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Chap1 2 3 3 Fundamental Theory
Chap1 2 3 3 Fundamental Theory
Introduction 3.1
References 3.7
steady state analysis, they are regarded as time varying The representation of a vector quantity algebraically in
quantities at a single and constant frequency. The terms of its rectangular co-ordinates is called a 'complex
network parameters are impedance and admittance; quantity'. Therefore, x + jy is a complex quantity and is
these are assumed to be linear, bilateral (independent of the rectangular form of the vector |Z| where:
current direction) and constant for a constant frequency.
Z x2 y2
3 . 2 V E C TO R A L G E B R A tan 1 y
x
A vector represents a quantity in both magnitude and
direction. In Figure 3.1 the vector OP has a magnitude x Z cos
|Z| at an angle with the reference axis OX. —
y Z sin …Equation 3.2
Figure
Y 3.1 From Equations 3.1 and 3.2:
—
Z = |Z| (cos + jsin …Equation 3.3
P
and since cos and sin may be expressed in
exponential form by the identities:
|Z|
y ej e j
sin
q 2j
X
0 x ej e j
cos
2
Figure3.1:
Figure 3.1: Vector
VectorOP
OP —
it follows that Z may also be written as:
Fundamental Theor y
—
It may be resolved into two components at right angles Z = |Z|e j …Equation 3.4
to each other, in this case x and y. The magnitude or Therefore, a vector quantity may also be represented
scalar value of vector Z is known as the modulus |Z|, and trigonometrically and exponentially.
—
the angle is the argument, and is written as arg. Z.
—
The conventional method of expressing a vector Z is to
write simply |Z| . 3 . 3 M A N I P U L AT I O N
This form completely specifies a vector for graphical OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES
representation or conversion into other forms. Complex quantities may be represented in any of the
For vectors to be useful, they must be expressed four co-ordinate systems given below:
—
algebraically. In Figure 3.1, the vector Z is the resultant a. Polar Z
of vectorially adding its components x and y;
algebraically this vector may be written as: b. Rectangular x + jy
c. Trigonometric |Z| (cos + jsin
—
Z = x + jy …Equation 3.1
d. Exponential |Z|e j
where the operator j indicates that the component y is The modulus |Z| and the argument are together known
perpendicular to component x. In electrical as 'polar co-ordinates', and x and y are described as
nomenclature, the axis OC is the 'real' or 'in-phase' axis, 'cartesian co-ordinates'. Conversion between co-
and the vertical axis OY is called the 'imaginary' or ordinate systems is easily achieved. As the operator j
'quadrature' axis. The operator j rotates a vector anti- obeys the ordinary laws of algebra, complex quantities in
clockwise through 90°. If a vector is made to rotate anti- rectangular form can be manipulated algebraically, as
clockwise through 180°, then the operator j has can be seen by the following:
performed its function twice, and since the vector has — —
Z1 + Z2 = (x1+x2) + j(y1+y2) …Equation 3.5
reversed its sense, then: — —
Z1 - Z2 = (x1-x2) + j(y1-y2) …Equation 3.6
j x j or j2 = -1
(see Figure 3.2)
whence j = -1
Fundamental Theor y
in exponential form. operator is not a physical quantity; it is dimensionless.
When dealing with such functions it is important to The symbol j, which has been compounded with
appreciate that the quantity contains real and imaginary quadrature components of complex quantities, is an
components. If it is required to investigate only one operator that rotates a quantity anti-clockwise through
component of the complex variable, separation into 90°. Another useful operator is one which moves a
components must be carried out after the mathematical vector anti-clockwise through 120°, commonly
operation has taken place. represented by the symbol a.
Example: Determine the rate of change of the real Operators are distinguished by one further feature; they
component of a vector |Z| wt with time. are the roots of unity. Using De Moivre's theorem, the
|Z| wt |Z| (coswt + jsinwt nth root of unity is given by solving the expression:
The real component of the vector is |Z|coswt. where m is any integer. Hence:
the application of a driving voltage, but there is Figure 3.3: Representation of a sinusoidal function
Figure 3.3: Representation
complete duality between the variables and either may of a sinusoidal function
be regarded as the cause of the other.
When a circuit exists, there is an interchange of energy; The current resulting from applying a voltage to a circuit
a circuit may be described as being made up of 'sources' depends upon the circuit impedance. If the voltage is a
and 'sinks' for energy. The parts of a circuit are described sinusoidal function at a given frequency and the
as elements; a 'source' may be regarded as an 'active' impedance is constant the current will also vary
element and a 'sink' as a 'passive' element. Some circuit harmonically at the same frequency, so it can be shown
elements are dissipative, that is, they are continuous on the same vector diagram as the voltage vector, and is
sinks for energy, for example resistance. Other circuit given by the equation
elements may be alternately sources and sinks, for
example capacitance and inductance. The elements of a Em
i sin wt
circuit are connected together to form a network having Z …Equation 3.9
Fundamental Theor y
Ebn are negative voltage rises. In the diagrammatic
3.4.2 Sign Conventions method their direction of action is simply indicated by an
— —
In describing the electrical state of a circuit, it is often arrow, whereas in the double suffix method, Ean and Ebn
necessary to refer to the 'potential difference' existing indicate that there is a potential rise in directions na and nb.
between two points in the circuit. Since wherever such Figure 3.4 Methods or representing a circuit
a potential difference exists, current will flow and energy
will either be transferred or absorbed, it is obviously
necessary to define a potential difference in more exact Z3
terms. For this reason, the terms voltage rise and voltage I
drop are used to define more accurately the nature of the Z1 Z2
potential difference.
E1 E2
Voltage rise is a rise in potential measured in the
direction of current flow between two points in a circuit.
Voltage drop is the converse. A circuit element with a
E1-E2=(Z1+Z2+Z3)I
voltage rise across it acts as a source of energy. A circuit
(a) Diagrammatic
element with a voltage drop across it acts as a sink of
energy. Voltage sources are usually active circuit a
Zab
b
elements, while sinks are usually passive circuit Iab
elements. The positive direction of energy flow is from Zan Zbn
sources to sinks.
Ean Ebn
Kirchhoff's first law states that the sum of the driving
voltages must equal the sum of the passive voltages in a
closed loop. This is illustrated by the fundamental n
equation of an electric circuit: Ean-Ebn=(Zan+Zab+Zbn)Iab
(b) Double suffix
Ldi 1
iR idt e …Equation 3.12
dt C Figure 3.4 Methods of representing a circuit
Figure 3.4: Circuit representation methods
where the terms on the left hand side of the equation are
voltage drops across the circuit elements. Expressed in
—
voltage, find the percentage impedances to new base proportional to the potential difference V appearing
— ——
quantities. across the branch, that is, V = I Z .
Fundamental Theor y
Any three-terminal network can be replaced by a delta or
star impedance equivalent without disturbing the N
external network. The formulae relating the replacement
of a delta network by the equivalent star network is as Figure 3.9: Typical power system network
Figure 3.9: Typical power system network
follows (Figure 3.8):
— — — — — —
Zco = Z13 Z23 / (Z12 + Z13 + Z23)
Z AO Z NO
and so on. Z AN Z AO Z NO
Z BO
Zao O Zbo Z12 0.75 18.85
a b 1 2 0.75 18.85
0.45
Zco Z13 Z23 = 51 ohms
c
3
(a) Star network (b) Delta network
Figure 3.8:Star-Delta
Figure 3.8: Star/Delta network
network reduction
transformation
Figure 3.8: Star-Delta network transformation
Figure 3.10
Fundamental Theor y
2
I1=Y11V1+Y12V2
V Zaa Zbb Zab
Z I2=Y21V1+Y22V2
I Zaa Zbb 2 Zab …Equation 3.21
where Z12=Z21 and Y12=Y21 , if the network is
(Figure 3.13(b)), and, if the branch impedances are
assumed to be reciprocal. Further, by solving the
equal, the usual case, then:
above equations it can be shown that:
Za=Zaa-Zab Z11
Z11
A 1 1' 1 1'
Z12’ = -1/Y12
Z12 = Z1’ 2’ = -Z21’ = -Z12’
Hence:
Z11’ = Z11 Z22-Z212
_______________
Z22
Z22’ = Z11 Z22-Z212
_______________
Z11
Z12 = Z11 Z22-Z212
_______________
Z12 …Equation 3.25
A similar but equally rigorous equivalent circuit is
shown in Figure 3.15(d). This circuit [3.2] follows
from the fact that the self-impedance of any circuit
is independent of all other circuits. Therefore, it
need not appear in any of the mutual branches if it
is lumped as a radial branch at the terminals. So
putting Z11 and Z22 equal to zero in Equation 3.25,