural heritage
• cultural characteristics
 All of these factors influence the lower levels of the hierarchy. One of the most obvious
national differences is speech; it varies in all linguistic parameters, the most subtle and
interesting of which is rhythm. Even when the more obvious differences of a second speech
code have been mastered, the rhythm of the new speech community often eludes the learner.
Condon (1974) and Condon and Sanders (1974) have discovered that healthy newborn
infants manifest motor behavior that is highly synchronised with the speech pattern of their
culture. It appears that infants from the beginning move in rhythm with the organisation of
the speech structure of the culture so that, by the time a child speaks, the basic rhythm
patterns of a language are well established and probably resistant to change.
Figure 1.2 from Andersch, et al. (1969) demonstrates the complexity of the
communication process. Each participant receives a stimulus from the environment, which
may come from a number of codes, then structures, evaluates and processes a message
based on this stimulus. The message is then received, constructed and evaluated by the
receiver, who then becomes a source or sender of more information. All participants have
the roles of receiver and sender and have responsibility for sharing and negotiating
meanings.

Figure 1.2 A model of the communication process

 Communication is more than words. In any communication event a number of sign
systems may be involved. Words, pictures, diagrams, layout of print, and type of print all
shape the message. In some communication events the different sign systems may convey
contradictory messages. For example the words may be carrying a positive message but the
facial expressions may indicate a negative message. What message do we take note of?
What is the real meaning? It seems that the non-verbal message is the stronger system and
that we are more likely to believe the non-verbal message. Hence the reason why many
people like to see other people's facial expressions. It also illustrates why it is inappropriate
to separate verbal and non-verbal codes in teaching.
It is important to remember that words and other symbols do not have meanings in
themselves; rather they have meanings thrust upon them by the users. We all give slightly
different meanings to words as we use them. In addition, many words in our language are
used to represent different concepts, making the negotiation of meaning critical if shared
meanings are to be constructed. Furthermore different groups assign different meanings to
signs, for example, a shake of the head, looking at someone in the eyes. We need to be
aware of these differences and help our students to become aware of them through
discussions of language use and differences.

Activities
With your peers think of a word, for example ‘bank'.
Q What did you first think of—the river bank, the money bank, the aeroplane banking,
relying on someone?
Q If you thought of a money bank, what type of bank did you think of —a suburban
branch, a bank as a financial institution participating in business?

1.1.3 Improving our communication skills

How can we, as teachers, improve our communication with our students, with their
parents, and with other community members? Communication is improved when the
following indicators can be clearly observed among the communicators: warmth, empathy,
respect, genuineness, and listening, and when the communication has concrete practicality.
As teachers, we need to respect the views and values of others and demonstrate the
importance of this respect to others. Our students and their parents probably come from
different backgrounds, sometimes vastly different, and are likely to possess different
perspectives. We need to learn to appreciate the validity of different views and attitudes.

1.2 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Learning to communicate as a native member of a culture involves knowing both the
verbal and the non-verbal code systems that are used. The verbal code system, which was
considered in the last chapter, constitutes only a portion of the messages that people
exchange when they communicate. In this chapter, we explain the types of messages that are
often regarded as more foundational or more elemental to human communication. Taken
together, these messages constitute the non-verbal communication system.
1.2.1 Definition of Non-verbal Codes
The importance of non-verbal codes in communication has been well established. Non-
verbal communication is a multichanneled process that is usually performed spontaneously;
it typically involves a subtle set of nonlinguistic behaviors that are often enacted
subconsciously! Non-verbal behaviors can become part of the communication process when
someone intentionally tries to convey a message or when someone attributes meaning to the
non-verbal behavior of another, whether or not the person intended to communicate a
particular meaning.
An important caution related to the distinction between non-verbal and verbal
communication must be made as you learn about non-verbal code systems. Though we
describe the communication of non-verbal and verbal messages in separate chapters for
explanatory convenience, it would be a mistake to assume that they are actually separate and
independent communication systems. In fact, they are inseparably linked together to form
the code systems through which the members of a culture convey their beliefs, values,
thoughts, feelings, and intentions to one another. As Sheila Ramsey suggests:

Verbal and non-verbal behaviors are inextricably intertwined; speaking of one without
the other is, as Birdwhistell says, like trying to study ‘noncardiac physiology’.
Whether in opposition or complementary to each other, both modes work to create the
meaning of an interpersonal event. According to culturally prescribed rodes, we use
eye movement and contact to manage conversations and to regulate interactions; we
follow rigid rules governing intra- and interpersonal touch, our bodies synchronously
join in the rhythm of others in a group, and gestures modulate our speech. We must
internalize all of this in order to become and remain fully functioning and socially
appropriate members of any culture.

Thus, our distinction between non-verbal and verbal messages is a convenient, but
perhaps misleading, way to sensitize you to the communication exchanges within and
between cultures.

1.2.2 Characteristics of Non-verbal Codes

Non-verbal communication messages function as a ‘silent language’ and impart their
meanings in subtle and covert ways. People process non-verbal messages, both the sending
and receiving of them, with less awareness than they process verbal messages. Contributing
to the silent character of non-verbal messages is the fact that most of them are continuous
and natural, and they tend to blur into one another. For example, raising one's hand to wave
goodbye is a gesture made up of multiple muscular movements, yet it is interpreted as one
continuous movement.
Unlike verbal communication systems, however, there are no dictionaries or formal sets
of rules to provide a systematic list of the meanings of a culture's non-verbal code systems.
The meanings of non-verbal messages are usually less precise than are those of verbal
codes. It is difficult, for example, to define precisely the meaning of a raised eyebrow in a
particular culture.
 Skill in the use of non-verbal message systems has only recently begun to receive formal
attention in the educational process, a reflection of the out-of-awareness character of non-
verbal codes.
1.2.3 Relationship of Non-verbal to Verbal Communication
The relationship of non-verbal communication systems to the verble message system can
take a variety of forms. Non-verbal messages can be used to accent, complement, contradict,
regulate, or substitute for the verbal message.
Non-verbal messages are often used to accent the verbal message by emphasizing a
particular word or phrase, in much the same way as italics add emphasis to written
messages. For instance, the sentence "He did it" takes on somewhat different meanings,
depending on whether the subject (He did it), the verb (He did it), or the object of the verb
(He did it) is emphasized.
Non-verbal messages that function to clarify, elaborate, explain, reinforce, and repeat the
meaning of verbal messages complement the verbal message. Many U.S. Americans shake
their heads up and down while saying yes to reinforce the verbal affirmation. Similarly,
smiling while talking to someone helps to convey a generally pleasant tone and encourages
a positive interpretation of the verbal message. Pointing forcefully at someone while saying
"He did it!" helps to elaborate and underscore the verbal message.
Non-verbal messages can also contradict the verbal message. These contradictions could
occur purposefully, as when you say yes while indicating no with a wink or a gesture; or
they may be out of your conscious awareness, as when you say, "I'm not upset," while your
facial expression and tone of voice indicate just the opposite. Contradictions between the
verbal and non-verbal channels often indicate that something is amiss. Although the
contradictory cues might indicate an attempt at deception, a less evaluative interpretation
might simply be that the verbal message is not all that the person could convey. In
intercultural communication, these apparent incongruities, when they occur, might serve as
a cue that something is wrong.
When non-verbal messages help to maintain the back-and-forth sequencing of
conversations, they function to regulate the interaction. Conversations are highly structured,
with people typically taking turns at talking in a smooth and highly organized sequence.
Speakers use non-verbal means to convey that they want the other person to talk or that they
do not wish to be interrupted, just as listeners indicate when they wish to talk and when they
prefer to continue listening. Looking behaviors, vocal inflections, gestures, and general cues
of readiness or relaxation all help to signal a person's conversational intentions.
Finally, non-verbal messages that are used in place of the verbal ones function as a
substitute for the verbal channel. They are used when the verbal channel is blocked or when
people choose not to use it. Head nods, hand gestures, facial displays, body movements, and
various forms of physical contact are often used as a substitute for the verbal message.
The specific non-verbal messages used to accent, complement, contradict, regulate, or
substitute for the verbal messages will vary from culture to culture. In intercultural
communication, difficulties in achieving competence in another verbal code are
compounded by variations in the non-verbal codes that accompany the spoken word.
1.2.4 Cultural Universals in Non-verbal Communication
Charles Darwin believed that certain non-verbal displays were universal. The
shoulder shrug, for example, is used to convey such messages as ‘I can't do it’, ‘I can't stop
it from happening: ‘It wasn't my fault’, "Be patient' and ‘I do not intend to resist’. Michael
Argyle has listed a number of characteristics of non-verbal communication that are
universal across all cultures:

(1) the same body parts are used for non-verbal expressions;
(2) non-verbal channels are used to convey similar information, emotions, values,
norms and self-disclosing messages;
(3) non-verbal messages accompany verbal communication and are used in art and
ritual;
(4) the motives for using the non-verbal channel, such as when speech is impossible,
are similar across cultures; and
(5) non-verbal messages are used to coordinate and control a range of contexts and
relationships that are similar across cultures.

Paul Ekman's research on facial expressions demonstrates the universality of many non-
verbal emotional displays? Ekman discovered three separate sets of facial muscles that
operate independently and can be manipulated to form a variety of emotional expressions.
These muscle sets include the forehead and brow; the eyes, eyelids, and base of the nose;
and the cheeks, mouth, chin, and rest of the nose. The muscles in each of these facial
regions are combined in a variety of unique patterns to display emotional states. For
example, fear is indicated by a furrowed brow, raised eyebrows, wide-open eyes, creased or
pinched base of the nose, taut cheeks, partially open mouth, and upturned upper lip. Because
the ability to produce such emotional displays is consistent across cultures, there is probably
a biological or genetic basis that allows these behaviors to be produced in all humans in a
particular way.
Another universal aspect of non-verbal communication is the need to be territorial.
Robert Ardrey, an ethologist, has concluded that territoriality is an innate, evolutionary
characteristic that occurs in both animals and humans. Humans from all cultures mark and
claim certain spaces as their own.
Although some aspects of non-verbal code systems are universal, it is also clear that
cultures choose to express emotions and territoriality in differing ways. These variations are
of particular interest in intercultural communication.

1.2.5 Cultural Variations in Non-verbal Communication

Most forms of non-verbal communication can be interpreted only within the framework
of the culture in which they occur. Cultures vary in their non-verbal behaviors in three ways.
First, cultures differ in the specific repertoire of behaviors that are enacted. Movements,
body positions, postures, vocal intonations, gestures, spatial requirements, and even dances
and ritualized actions are specific to a particular culture.
 Second, all cultures have display rules that govern when and under what circumstances
various non-verbal expressions are required, preferred, permitted, or prohibited. Thus,
children learn both how to communicate non-verbally and the appropriate display rules that
govern their non-verbal expressions. Display rules indicate such things as how fur apart
people should stand while talking, whom to touch and where, the speed and timing of
movements and gestures, when to look directly at others in a conversation and when to look
away, whether loud talking and expansive gestures or quietness and controlled movements
should be used, when to smile and when to frown, and the overall pacing of communication.
The norms for display rules vary greatly across cultures. For instance, Judith N. Martin,
Mitchell R. Hammer, and Lisa Bradford found that Latinos and European Americans differ
in their judgments about the importance of displaying behaviors that signal approachability
(smiling, laughing, and pleasant facial expressions) and poise (nice appearance, appropriate
conversational distance, and appropriate posture) in conversations. The differences are
related to whether the interaction is viewed as primarily task oriented or socially oriented ,
and whether the conversational partners are from their own or from different cultural
groups. Specifically, approachability and poise behaviors are most important for Latinos
when working with other Latinos and when socializing with people from other cultures. In
contrast. European Americans think it most important to display these behaviors only when
socializing with another European American.
Such differenres in display rules can cause discomfort and misinterpretations. For
instance, a Vietnamese woman named Hoa is visiting her cousin in the United States. As
Hoa arrives,

her cousin Phuong and some of his Americnn friends are waiting at the airport to
greet her. Hoa and Phuong are both excited about their meeting because they have
been separated for seven years. As soon as Hoa enters the passenger terminal, Phuong
introduces her to his friends. Tom, Don, and Charles, Tom steps forward and hugs and
kisses Hoa. She pushes him away and bursts into tears.

The difference in when, where, and who it is acceptable to kiss was the source of the
discomfort for Hoa; in her cultural display rules, it is an insult for a boy to hug and kiss a
girl in public.
Display rules also indicate the intensity of the behavioral display that is acceptable. In
showing grief or intense sadness, for instance, people from southern Mediterranean cultures
may tend to exaggerate or amplify their displays, European Americans may try to remain
calm and somewhat neutral, the British may understate their emotional displays by showing
only a little of their inner feelings, and the Japanese and Thai may attempt to mask their
sorrow completely by covering it with smiling and laughter.
Third, cultures vary in the interpretations, or meanings, that are attributed to particular
non-verbal behaviors. Three possible interpretations could be imposed on a given instance
of non-verbal behavior: it is random, it is idiosyncratic, or it is shared. An interpretation that
the behavior is random means that it has no particular meaning to anyone. An idiosyncratic
interpretation suggests that the behaviors are unique to special individuals or relationships,
and they therefore have particular meanings only to these people. For example, family
members often recognize that certain unique behaviors of a penon signify a specific
emotional state. Thus, a family member who tugs on her ear may indicate, to other family
members, that she is about to explode in anger. The third interpretation is that the behaviors
have shared meaning and significance, as when a group of people jointly attribute the same
meaning to a particular non-verbal act.
However, cultures differ in what they regard as random, idiosyncratic, and shared. Thus,
behaviors that are regarded as random in one culture may have shared significance in
another. For example, John Condon and Fathi Yousef describe an incident in which a
British professor in Cairo inadvertently showed the soles of his shoes to his class while
leaning back in his chair; the Egyptian students were very insulted. The professor's random
behavior of le,aning back and allowing the soles of his shoes to be seen was a non-verbal
behavior with the shared meaning of insult in Egyptian culture. A female graduate student
from Myanmar was similarly aghast at the disrespectful behavior of her U.S. American
classmates, some of whom put their feet on empty desks, thus showing the soles of their
shoes to the professor. Such differences in how cullwes define random can lead to problems
in intercultural communication; if one culture defines a particular behavior as random, that
behavior will probably be ignored when someone from a different culture uses it to
communicate something.
Even non-verbal behaviors that have shared significance in each of two cultures may
mean something very different to their members. As Ray Birdwhistell suggests, "A smile in
one society portrays friendliness, in another embarrassment, and in still another may contain
a warning that unless tension is reduced, hostility and attack will follow." U.S. Americans
typically associate the smile with happiness or friendliness. To the Japanese, the smile can
convey a much wider range of emotions, including happiness, agreement, sadness,
embarrassment, and disagreement. And though the Thais smile a lot, Koreans rarely smile
and regard those who do as superficial.
Non-verbal repertoires, their corresponding display rules, and their preferred
interpretations are not taught verbally. Rather, they are learned directly through observation
and personal experience in a culture. Because they are frequently acquired outside of
conscious awareness, they are rarely questioned or challenged by their users and are often
noticed only when they are violated. In intercultural communication, therefore,
misunderstandings often occur in the interpretations of non-verbal behaviors because
different display rules create very different meanings about the appropriateness and
effectiveness of particular interaction sequences. Consider, for instance, the following
example:

An American college student, while having a dinner party with a group of

foreigners, learns that her favorite cousin has just died. She bites her lip, pulls herself
up, and politely excuses herself from the group. The interpretation given to this
behavior will vary with the culture of the observer. The Italian student thinks, ‘How
insincere; she doesn't even cry’. The Russian student thinks, ‘How unfriendly; she
didn't care enough to share her grief with her friends’. The fellow American studenl
thinks, ‘How brave; she wanted to bear her burden by herself.’
 As you can see, cultural variations in non-verbal communication alter the behaviors that
are displayed, the meanings that are imposed on those behaviors, and the interpretations of
the messages.

2. LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

2.1.1 Definition of culture
The term 'culture' is used frequently in daily conversations and the media but rarely is it
defined. For some people 'culture' means 'high culture', that is, opera, fine art, etc. Here we
refer to culture as 'a way of life', the context in which we exist, think, feel and relate to
others. Culture acts as the fabric of shared meanings which exist between different people, it
is the glue that binds people together and as such is the linchpin of national identify. Culture
determines what we place significance on and the way in which this is done. Thus, culture
provides the substance of meaning and the process of making meaning. Language plays a
central part in this. Culture is our continent, the collective identity of which each of us is a
part. Culture mediates personal meaning and social structure. It draws people together and
alienates those that don't belong.
Culture may be described as the ideas, customs, skills, arts and tools which characterize a
given group of people in a given period of time. Language is a part of all this. Culture
provides guidelines for behavior. It establishes for each person a context of cognitive and
affective behavior—ways of thinking and feeling—a blueprint for personal existence. We
tend, however, to perceive reality strictly within the context of our own culture and to be
critical of other cultures and others' realities or to be unaware of, or disregard, the realities
of others. This can result in great culture clashes, for example the European settlement of
Australia. Europeans perceived land as a commodity to be owned, occupied and traded,
while the Aborigines saw the land as part of their 'Dreamtime', part of a continuum of the
past, present and future.

2.1.2 Differing cultures

Questions
Q Can you think of other examples of culture clashes?
Q Can you understand why there are such clashes?

Our culture influences our way of thinking and acting; To learn another language we
need to learn to appreciate the culture of which the language is a part. We can't really learn a
second language—or, more precisely, learn the uses of that language,—unless we learn
about the culture because many of the meanings constructed in the language are culture-
specific. Teachers need to appreciate that individuals who possess mother language as their
first language possess a different culture and a different way of creating meaning and
reality. If we want our students to relate to school and school learning, we need to accept
what students from different backgrounds bring to school and we should not reject their
language and customs as being inferior.
 It is important to remember that there are non-verbal differences as well between
different languages. For example, in most European languages nodding the head means 'yes'
but in the Eskimo culture it means 'no'. In a language in Japan 'yes' is conveyed by moving
the arms to the chest and waving them. Other languages in Ceylon and India have other
ways. Eye contact varies in different cultures. For example, in the Australian culture, when
conversing with someone it is considered courteous to maintain eye contact; if you do not, it
would be thought that you were not interested and not paying attention. In contrast, in many
Asian cultures, it would be considered rude to maintain eye contact, particularly if you were
of lower status. There are also differences in body contact and concepts of personal space. It
is important to familiarize ourselves with the non-verbal culture differences of our students.
Through our ignorance, we could misinterpret or offend them.

2.1.3 Cross-cultural, intercultural, multicultural

Depending on how culture is defined and which discipline one come from, various terms
are used to refer to communication between people who don’t share the same nationality,
social or ethnic origin, gender, age, occupation, or sexual preference. The nomenclature
overlaps somewhat in its use.
The term ‘cross-cultural’ or intercultural, usually refers to the meeting of two cultures or
two languages across the political boundaries of nation-states. They are predicated on the
equivalence of one nation-one culture-one language, and on the expectation that a ‘culture
shock’ may take place upon crossing national boundaries. In foreign language teaching, a
cross-cultural approach seeks ways to understand the Other on the other side of the border
by learning his / her national language.
The term ‘intercultural’ may also refer to ‘communication’ between people from
different ethnic, social, gendered cultures within the boundaries of the same national
language. Both terms are used to characterize communication, say, between Chinese-
Americans and African-Americans, between working-class and upper-class people, between
gays and heterosexuals, between men and women. Intercultural communication refers to the
dialogue between minority cultures and dominant cultures, and are associated with issues of
bilingualism and biculturalism.
The term ‘multicultural’ is more frequently used in two ways. In a societal sense, it
indicates the coexistence of people from different backgrounds and ethnicities, as in
‘multicultural societies’. In an individual sense, it characterizes persons who belong to
various discourse communities, and who therefore, have the linguistic resources and social
strategies to affiliate and identify with many different cultures and ways of using language.
The cultural identity of multicultural individuals is not that multiple native speakers, but,
rather, it is made of a multiplicity of social roles or ‘subject positions’ which they occupy
selective depending on the interactional context in which they find themselves at the time.

2.1.4 Cultural Adjustment

Living in a second culture can be like riding on a roller coaster. Sometimes foreign
visitors are elated; sometimes they are depressed. First there is the combination of
enthusiasm and excitement that is felt while traveling. New foods and aromas, different
faces, foreign languages, and interesting customs all fascinate the traveler. A foreign visitor
usually has high expectations and is eager to become familiar with a new culture.
Of course, not everything is easy during a long stay in a second culture. International
travelers may have difficulties understanding the adjustment problems that beset them.
Many people do not recognize that the problems, feelings, and mood changes that are
related to living in a second culture are not unique. It is common for international visitors or
immigrants to vacillate between loving and hating a new country. The newness and
strangeness of a foreign culture are bound to affect a traveler's emotions.

2.1.4.1 Culture Shock

"Culture shock" occurs as a result of total immersion in a new culture. It happens to
"people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad." Newcomers may be anxious because
they do not speak the language, know the customs, or understand people's behavior in daily
life. The visitor finds that "yes" may not always mean "yes," that friendliness does not
necessarily mean friendship, or that statements that appear to be serious are really intended
as jokes. The foreigner may be unsure as to when to shake hands or embrace, when to
initiate conversations, or how to approach a stranger. The notion of "culture shock" helps
explain feelings of bewilderment and disorientation. Language problems do not account for
all the frustrations that people feel. When one is deprived of everything that was once
familiar, such as understanding a transportation system, knowing how to register for
university classes, or knowing how to make friends, difficulties in coping with the new
society may arise.

2.1.4.2 The Adjustment Process

“… when an individual enters a strange culture, ... he or she is like fish out of water."
Newcomers feel at times that they do not belong and consequently may feel alienated from
the native members of the culture. When this happens, visitors may want to reject
everything about the new environment and may glorify and exaggerate the positive aspects
of their own culture. Conversely, visitors may scorn their native country by rejecting its
values and instead choosing to identify with (if only temporarily) the values of the new
country. This may occur as an attempt to overidentify with the new culture in order to be
accepted by the people in it.
Reactions to a new culture vary, but experience and research have shown mat there are
distinct stages in the adjustment process of foreign visitors. When leaving the comfortably
secure environment of home, a person will naturally experience some stress and anxiety.
The severity of culture shock depends on visitors' personalities, language ability, emotional
support, and duration of stay. It is also influenced by the extent of differences, either actual
or received, between the two cultures.
Visitors coming for short periods of time do not always experience the same intense
emotions as visitors who live in foreign countries for longer terms. The adjustment stages
during prolonged stays may last several months to several years. The following "W" shaped
diagram illustrates periods of adjustment in a second culture and might apply to a one-year
stay (approximately) in a foreign culture. Although the stages in the cycle do not always
occur in the same order and some stages may be skipped, the following pattern is a common
one:

Each stage in the process is characterized by "symptoms" or outward signs typifying certain
kinds of behavior:

() Honeymoon period Initially many people are fascinated and excited by

(2) Culture shock
(3) Initial adjustment
(4) Mental isolation
(5) Acceptance & integration
everything new. The visitor is elated to be in a new culture.
The individual is immersed in new problems; housing,
transportation, shopping, and language. Mental fatigue
results from continuously straining to comprehend the
foreign language.
Everyday activities such as housing and shopping are no
longer major problems. Although the visitors may not yet
be fluent in the language spoken, basic ideas and feelings in
the second language can be expressed.
Individuals have been away from their families and good
friends for a long period of time and may feel lonely. Many
still feel they cannot express themselves as well as they can
in their native language. Frustration and sometimes a loss
of self-confidence result. Some individuals remain at this
stage.
A routine (e.g. work, business, or school) has been
established. The visitor has accepted the habits, customs,
foods, and characteristics of the people in the new culture.
The visitor feels comfortable with friends, associates, and
the language of the country.
2.1.4.3 The Re-entry Process
A similar process occurs when visitors return to their native countries, although the
stages are usually shorter and less intense. The following "W" shaped diagram illustrates
reactions and emotions experienced when a person leaves a foreign country and returns to
his or her own country.

As in the first diagram, each stage in the "re-entry" process is characterized by symptoms
and feelings.

(1) Acceptance & integration
(2) Return anxiety
(3) Return honeymoon.
(4) Re-entry shock
(5) Re-integration
See description given for the preceding diagram.
There may be confusion and emotional pain about leaving
because friendships will have to be disrupted. Many
people realize how much they have changed because of
their experiences and may be nervous about going home.
Immediately upon arrival in one's own country, there is
generally a great deal of excitement. There are parties to
welcome back the visitor and renewed friendships look
forward to.
Family and friends may not understand or appreciate what
the traveler has experienced. The native country or city
may have changed in the eyes of the former traveler.
The former traveler becomes fully involved with friends,
family, and activities and feels once again integrated the
society. Many people at this stage realize the positive and
negative aspects of both countries and have a more
balanced perspective about their experiences.
2.1.4.4 Individual Reactions
Individuals experience the stages of adjustment and re-entry different ways. When
visitors have close relatives in the new culture or speak the foreign language fluently, they
may not experience all the effects of culture shock or mental isolation. An exile or refugee
would adjust differently from someone who voluntarily traveled to a new country. Certain
individuals have difficulties adapting to a new environment and perhaps never do; others
seem to adjust well from the very beginning of their stay.
Day-to-day living in another culture is undoubtedly an educational experience. While
traveling, and living abroad people learn second languages, observe different customs, and
encounter new values. Many people who have lived in other countries feel that exposure to
foreign cultures enables them to gain insight into their own society. When facing different
values, beliefs, and behavior, they develop a deeper understanding of themselves and of the
society that helped to shape their characters. The striking contrasts of a second culture
provide a mirror in which one's own culture is reflected.

Activities
A. Describing experiences in a second culture.
1. What are the problems and pleasures of living in a second culture?
2. Prepare a three- to five-minute oral presentation for the class describing your
experiences in observations of, or reactions to living in a second culture. For example:

Experiences Observations Reactions

the most . . . family life educational system
interesting social life political events
educational school life culture shock
embarrassing dress, food, friendships/ relationships
important customs other . . .
surprising other . . .
the funniest
other . . .

3. Select and share with the class three objects that symbolize:
- Life in the United States.
- Your stay in the United States.
These objects can symbolize people, places, or things or represent abstract ideas or lessons
which were meaningful to you.

B. Answer the following questions about your own culture and then discuss intercultural
similarities and differences.
1. Do you think there are stages of learning a language? If so, how do stages in language
learning correspond to stages in the cultural adjustment process?
2. Do people usually change because of their experiences in foreign countries? If so, how?
3. What problems might someone expect when returning home after a long absence?
4. How might students decrease the impact of culture shock during their stay in a foreign
culture?
5. What kinds of people adjust best to foreign cultures?
6. What is the best way to prepare for life in another culture?