Botany Full Theory

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Lecture -1
Systemic Botany – Principles Involved in Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Botany - “The branch of science that deals about plants”
Botany of Horticulture - “ The branch of science that deals about horticultural crops”
Plant Taxonomy
“It is a science of classification of organisms (plant) according to their resemblance and
differences”
 In Greek :
‘ taxis ’ – arrangement
‘ normous ’ – rules
 Lawful arrangement or arrangement by rules
Objectives of taxonomy
 To prepare a scheme of classification that provides artificial, natural and
phylogenetic relationship among plants
 To establish suitable method for identification, nomenclature and description of
plant taxa
 To provide inventory of plant taxa that suits local, regional and continental needs
 To create an understanding of the evolutionary process
Basics of Taxonomy
1. Identification
2. Description
3. Nomenclature
4. Classification
1. Identification
It is determination of a taxon based on overall similarities and differences with
other taxa. Proper and correct determination of taxon is a prerequisite for any study
based on it. Identification is generally done by comparing a representative specimen of a
given taxon with that of another which has authoritatively predetermined (a direct
method) Or with the help of key descriptions, illustrations etc (indirect method). In this
process no names are involved
2. Description
It is the orderly recording of maximum possible characters of taxon, individual
plant, plant part or object
3. Nomenclature
It is a naming of a taxon correctly.Once a taxon is determined on the basis of a set of
dependable characters, it become necessary to give it a scientific name.The name given
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in accordance with the rules of botanical nomenclature.It becomes effective tool for
communication of ideas in respect of the plant group in question
“Assessment of definite names to plants is called plant nomenclature”
A nomenclaturist is a taxonomist who assigns names to new taxa, determines the
right names for old taxa according to International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)
and finalizes the right name for a specimen according to an established system.
a. Common Name or Vernacular Name

Common name or vernacular names are made up of words from the native
language of the country or region.They may vary in different countries as well as
different regions of the same country.In a multi lingual country like India almost all
useful plants have local names, which differ from language to language and even from
dialect to dialect.The common names obviously have a limited usage and for wider use,
these proved to be unsatisfactory.Since they are neither universal nor methodical
They may be misleading and inadequate.
b. Scientific Names
To overcome the difficulties raised by common names, taxonomist have given
scientific names to all the known plants.These are methodical and provide scientific
means for international communication.It is agreed by botanists of the world that
scientific names should be in latin language for international uniformity
c. Binomial Nomenclature
In the earlier days plants names were very long and descriptive, it creates
difficulties in communicating names.The Carlous Linnaeus great Swedish botanists who
devising and methodologically employing the binomial nomenclature.Linnaeus
employed this system in the first edition of his Species Plantarum in 1753.
According to this system the scientific name of a plant consist of two Latin or
Latinized words.The first is the name of the Genus i.e. generic name or generic
epithet.The second word designates the species name. The first name of the binomial is
the genus name and is always capitalized. The second name of the binomial is the
specific epithet. Binomial species names are always either italicized or underlined.
d. International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) is the set of rules and
recommendations dealing with the formal botanical names that are given to plants.Its
main aim is that each taxon or taxonomic group of plants has only one correct botanical
name and that is accepted throughout the world.The ICBN is primarily used for naming
new taxa and determining the correct name for previously named taxa, which may have
been divided, united, transferred, or changed in rank.The ICBN sets the formal starting
date of nomenclature at 1 May 1753, the publication of SpeciesPlantarum by Linnaeus
4. Classification
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It is highly impossible to study all plants individually.It is therefore necessary to
place them into small or large groups on the basis of their similarities or differences.
These groups then arranged according to their levels into categories in a sequential
manner. Each category has name which is in accordance with the rules of nomenclature.
Thus similar individuals may be grouped under a species similar species under a genus,
similar genera under a family and so on.
i. Artificial classification
ii. Natural classification
iii. Phylogenetic classification
a. Artificial classification
When plants are classified for the sake of convenience, using some arbitrary or
easily observable characters, often irrespective of their affinity, the classification is called
artificial classification
b. Natural classification
Based on the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin (1859).Present day plants
have descented from those existing in the ancient past through a series of evolutionary
process response to changing environment. This means that all plants existing today are
related each other in one or another. The closely related ones should naturally be
grouped together. This is called natural classification
c. Phylogenetic classification
“ Study of stages in the evolutionary history of group of organisms ”

 It includes the knowledge of ancestors of taxa, place and time of their origin, the
primitive taxon and interrelationship of taxa.
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Lecture 2
Classification – Morphology, classification based on root, stem leaf and inflorescence
Morphology
Morphe – ‘form’
Logos - ‘study’
“This deals with the study of forms and features of different plant organs such as
roots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds and fruits”
Habitate
Natural home of a plant – factors, soil climate, characteristic flora – eg. Aquatic
plants, tropical plants and temperate plants, etc.,
Habit
‘The nature of the stem, height of the plants attain, and duration of their
lifedetermine the habit ‘
Classification - Based on life span

i. Annuals
ii. Biennials
iii. Perennials
Annual
Those plants which completes its life cycle in one year or one season. Within this
period they grow, reproduce and die eg. Tomato, Bhendi
Biennial
These plants will live for two years. Attain their full vegetative growth in the first
year/season and produce flowers and fruits in the second year. Eg. Carrot, Radish
Perennial
These plants will live for a number of years and develop flowers and fruits every
year. Eg. Mango, Sapota
Special types of plants - Mode of Nutrition

a. Autotrophic plants
b. Heterotrophic plants
i. Parasites
ii. Epiphytes
iii. Saprophytes
iv. Symbionts
v. Carnivorous
i. Parasites
Group of plants that grow upon other living plants or on animals, and absorb food from
the hosts by their sucking roots called haustoria.
 Total stem parasites : eg. Dodder (Cuscuta)
 Partial stem parasites : eg. Loranthus
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 Total root parasites : eg. Broomrape (Orobanche)
 Partial root parasites : eg. Striga
ii. Epiphytes
Thes are plants that grow upon other plants, but do not absorb food from them. Eg.
Vanda
iii. Saprophytes
These are plants that grow in places rich in decaying organic substances of plants
and animals and drive their nutrient from them. Eg. Monotropha
iv. Symbionts
when two organisms live together and are mutual help to each other called
symbions. Eg. Lichans
v.Carnivorous
Group of plants that capture insects and small animals and feed upon them. Eg. Pitcher
plant, butterwort
I. Root
II. Stem
III. Leaf
I. Root
i. Tap root system
Ii Adventitious root system
iii. Modified root system
1. Root
i. Tap root system
During germination of the dicot seed, the radicle grows and develops into primary
root.The primary root and its branches form the tap root system.Tap root normally grows
vertically downwards to a shorter or longer length.The branched roots grow obliquely or
horizontally downwards. The tap root system is normally meant to absorb water and
mineral salts from the soil. To give proper anchorage to the plant. Eg. Dicot plants
ii. Adventitious root system

Roots that grows from any part of the plant body other than the radicle called
adventitious root. They may develop from the base of the stem or from any node or
internode of the stem or the branch or even from the leaf under special circumstances. Eg.
Monocots
iii. Modified root system

a. Tap root modified
1. Fusiform root
The root is swollen in the middle and gradually tapering towards the apex and the
base, being more or less spindle shaped appearance. eg. Radish
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2. Napiform root
The root is considerably swollen at the base, becoming almost spherical, and sharply
tapering at the lower end, it is said to be napiform. eg. Turnip and beet root.
3.Conical root
The root is broad at the base and gradually tapers towards the apex like a cone, it is
said to be conical. eg. Carrot
4.Tuberous root
The root is thick and fleshy but does not have a definite shape, it is said to be
tuberous or tubercular. Eg. Mirabilis (4 o’ clock plant)
B. Branched root modified

1. Pneumatophores
Many plants growing in marshy places or salt lakes occasionally inundated by tides as
in Sunderbans, develops special kinds of roots called respiratory roots or Pneumatophores
for the purpose of respiration. Such roots grow from the underground roots of the plant but
rise vertically upwards and come out of the water, like cones so many conical spikes. Each
such roots is provided, towards the upper end, with numerous pores or respiratory spaces
through which air is taken in for respiration. Eg. Rhizophora
c. Adventitious root modified

1. Storage of food
Tuberous or Tubercular root -Storage Food
This is swollen root without any definite shape. They are produced in singly not in
clusters eg. Sweet potato
Fasciculated Roots -Storage Food

Several tubercular roots occur in a cluster or fascicle at the base of the stem. Eg.
Dahlia & Asparagus
Nodulose Root -Storage Food

The slender root becomes suddenly swollen at the apex . Eg. Mango ginger,
Moniliform or Beaded root- -Storage Food

There are some swellings in the root at frequent intervals. Eg.Portulaca, Basella.
Annulated Root -Storage Food

The roots has a series of ring like swellings on its body. Eg. Ipecac
2. Mechanical Support
Prop or Stilt Roots
In plants like Banyan, India rubber plant etc., a number of roots are produced from
the main stem and often from the branches.These roots grow vertically or obliquely down
wards and penetrate into the soil.Gradually they get stouter and act as pillars supporting the
main stem and the branches or the plant as a whole.
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Climbing Root
Plants produce climbing roots from their nodes and often from the internodes to
ensure a foothold on neighboring objects. Eg. Pieper betle, Piper longum, p. nigrum
Buttress Root
Some of the stout roots around the base of the main trunk, show abnormal prolific
growth. They first grow obliquely downwards and then spread horizontally outwards at the
ground level. They are meant to give support to the huge trunk and maintain it in an upright
position
eg.Ceipa sp. – Kapok, Bombax sp. – Silk cotton
3. Vital Functions
Sucking or Haustoria
Parasites develop roots which penetrates into the tissue of the host plant and suck it.
Parasites , particularly non green ones, have to live by sucking the host plant , i.e. by
absorbing the food from it with the help of sucking roots.Eg. Cuscuta , Loranthus etc.,
Respiratory roots
In Jussiaea, an aquatic plants, the floating branches develop adventitious roots which
are soft, light, spongy and colorless. They useally develop above the level of water and serve
to store up water. Thus facilitate respiration.
Epiphytic Roots
Certain plants, commonly orchids, which grow on branches of trees.They develop a
special kind of aerial roots which hang freely on the air. Each hanging roots is surrounded by
a spongy tissue called Velamen. With the help of this velamen, the hanging roots absorb
moisture from the surrounding air
Assimilatory Roots
Branches of Tinospora climber produce long slender hanging roots. It develop
chlorophyll and turn green in colour. These green roots are assimilatory roots
II. Stem
“The stem is the ascending portion of plant, developing directly from the plumul
a. Trees
They are large plants a single stout trunk and hard & woody branches profusely
formed eg. Mango, Jack
b. Shrubs
These are medium sized sized plants with hardy and woody stems, which branch
profusely from near the ground having the bushy appearance.
c. Herbs
These are all small plants with soft stems
d. Climber
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“These have thin and long stems with diffuse branches. They climb by means of
some special organs of attachment or by their twining stem”
1. Rootlet climbers : Plants clime by means of small adventitious roots, which often form
small adhesive discs or claws or secrete sticky juice to act as holdfasts. Eg.Piper longum,
Hedera helix, Ficus pumila.
2. Hook climbers : The flower stalk produces curved hook, which facilitates to some extent
the climbing of the branches (Artabotrys). Often prickles and thorns are curved and hooked
in certain plants.
Eg. Climbing rose – curved prickles, Bougainvillea – Curved hooks
3. Tendril climbers : Plants which produce slender, leafless, spirally coiled structure known
as tendrils and climb object with the held of these organs. Tendrils twin themselfes round
the support. It may be modifications of stem. Eg. Cardiospermum, Lathyrus.
4. Leaf climbers: The petiole / leaf apex is slender and coil round any neighboring objects
that helps the plant to climb. Eg. Leaf stalk – Clematis, Leaf apex - Gloriosa
5. Stem climbers or twiners: These are plants with long and slender stems and branches.
They climb by twining bodily round trees, shrubs and hedges. Eg. Ipomea, Clitoria, Quis-
qualis
6. Lianes : These are very thick and woody perennial climbers. Twin themselves round tall
tree in search of sunlight and ultimately reaches their top.eg. Wood rose
e. Modifications of stems
1. Underground modifications
 Rhizome : Rhizome is a prostrate thickened stem, creeping horizontally under the
surface of the soil. It is provided with distinct nodes and internodes.eg. Ginger,
Turmeric
 Tuber : This is the swollen end of a special underground branch. The underground
branch arises from the axil of a lower leaf. Eg. Potato
 Bulb : This is an underground modified shoot, consisting of terminal bud and
numerous scaly leaves. Eg. Onion
 Corm : It is a condensed form of rhizome consisting of a stout ,solid, fleshy
underground stem. Eg. Gladiolus, Amorphophallus.
2. Sub aerial modifications of stems

‘These are meant for vegetative propagation’
 Runner : This is a slender prostrate branch with long or short internodes, creeping
on the ground and rooting at the nodes. Each rooted nodes grows into new plant. Eg.
Strawberry
 Stolen : like runners this is also a slender lateral branch originating from the base of
the stem. But it grows obliquely upwards to some extend and then bends to the
ground, striking roots at the tip latter grows into a daughter plant. Eg. Peppermint
 Off set : Like runner , this originates in the axil of a leaf as a short , more or less
thickened horizontal branch. It elongates only to a certain extent and produces at
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the apex a tuft of leaves and cluster of roots. The offset often breaks away from the
mother plant.
Eg. Eichhornia, pistia
 Sucker:like the stolen, the sucker is also a lateral branch developing from the
underground part of the stem at its node. But it grows obliquely upwards and
directly gives rise to a leafy shoot or a new plant. Eg.Chrysanthemum
3. Aerial modifications of stems - Metamorphoses

‘Veg. and floral buds undergo extreme degrees of modifications in certain plants for
definite purposes ’
 Stem tendril : This is a thin wiry , leafless, spirally curled branch, by which climbers
attach themselves to neighboring objects and climb them. Eg. Vitis
 Thorn : It is a hard , often straight and pointed. It is regarded as the modified
branch because it arises in the axil of a leaf or apex of branch , which is the normal
position of the bud. Eg. Lemon, Pomegranate.
 Phylloclade : This is a green flattened or cylindrical stem or branch of unlimited
growth, consisting of nodes and internodes. The phylloclade characteristically
developes in many xerophytic plants.
 Cladode : One or more short, green cylindrical or flattened branches of limited
growth develop from the node of the stem or branch in a axil of a scale leaf.
Eg.Asparagus
 Bulbil : the bulbil is a special multicellular body, essentially meant for the
reproduction of the plant. It may be modifications of veg. or floral bud. Eg. Agave,
Dioscorea
f. Branching - ‘ Mode of arrangement of branches on a stem’
I.Lateral branching
1. Racemose type / indefinite
2.Cymose type / definite
II. Dichotomous Branching

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Lecture – 3
CLASSIFICATION – EMBRYOLOGY
I. The inflorescence
1. Racemose inflorescence (or) Indefinite
‘ Main axis of inflorescence does not terminate in a flower, but continues to grow
and give off flowers laterally in acropetal succession ’
2. Cymose inflorescence (or) Definite

The growth of the main axis is soon checked by the development of a flower at its
apex and the lateral axis, which develops below the terminal flower, also ends in a flower,
therefore its growth is also checked.
3. Special types
Which are all not coming under the above two categories.
i.Racemose inflorescence
a. Raceme
The main axis in this is elongated and it bears laterally a number of flowers which are
all stalked, the lower or older flowers having longer stalks than the upper or younger one
eg. Cassia sp., Caesalpinia sp. Etc.,
The main axis is branched and lateral branches bear the flowers, the inflorescence is
said to be the compound raceme or panicle. Eg. Delonix sp.,
b. Spike
The main axis in this is elongated and it bears laterally a number of flowers which are
all not stalked or sessile. Eg.,Polianthes sp., Aranthus sp.
c. Spikelets
These are very small spikes with one or a few flowers (florets). Spikelets are arranged
in a spike, raceme or panicle and may be stalked or sessile on the main inflorescence.
Eg. Rice, grass sp., bamboo etc.
d. Catkin
This is spike with a long and pendulous axis which bears flowers only. Eg. Pepper,
Mulbery
e. Spadix
This is also a spike with a fleshy axis, which is enclosed by one or more large, or often
brightly coloured bracts called spaths. It is found monocotyledons only. Eg. Banana, Palms,
Colocasia
f. Corymb
The main axis is comparatively short, and the lower flowers have much longer stalks
or pedicles than the upper ones, so that all the flowers are brought more or less to the same
level. Eg. Candytuft
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g. Umbel
The primary axis is shortened and it bears at its tip a group of flowers, which have
pedicles of more or less equal lengths, so that the flowers are seen to spread out from a
common point . Eg Umbelliferae.
h. Head or Capitulum
The main axis is suppressed, becoming almost flat, and the flowers are also without
any stalk so that they become crowded together on the flat surface of the receptacle.
Although the whole inflorescence looks like a single flower.
* Ray floret – Periphery
* Disc floret - Central
Eg. Marigold, Sunflower etc.
2. Cymose inflorescence
The growth of main axis is soon arrested by the development of flower at its apex
and develops lateral axis below the terminal flower also ends in a flower
a. Uniparous cyme or Monochasial cyme

The main axis ends in a flower and it produces only one lateral branch at a time, also
ends in a flower. Eg.Begonia
b. Biparous cyme or Dichasial cyme

The main axis ends in a flower and it produces, two lateral branch at a time, also
ends in a flower. Eg. Jasmine, Ixora.
c. Multiparous cyme or Polychasial cyme

The main axis ends in a flower and it produces a number of lateral branch at a time,
also ends in a flower. Eg. Calotropis
3. Special types
a. Cyathium
There is a cup shaped invalucre, encloses a single female flower (reduced as pistil) in
the centre, number of male flowers (reduced as stamen) around female flower. Eg. Special
type of inflorescence in Euphorbia sp.
b. Hypanthodium
The fleshy receptacle forms a hallow pear shaped cavity. The flowers are borne on
the inner wall of the cavity. The female flowers develop at the base of the cavity and male
flower develop towards the mouth. Eg. Fig, Ficus sp.
Flower
 Flower is a specialized shoot of limited growth, bearing reproductive organs
 Flower serves as a means of sexual organs
 A complete flower consists of four whorls
*Two lower accessories – Calyx and corolla
* Two upper accessories – Androecium & Gynoecium or Pistil
FLOWER
 Individual units of calyx are sepals
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 Individual units of corolla are petals
 Perianth – Undifferentiated calyx & corolla
 Individual units of perianth tepals
 Androecium – Stamens or Microsporophylls – filament - anther
 Gynoecium – Carpels or Megasporophylls – ovary – style - stigma
 Bisexual or Hermaphrodite-Flowers having Androecium and Gynoecium
 Unisexual – Staminate (male) & Pistilate (female)
 Monoecious – Plant bearing both male and female flower
 Dioecious – A plant bearing either male or female
 Polygamous – A plant bearing bisexual and unisexual flowers
 Achlamydeous – flower without calyx and corolla
 Monochlamydeous – Flower with any one whorl
Thalamus or receptacle
It is supressed swollen end of the flower axis on which the floral leaves are inserted
viz., sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
 Anthophore – The elongated internode between calyx and corolla
 Androphore – The elongated internode between corolla and androecium
 Gynophore – The axis between androecium and gynoecium is elongated
 Androgynophore – Both androphore and gynophore develop, they are together
Position of floral leaves – Thalamus

i. Hypogyny : Stamens, petals and sepals are inserted below the ovary . The ovary is said
to be superior and rest of floral are members inferior. Eg., Mango, brinjal etc.,
Ii. Perigyny : The margin of the thalamus grow upward and form a cup shaped structure,
which enclosing the ovary but remain free from it and carrying with it the sepals, petals
and stamens. The ovary is said to be half inferior. Eg., rose, plum, peach etc.,
Iii. Epigyny : The margin of the thalamus grows further upward and completely
enclosing the ovary and getting fused with it and bears sepals, petals and stamens above
the ovary. The ovary is said to be inferior. Eg. Banana, Guava, cucumber, apple, pear etc.
Bracts – Are special leaves from the axil of which

1. Foliaceous or leafy : Green flat and leaf like appearance
2. Spathe : Large and boat shaped in nature, enclosing a cluster of flowers or even an
inflorescence (spadix).eg Banana, palm, maize etc.,
3. Petaloid :Brightly coloured looking some what like petals. Eg., Bougainvillea and
pointsettia
4. Involucre : One or more whorls of bracts , normally green in colour, present around a
cluster of flowers.eg. Characteristic of Compositeae – marigold, sunflower etc.,
5. Epicalyx : one or more whorls of bracteoles developing at the base of the calyx.
Characteristic of Malvaceae eg.,Cotton, Bhendy / Rosaceae – Strawberry.
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6. Scaly Bracteole: Base of the individual florets of the head or capitulam of compositae,
is thin, membranous in nature.
7. Glumes : It is a special bracts small, dry and thin found in the spikelet of Gramineae
family.
CALYX
i. Position
Polysepalous : Sepals free
Gamosepalous : Sepals united
Pappus : Modified into pappus
ii. Duration
Caducous : Calyx falls off soon after bud opens
Decideous : It falls off when the flowers withers
Presistant : Remain adherent to the fruit
COROLLA
Forms of corollas
i. Regular (radially symetrical) and polypetalous
ii. Regular and gamopetalous
iii. Zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical) and polypetalous
iv. Zygomorphic and gamopetalous
AESTIVATION
‘ Mode of arrangement of the sepals and petals ‘
i. Valvate : Members of the whorl make contact with each other by their margins or
when they lie close to each other without overlapping.
ii. Twisted or contorted : One margin of the sepal or petal overlaps that of the next one.
iii. Imbricate : One of the sepals or petals is internal, overlapping on both margins , one
of them is external and each of the remaining ones over lapes one margin and overlapes
the next one on the other margin. Eg. Cassia, Delonix etc.,
iv. Vexillary : There are five petals, of which one largest posterior petals and covers two
lateral petals. The lateral petals over lapes the two small anterior petals. Eg.
Paplionaceae
ANDROECIUM
I. Attachment of filament to the anther
1. Basifixed or innate : Filament is attached to the base of the anther. Eg. Radish, water
lily etc.,
2. Adnate : The Filament runs up the whole length of the anther from base to the
apex.Eg., Michelia, Magnolia etc.,
3. Dorsifixed : Filament attached to the back of the anther. Eg. Passion flower.
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4. Versatile : Filament attached to the back of anther at one point only, so that the
anther swing freely in the air. Eg., Grasses, Palms etc.,
II. Cohesion of stamens

1. Monoadelphous : All filaments are united together into a single bundle but the
anthers are free. Eg.Malvaceae family
2. Diadelphous : All filaments are united into two bundles but the anthers remain free.
Eg. Paplionaceae family.
3. Polyadelphous : Filaments are united into number of bundles but anthers are free.
Eg. Bombax, Lemon
4. Syngenesious : The anthers are united into a bundle or tube, the filaments remaining
free, the stamens said to be syngenesious. Eg.,Compositae family.
5. Synandrous : The stamens are united throughout their whole length by both the
filaments and the anthers. Eg., Cucurbitaceae & Araceae family
iii. Adhesion of stamens

1. Epipetalous – Stamens attached to the corolla wholly or partially by their filaments. Eg. ,
Ixora etc.,
2. Epiphyllous - Stamens attached to the perianth. Eg. Liliaceae.

3. Gynandrous - Stamens united with ovary either wholly or partially by their anthers only.
IV. Length of stamens

1. Didynamous : In Lamiaceae, there are four stamens , of which two are long and two are
short.
2. Tetradynamous : In Cruciferae there are six stamens of which the inner four are long and
the outer two are short.
V. Dehiscence of anther
1. Longitudinal : eg. Cotton, Datura
2. Transverse : eg.,Basil
3. Porous : eg.,Potato, brinjal
3. Valvular : eg. Cinnamon
GYNOECIUM OR PISTIL
 Simple pistil
 Compound pistil
1. Syncarpous pistil : Carpels united together.
2. Apocarpous pistil : Carpels free eg. Lotus
Placentation
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‘ Placenta - Parenchymatous out growth in the inner wall of the ovary to which the
ovule or ovules remain attached’
1. Marginal :The ovary is one chambered, and the placenta develops along the two margins
of the ovary.
2. Axile : The ovary two or many chambered. The placenta bearing ovules develop from the
central axis.
4. Central : The ovary become one chambered and the placenta bearing the ovules develop
from the central axis.
5. Free central : In free central placentation, the placenta arises from the base of the overy
and bears the ovules all over its surface. eg. Primulas
6. Basal : The ovary is unilocular and the placenta develops directly on thalamus, bearing
single ovule at the base of the ovary. Compositae
7.Superficial : The ovary is multilocular, the carpels being numerpus, as in axile placentation.
Placenta developes all round the inner surface of the partition walls. Eg Water lily.
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CLASSIFICATION – POLLINATION
Pollination
The transfer of pollen from the male anther to the female stigma
Types of pollination
I. Self Pollination – Autogamy
II. Cross pollination - Allogamy
I. Self pollination or autogamy

 Pollination within a single flower (or)
 between two flowers borne by the same parent plant is self pollination
(Geitonogamy).
Ex. Tomato, brinjal
 0 – 5 % cross pollination
Mechanism promoting self-pollination

1. Bisexuality
 Presence of male and female organs in the same flower is known as bisexuality.
 The presence of bisexual flowers is a must for self pollination.
2. Homogamy
 Maturation of anthers and stigma of a flower at the same time is called homogamy.
3. Cleistogamy:
 When pollination and fertilization occur in unopened flower bud, it is known as
cleistogamy. It ensures self pollination and prevents cross pollination.
 Ex. Oats & grass species.
4. Chasmogamy :
Opening of flowers only after the completion of pollination is known as chasmogamy
and this promotes self pollination . Ex. wheat, barley, rice .
5. Position of Anthers :
 In some species, stigmas are surrounded by anthers in such a way that self
pollination is ensured. Such situation is found in tomato and brinjal.
 In some legumes, the stamens and stigma are enclosed by the petals in such a way
that self pollination is ensured.
 Ex. greengram, blackgram, soybean, chickpea and pea
II. CROSS POLLINATION OR ALLOGAMY

 Pollination between two flowers borne by two separate plants of the same or allied
species.
Mechanism promoting cross – pollination

1.Dicliny. It refers to unisexual flowers.
This is of two types: viz. i) Monoecy and ii) Dioecy.
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i. Monoecy or Monoecious
When male and female flowers are separate but present in the same plants, it is
known as monoecious. In some crops, the male and female flowers are present in the same
inflorescence such as in mango, castor and banana. In some cases, they are on separate
inflorescence as in maize. Other examples are cucurbits, grapes, strawberry, cassava and
rubber.
ii. Dioecy or Dioecious

When staminate and pistillate flowers are present on different plants, it is
called dioecious. It includes papaya, date palm, spinach, hemp and asparagus.
2. Dichogamy
It refers to maturation of anthers and stigma of the same flowers at different
times. Dichogamy promotes cross pollination even in the hermaphrodite species.
Dichogamy is of two types
i) Protogyny - When pistil matures before anthers, it is called protogyny . Ex. Sapota
ii) Protandry. - When anthers mature before pistil, it is known as protandry. Ex. Carrot
3.Heterostyly
When styles and filaments in a flower are of different lengths, it is called
heterostyly.
4.Herkogamy
Hinderance to self-pollination due to some physical barriers such as presence of
hyline membrane around the anther is known as herkogamy. Such membrane does not
allow the dehiscence of pollen and prevents self-pollination such as in alfalfa
5. Self incompatibility
 The inability of fertile pollens to fertilize the same flower is referred as self
incompatibility
 It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination.
 Self incompatibility is found in Brassica, Radish.
6. Male sterility
 In some species, the pollen grains are non functional. Such condition is known as
male sterility.
 It prevents self-pollination and promotes cross pollination. It is of three types:
viz. genetic, cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic genetic.
 It is a useful tool in hybrid seed production
IV. Fertilization
Fertilization is the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism.
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CLASSIFICATION – TYPES OF FRUITS
The fruit
‘Fertilization stimulates the growth of the ovary.As it grows and matures, it becomes
converted in to the fruit ’
 Fruit
- Pericarp
- Seed
 Pericarp
- Epicarp
- Mesocarp
- Endocarp
 True Fruit – Ovary of the fruit grows into fruit
 False Fruit - Other parts of the flower such as thalamus, receptacle, calyx etc.
1.Simple Fruit
i. Dehiscent fruit - At maturity dry and splits open
a. Legume or pod - Dry monocarpellary fruit developing from the superior ovary. One
chambered ovary and dehiscing by both the sutures. Eg. Legume
b. Follicle
It dehisces by one suture only. Eg. Calatropis
c . Siliqua
This is a long narrow many seeded fruit developing from a superior, bicarpellary
ovary. It dehisces from below, upwards along two ventral sutures. Eg.Cruciferae members.
d. Capsule
This is a many seeded, uni or multilocular fruit developing from a superior, bi or
polycarpellary ovary, and dehiscing in various ways. Eg. Poppy, Bhendi, Datura
ii. Indehiscent fruit

a. Caryopsis
Small dry one seeded fruit developing from a superior ovary, monocarpellary ovary
with the pericarp fused with seed coat. Eg. Rice , Wheat, Maize
b. Achene
Small dry one seeded fruit developing from a superior or inferior, monocarpellary
ovary with the pericarp of this fruit is free from the seed coat. Eg. 4’o clock plant.
c. Cypsela
Small dry one chambered and one seeded fruit developing from an inferior,
bicarpellary ovary with the pericarp and the seed coat free. eg. Compositae members.
d. Samara
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Dry, one or two seeded fruit developing from a superior, bi or tricarpellary ovary
with one or more flattened, wing like outgrowths. Eg. Yam, Hiptage
e. Nut
Dry, one chambered and one seeded fruit developing from a superior, bi or
polycarpellary ovary with the pericarp hard and woody.eg. Cashew nut,
iii. Splitting or Schizocarp

a. Lomentum
This is a type of dry indehiscent fruit constricted or partitioned between the seeds
into a number of one seeded compartments. The fruit splits transversely along the
constrictions or partitions into one seeded pieces. Eg. Acacia, Mimosa, Cassia fistula.
b. Cremocarp
Ddry indehiscent two chambered fruit developing from an inferior or bi carpellary
ovary. When ripe the fruit splits apart into indehiscent ,one seeded pieces called mericarps.
eg. Umbelliferae members – Coriander, cumin, fennel, carrot
c. Double Samara
In Maple (Acer) fruit developing from a superior, bicarpellary ovary. When mature, it
splits into two samaras, each with a wing and a seed. Such a fruit is called double samara.
d. Regma
It is a dry indehiscent fruit developing from a syncarpous pistil. It splits away from
the central axis into as many parts. Each part containing one or two seds. Eg. Castor,
jatropha,
e. Carcerule
It is a dry indehiscent, four chambered fruit developing from a superior, bicarpellary
pistil. The fruit remain enclosed by the persistent calyx and later splits into four chambers,
each enclosing a seed. Eg. Members of Lamiaceae.
iv. Fleshy Fruit,

a.Drupe
 Fleshy, one or more chambered and one or more seeded fruit developing from a
monocarpellary or syncarpous pistil.
 The exocarp - forms the skin, mesocarp – fleshy and endocarp – hard or stony. Eg.
Mango, plum,peach, coconut, palmyrah, almond etc.
B. Berry
 A Berry is a single fleshy fruit without a stone
 Consisting of one or more carpels with many seeded and ovary wall fleshy in nature.
Eg. Tomato, brnjal, grapes, aonla, banana, guava etc.
c. Pepo
 Fleshy, pulpy many seeded fruit like berry. It develops from inferior ovary, syncorpus
pistil with parital placentation.
d. Pome
Two or more celled fleshy, syncorpus fruit surrounded by thallamus. The fleshy
edible part is thallamus.
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e. Hesperidium
A Hesperidium is a many celled, fleshy fruit developing from a syncorpus pistil with
axile placentation.
f.Balusta
Special type of inferior many chambered and many seeded fruit developing from
syncorpus pistil. Pericarp tough and leathery. Edible portion is ‘aril’ which is the juicy outer
covering of seed.
2. Aggregate Fruit
Aggregate fruits is a collection of simple fruits develops from the apocarpus pistil of
the flower. “An aggregate of simple fruit borne by a single flower is known as etaerio”
eg. Strawberry, Custard apple
3. Multiple fruit or Composite fruits
a. Sorosis
Multiple fruits, develop from spike or spadix. The flowers fused together by the
succulent sepals and at the same time the axis bearing them become fleshy or woody.
Eg. Pine apple and Jack
b. Syconus
 It develops from a hallow pear shaped fleshy receptacle encloses a number of
minute male and female flowers.
 Recepticle becomes fleshy and forms the so called fruit. Eg. Fig.
FRUITS = TYPE OF FRUITS = EDIBLE PARTS

 Apple, Pear = Pome = Fleshy thallamus
 Banana = Berry = Mesocarp
 Cashewnut = nut = cotyledons, fleshy thallamus
 Coconut = drupe = liquid endosperm
 Cucumber = pepo = mescocrap, endocrap, panenfa
 Date palm = berry = fleshy pericarp
 Fig = syconus = fleshy thallamus
 Jack fruit = sorosis = bracts, perianth & seeds
 Grapes = berry = pericarp & placenta
 Guava = berry = thallamus & pericarp
 Litchi = nut = fleshy aril
 Wheat, Maize = caryopsis = starchy endosperm
 Mango = drupe = Mesocarp
 Pea, Gram = legume = cotyledons
 Orange = hesperidium = juicy placentae
 Papaya = berry = mesocarp
 Pine apple = sorosis = bracts, receptacles.
 Pome granete = balausta = juicy seed coat
 Straw berry = etario-achenes = fleshy thallamus
 Tomato = berry = pericarp & placenta
 Mustard = siliqua = seed
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Lecture - 4
BOTANY OF I. ANACARDIACEAE, II. RUTACEAE, III. MUSACEAE
I. ANACARDIACEAE,
Economic Importance
 Anacardiaceae is importance for the mango, cashew, pistachio, resins, oils, tannic
acid, ornamentals etc.
 Mangifera indica (Mango) is universally known for its delightful and delicious fruit as
well as for pickles and timber
 Anacardium occidentale (Cashew) is famous for its edible nuts
 Pistacia vera (Pistacia) it is the source of famous edible nuts used in sweet, meats,
ice creams etc.
 Schinopsis lorentzii is used in leather tanning industry
 Toxicodendron vernicifera provides us resins and oils
Systematic Position
 Polypetalae, Disciflorae, Sapindales
Distribution
 A family of about 80 genera and over 600 species.
 Anacardiaceae are mostly tropical in distribution but also found in temperate regions
of Mediterranean regions, America and Eastern Asia.
 About 23 genera and over 115 species have bean reported in India
Important genera
• Mangifera indica - Mango
• Anacardium occidentale - Cashew
• Pistacia vera - Pistacia
• Schinopsis lorentzii
• Toxicodendron vernicifera
Botanical description of Mango - Mangifera indica
Origin
Propably has originated in Indo – Burma region and grow wild in the forest of India
Important species
 M. foetida
 M. zeylanica
 M. odorata
 M. caesia
 M. caloneura
 M. longipes
 M. sclerophyla
Habit
Evergreen, erect, branched, large tree (10 to 40 m)
Leaf
Simple, exstipualte, shiny, smooth, dark green; petiolate, pulvinus at base; shape
elliptic, oblong, entire.
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Inflorescence
Terminal branched Panicle. Contains 1 to 6 thousand flowers
Flower
Polygamous – Male and perfect (Bisexual flower) flower in the same inflorescence.
Pentamerous, prominent disc (necterine), actinomorphic, hypogynous (superior ovary)
Calyx
Sepals 5, yellowish green, free, inserted at the base of the disc, imbricate aestivation
Corolla
Petals 5, creamish, with 3-5 dark yellow ridges on inner surface, free, almost twice as
long as calyx; disc - prominent, imbricate aestivation
Androecium
Stamens 5, inserted on the outer margin of disc, 1 or 2 are fertile, others staminode,
anthers pink,at anthesis turns purple red,
Gynoecium
One locule and One ovuled, set on disc, stigma same length as that of fertile stamen.
Fruit and Seed

Drupe; exocarp-skin, thick smooth; mesocarp – edible portion, soft, sweet and juicy;
endocarp – bony in texture. Monoembryonic or polyembryonic in nature
2. Botanical Description of Cashew – Anacardium occidentale L
 Chromosome no. 2n = 42
 Originated in the north eastern BraziI
 The english name cashew is adapted from Portuguese word Kaju
 India is one of the major cashew producer and exporter
 In India, first planted in Goa to malabar coast in Kerala by Portuguese in the 16 th
century.
 Presently it has naturalized throughout the west coast.
 Cashew has 20 species in central and south America, but only occidentale was the
one species which was introduced to outside world and is described in detail
Important Species
A.braslience
A.humile
A.parviflora
A.rhinicorpus
A.gigantum
A.nanum
A.macrocarpum
Habit
Tall tree (12 m or more), evergreen, crown spreading, dome shaped
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Leaf
Simple, alternate, leathery; shape - obovate, oblong ; colour – reddish pink when
young later turn into dark green, shining ; petiolate, base swollen; mid rip and veins more
conspicuous on the lower end
Inflorescence
Terminal drooping branched Panicle, measuring about a foot length.
Flower
Polygamous – Male & hermaphrodite flowers ; Fragrant in nature ; actinomorphic,
pentamerous. Hypogynous (superior ovary).
Calyx
Sepals 5, pubescent, free, imbricate aestivation,
Corolla
Usually 5 petals, free, imbricate; colour – whitish at anthesis, turns pink and red
Androecium
10 stamens, 9 are short and 1 long, only long stamens produce viable pollen;
Gynoecium
Style single, simple, reaches the same length as that of the fertile / long stamen;
ovary unilocular, single ovule
Fruit and Seed

Fruit - Nut; kidney shaped, pericarp gummy, brown in colour; The enlarged and
swollen pedicel form the cashew apple, shiny, red to yellow, juicy, soft, pear shaped. Seed /
kernal has reddish brown seed coat, with two large white cotyledons and small embryo
II. Rutaceae
Important sp.
1. Citrus aurantifolia – Sour lime
2. C.limon – Lemon
3. C. jampheri – rough lemon
4. C. sinensis – Sweet orange
5. C. reticulata – Mandarin orange
6. C.aurantium – Sour orange
7. C.medica – Citron
8. C.paradisi – Grape fruit
Economic importance
 Citrus is one of the most important and popular fruit of the world
 In India too it is next to mango and banana in commercial perspective
 Citrus fruits on account of extensive adaptability are successfully cultivated in
tropical, subtropical and even marginal temperate regions.
 Fruits are not only refreshing and delicious but also very rich in vitamin c, minerals
and good source of A & B.
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 Oils are extracted from the inner portion of the rind and used for flavoring
Fruits
C. aurantifolia (Acid lime),
C. sinensis (Sweet orange),
C. reticulata (Mandarin orange).
Condiments
Zanthoxylum alatum, Z. limonella.
Ornamental plants
Phellodendron sp., Zanthoxylum sp., Murraya sp.
Oil
Citrus sp., Feronia sp., Murraya sp.
Systematic position
Polypetalae, Disciflorae, Geraniales
Origin and Distribution
 The cultivated species of citrus are believed to have originated in tropical and sub
tropical parts of South East Asia.
 A family of about 150 genera and over 1500 species.
 About 25 genera and 80 species of this family have so far been reported in India
Important Genera
 Fagara – 250 sp.
 Zanthoxylum – 200 sp.
 Ruta – 60 sp.
 Glycomis – 60 sp.
 Eriostemon – 32 sp.
 Atlantia – 18 sp.
 Citrus – 12 sp.
 Murraya – 12 sp.
 Aegle – 3 sp
Important commercial crops

1. C. aurantifolia - Acid lime
2. C. sinensis - Sweet orange
3. C. reticulata - Mandarin orange
1. Botanical Description of Acid lime - C.aurantifolia L.
Habit
Short trees (5m tall), much branched irregular in outline, heavily marked with short
spines.
Leaf
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Exstipulate, simple, petiolate (Winged petiole), alternate, small, ovate – elliptic,
sometime reduced to spines, margins crenulate.
Inflorescence - Short occur axillary usually 1-7 flowered
Flower - Bisexual, actinomorphic, white, small, Hypogynous – superior ovary
Calyx - 4-5 sepals, calyx cup shaped, free, imbricate
Corolla - 4-5 petals , white, free, imbricate
Androecium - Stamens 20-25, irregularly bundled – (Polyadelphous), anthers dithecous,
Gynoecium
Style stout, above the stamens, cap like stigma; 4 to 5 carpels / locules, united, 1-2
ovules in each locule, axile placentation
Fruit -Hesperidium; polyembryony with as many as 13 embryos.
Pollination
Entomophilous – Flies, bees etc. Dispersal of seeds takes place mainly by animals and
also by man.
Botanical Description of Sweet orange - C.sinensis L.
Habit
Trees (6-12m tall), crown rounded, young twigs angular, often with stout spines (on
young seedlings)
Leaf
Leaves are dark green, shiny, ovate elliptic, round at base, apex short pointed;
margins slightly serrated / crenate; petiole small, narrowly winged
Inflorescence- Flowers axillary, borne singly or in few flowered racemes
Flower
Bisexual flowers, 2-3 cm in diameter, actinomorphic, pentamerous, fragrant,
prominent disc, Hypogynous (superior ovary)
Calyx - Sepals 5, lobed, free, imbricate
Corolla- Petals 5, free, white, imbricate
Androecium- Stamens 20-25,
Gynoecium
Style single, slender with globose stigma, ovary with 10-14 locule
Fruit
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Hesperidium; sub globose, 4-12 cm diameter, peel / rind about half centimeter thick,
adhering tightly to juicy sub acidic vesicles, yellow to orange red in colour, central axis solid
Seed - Many, obovoid, white inside, polyembryonic.

3. Botanical Description of Mandarin orange - C.reticulata L.
Habit - Relatively small (2-8m tall), spiny, twigs are slender,
Leaf
Simple, small dark green, shiny, green above and pale below, narrow at both apices,
margin crenulate; petiole, narrowly winged.
Inflorescence - Flowers occur singly or in small clusters in the leaf axils.
Flower
Bisexual, small, pentamerous, actinomorphic, white, small, fragrant, Hypogynous –
superior ovary
Calyx - Sepals 5 , free, imbricate
Corolla - Petals 5, white, free, imbricate
Androecium- Stamens 20, irregularly bundled – Polyadelphous, anthers dithecous,
Gynoecium
Style single, 10-15 carpels / locules, united, 1-2 ovules/seed in each locule, axile
placentation
Fruit
Fruit – Hesperidium; depressed globose or sub globose, 5-8 cm diameter, yellow or
orange red when ripe, rind thin, loose separating easily from segments, Which are sweet
juicy, orange in colour.Seed – small, pointed at one end, embryo green, polyembryonic.
III. Musaceae
Economic importance
Musa paradisiaca subsp. Sapientum - one of the most famous tropical fruits, eaten
through out the world. Green banana used as vegetables and dried powder is a good baby
food used in the manufacturing of biscuits, chocolate etc. Starch is prepared from banana
stem. Fiber obtained from leaf sheathes. M.textiles L. also provides a useful fiber known as
Manila hemp.
Ravenala madagascariensis (Traveller’s Tree), Strelitzia reginae, Heliconia sp., and
Orchidantha are most favored for decorative and ornamental purpose
Ensete ventricosa inflorescence are used as vegetables
Systematic position
Monocotyledons, Epigynae, Musaceae
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Origin and distribution
A small family of 6 genera and 130 species, distributed only in tropical regions.
Banana (M.paradisiaca subsp. sapientum) is the most common plant of the family, found
also in India
Important genera
Musa, Ensete, Orchidentha, Heliconia, Ravenala, Strelitzia
The genus Musa is divided into 5 sections
1. Eumusa
2. Rhodochlamys
3. Callimusa
4. Australimusa
5. Incertae sedis
Habit
Large perennial herb, often tree like in appearance; containing un branched, tall
aerial pseudo stem formed by the leaf sheath; plants sometimes attain a height of 10 to 15
meters; plants persist by underground rhizome.
Leaf
Large (up to 2 meters in length), alternate, sometime spirally arranged; oval or
oblong with a stout mid rib; entire; numerous parallel vein extending up to the margins.
Inflorescence
Complex spike borne at the end of the peduncle; flowers subtended by bracts or
spathes; usually single terminal inflorescence develops from the rhizome and comes out at
the top of pseudostem
Flower
Mostly unisexual, plants monoecious having male flowers within the upper bracts
and the female flower within the lower bracts of inflorescence; Zygomorphic; trimerous;
epigynous (inferior ovary)
Perianth
Tepals 6, arranged in two whorls of 3 each; petaloid in nature; 1 posterior tepal of
inner whorl is free and boat shaped; remaining 5 tepals are united to form a tubular body.
(5+1)
Androecium
Stamens 6, arranged in two whorls of 3 each; of these 6 stamens 5 are fertile while
posterior stamen of the inner whorl is represented by a staminode;
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary; syncarpous; ovary inferior; trilocular; with one to numerous ovules in
each locule; axile placentation; style filiform; stigma capitate
Fruit - Elongated Berry

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Lecture 5
i. Botany of Moraceae
Economic Importance
 Fruit : Fruit plants belongs to Moraceae include Atrocarpus heterophyllus syn.
A.interifolia (Jack fruit), Ficus carica and Morus nigra (Black mulbery)
 Sacred tree: Certain secred trees used in religious ceremonies and for shade includes
Ficus religiosa, F. benghalensis etc.
 Ornamental plants: The famous ornamental plants include F. elastica, Morus albaetc.
 Leaves of Morus alba and M. nigra are used to feed silkworms
Systematic Position
Monochlamydeae or Apetalae, unisexuals
Origin & Distribution
A family of 53 genera and over 1400 species.Only 15 genera and about 150 species
have been reported from India
Important genera
1. Ficus – 800 sp.
2. Dorstenia – 170 sp.
3. Atrocarpus – 47 sp.
4. Maclura – 12 sp.
5. Morus – 10 sp.
6. Broussonetia – 8 sp.
Botanical description of Fig (Ficus sp).
Important species
Ficus carica – Fig
F. bengalensis – Banyan
F. religiosa – Peepul
F. elastica – Indian rubber plant
F. pumila – Indian ivy
Habit
Large shrub or low growing deciduous tree, about 10 m tall, with milky juice and
smooth to shallow, fissured bark.
Leaf
Simple, alternate, persistant, large, entire, 3-5 lobed, palmately veined, cystoliths are
present in some geners (Ficus & Morus)
Inflorescence
Appear on leaf axils, hypanthodium
Flower
Monoecious, male and female flowers are produced inside globose pear shaped
receptacles with narrow mouth (ostiole) inter locked by small green scale. Actinomorphic
Perianth
There are 4 tepals, free. They are persistent in the fruit; valvate
Male flower
(Androecium)
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Near the ostiole male flowers are borne, Stamens are equal in number and opposite
to the tepals. They are some time reduced to 1 or 2 stamens.
Female flower
(Gynoecium)
Towards the stalk female flowers are present with ovary, long styled. 2 carpels,
syncarpous; one locular (one carpel usually abortive) resulting one seed, hypogynous,
tetramerous.
Gall flowers
Resembles female flowers, short styled, ovary swollen, hybers fig wasp, dose not set
seed
Fruit
The fleshy fruit or Syconium is formed by the swelling of entire recepticle which
encloses number of small male and female flowers. The true fruit is achenes develops from
female flowers.
Many members of the Moraceae, the presence of cystoliths, deposits of calcium

carbonate inside enlarged epidermal (surface) cells. They are visible as dots or variously
shaped marks, especially in pressed, dried leaves. They may serve as some kind of
protection from leaf-eating insects or other animals.
Pollination
Pollination is affected by very small wasp (Blastophaga sp.,) . As the fig with gall
flowers ripen the adult wasp comes out of ovary and moves between male flowers, the
body is loaded with pollen grain. It then flies to another tree or fruit to oviposite
(Caprifigation).
ii. Botany of Vitiaceae (Grape Family)
Economic Importance
Vitaceae are important for the table grapes, wine grapes, raisins, grape juice, and for
several ornamental and medicinal purposes
 Fruits: Principle economic plant is Vitis vinifera. Whose several varieties are grown
for their edible fruit , the source of raisins, wines etc.,
Ornamental plants
 Parthenocissus tricuspidata - Japanese creeper
 P. quinquefolia - Virginia creeper and
 Several other species Ampelopsis, Cissus etc. are cultivated as ornamental vines on
walls.
Medicinal
 Leaves and roots of Cayratia carnosa are used in high fever
 Tubers of Cissus adnata used as blood purifier
 The essential oils of Leea aequata is used against tuberculosis.
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, disciflorae, Celastrales
 A family of only 12 genera and 700 species.
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 Vitiaceae are mostly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
 8 genera and 70 species have been reported in India, mostly growing in plains.
Important genera
 Vitis , Parthenocissus, Ampelopsis, Cissus, Rhoicissus, Cayratia
Botanical Description– Vitis vinifera L.
Important species of Vitis
V . Vinifera - Cultivated grape
V. aestivalis - Summer grape
V. labruska - Fox grape
V. cordifolia - Winter grapes
V. monticola - Sweet mountain grape
V. longi - Bush grape
Habit
Woody, perennial, climbing, vigorous vine ,may reach a height of 15-20m or more.
Leaf
Simple, light green, alternate; stalk- thin, long, round, petiole divides 5 large veins
each extending into 5 leaf lobes; palmately lobed, coarsely toothed, light to dense
pubescence
Inflorescence
Panicle, that appears in the leaf axiles (opposite to the leaves) of current seasons
growth.
Flower
Bracteate, actinomrphic, Bisexual, Pentamerous, borne in clusters, small; light yellow
to green in colour; hypogynous
Calyx
5 sepals, very small, polysepalous, cupular, valvate
Corolla
5 petals, polypetalous, caducous and fall easily when the flower open (Calyptra fall),
petals are free at base and united at apices; valvate
Androecium
Stamens 5, positioned opposite to each petal, arise from the base of the disc,
anthers bi lobed, free
Gynoecium
Style one, short, stigma capitate; ovary - Bi locular, superior ovary, 2 ovules per
locule, axile placentation, syncarpous,
Fruit & seed

Berry, often with watery juice. Seeds with copious endosperm and straight
endosperm.
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Floral Biology
 Petals and sepals are (five in number) fused and during anthesis the petals detach
from the base forming a cap like structure called 'calyptra'.
 Anthesis starts early in the morning and continues beyond 5.00 p.m., the peak
between 6.00 to 10.00 a.m. The time taken for completion of anthesis varies from
half a minute to one day, depending upon the variety, temperature etc.
 Stigmatic receptivity has been characterized by the presence of sugary secretion on
the stigma, giving it a bright appearance.
 Once the stigmatic surface dries, it becomes black, indicating the loss of receptivity.
Stigma becomes receptive one day prior to anthesis and remains so, a day after, with
maximum receptivity on the day of anthesis
iii. Botany of Caricaceae
Economic Importance
 Edible fruits
Carica papaya – Papaya is a vary wholesome fruit and is placed next only to mango
as a source of Vitamin A precursor, also has vitamin B2, C, Riboflavin and other
mineralsEx. Carica papaya – Papaya
Important species
 Carica papaya
 C.pubescens
 C.quercifolia
 C. gracilis
Botanical Description of Papaya (Carica papaya)
Habit
Herb like, grows to the ht. of 2-10 m, contains latex vessels, unbranched, some time
branched, cylindrical stem (1 foot dia.), hallow inside with spongy fibrous tissues, stem
marked with leaf scares.
Leaf
Leaves are large upto 75cm across, found in spiral manner, divided deeply into about
7 palmate lobes; greenish or purplish green in colour; veins prominent; petiole long (1m)
and hallow
Flower
Three type of flowers
i. Male flower
 Borne in panicles (25-100cm) which are erect / pendent
 5 small calyx, free or slightly connate, toothed, cupshaped
 5 petals, pale yellow, 2-2.5cm long, gamopetalous, trumpet shaped, five lobes
 Stamens 10, arranged in two rows, free, filaments light yellow, epipetalous.
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ii.Female flower
 Flowers appears singly or few flowered cyme in the axiles of the leaves, larger then
males (3.5 to 5 cm across); more or less sessile
 Calyx 5, cupshaped with 5 narrow teeth, free, yellow green in colour
 Petals 5, yellow, free, united at base, valvate
 Stigma 5, fan shaped; carpels 5, one locule, syncarpous; many ovules; superior ovary.
iii.Hermaphrodite flower
There are two types a. Elongata b. Pentandria
a. Elongata – Flowers in clusters with short pedicles, free/petals partially united,
stamens 10 in two whorls; ovary elongate; superior ovary
b. Pentandria – Flowers are similar to female flowers, but has only 5 stamens.
Fruit and seed
Hallow fleshy berry, 5 grooved, spherical, cylindrical,
Pollination
 Anthesis occurs from 6.30 a.m. to 8.30 a.m.
 Anthers dehisce after anthesis
 Receptivity at the time of anthesis
 Different sex forurs – Monoecious, dioecious, polygamous etc.
iv. Botany of Euphorbiaceae

Economic Importance
Ornamental plants:
Acalyphas – A.hispida, A. wilkesiana, etc.
Crotons – Codiaeum sp.
Euphorbias – E.pulcherrima, E.tirucalli
Jatropha – Jatropha sp.
Oil plants :
Castor oil – Ricinus communis
Jatropha oil – Jatropha curcas
Tung oil – Aleurites forti
Rubber:Hevea brasiliensis
Cassava:Manihot esculenta
Food & Medicinal plants :Emblica officinalis
Systematic Position
Monochlamydeae or Apetalaea, Unisexuales
A family of about 300 genera and 7500 sp. They are abundant in both tropical and
temperate regions. Over 60 genera and 350species have been reported from India
Important genera
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 Euphorbia – 2000, Croton / Codiaeum – 750, Emblica / Phyllanthus – 600, Acalypha –
450, Jatropha – 175, Manihot – 170, Sapium – 120, Tragia – 100, Clutia – 70,
Manadenium – 47, Ricinocarpos – 16, Hevea – 12, Ricinus – 1
Botanical Description of Aonla (Emblica officinalis)

 Phyllanthus emblica
(or) Emblica officinalis – Aonla (2n=28)
 Important species
 P. emblica - Aonla
 P. acidus – Star goose berry
 P. niruri - Keelanelli
 P.madraspatensis – Mela nelli
Habit
Large tree, branches scattered in all directions, bark ash coloured
Leaf
Leaves small, entire, alternate, pinnate leaves; later shed or fall and leaves behind a
prominent scar.
Inflorescence
Auxillary, solitary
Flowers
Male flower
Numerous, borne at axiles of lower leaf lets, pedicellate ; 6 sepals; 3 stamens,
filaments and anther lobe are connate (united) appears single.
Female flower
Small, minute, borne at axiles of the upper leaf lets, short pedicelled / sessile, 6
sepals (cup shaped), free, greenish yellow, or red tinched, valvate;
Ovary
Superior; 3 locules; syncarpous; stigma 3 (more than half of the style connate)
Fruit and seed

Drupe, smooth, six ribbed, ovary 3 celled,
2 ovules in each locule.
Pollination
 Female flowers in leaf axil, 14 to 17
 No. of female flower per shoot- 0.5 to 4.69
 Male female flower ratio = 1 : 1.1
 Anthesis – 6.00 – 7.00pm, do not open after 8.00pm
 Anther dehiscence – 10 to 15 min after anthesis
 Stigma receptivity third day after anthesis - 48 hrs
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 Initial fruit set 12 and 18 per cent
 Fertilization complete within 36 hours of pollination
 Most of the flowers drop within 3 weeks of flowering
v.Botany of Myrtaceae
Economic Importance
 Edible fruits
Psidium guajava - Guava
P. cattleianum - Strawberry guava
Eugenia uniflora - Surinam cherry
Syzygium cumini or
Eugenia jambolana - Jamun
 Oil plants : Eucalyptus oil obtained from the Eucalyptus globulus, E.citridora
and several other sp. are used widely in medicine, perfumery and other
industries
 Spices : the unopened dried flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum and unripe
berries of Pimenta dioica used as spices.
 Ornamental plants : Some sp. of Eucalyptus are grown as ornamental plants
 Timber : Valuable timbers are obtained from several sp. of Eucalyptus,
Eugnia, Barringtonia and coreya.
 Paper : Eucalyptus wood is used for paper manufacturing
 Gum : Valuable gum is obtained from Eucalyptus globulus (Blue gum),
E.maculata (citron gum) and E.rostrata (Red gum)
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, Calyciflorae, Myrtales
 A family of about 140 genera and 3400 species, distributed mainly in subtropical
regions of the world.
 Family is particularly abundant in Australia where some Eucalyptus trees are worlds
tallest angiosperms.
 Myrtaceae is represented in India about 15 genera and over 170 sps.
Important genera
 Eugenia – 1000
 Eucalyptus - 500
 Syzygium – 500
 Myrcia – 500
 Psidium – 140
 Myrtus – 100
 Melaleuca - 100
Botanical Descripiton of Guava - Psidium guajava L
The flavored fruit best for eaten as raw both when ripen and unripe. Potential source
of vit.C and pectin. Pulp made into jam, jelly juice etc.,
Important species
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 Psidium guajava – Cultivated Guava
 P. cattelianum – Strawberry guava
 P. guineense – Guinea guava
 P. fredricrichsthalianum – Costa Rican Guava
 P. montanum – Mountain guava
 P. araca – Brazilian guava
Habit
It is a small shrub or spreading tree, may attain height of 10m, branches more or less
erect generally appear from the base of the trunk. Bark bright and smooth, later dry dead
flakes fall off its own.
Leaf
Simple, petiole short thick, opposite, light green, elliptical to oblong, glabrous above
and soft pubescence below
Inflorescence
Axillary or terminal cyme; Solitary or 2-3 flowered, borne in leaf axiles of current
season growth
Flower
Braceteoles(2no.),Hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, measures in 3cm diameter.
Calyx
4-5 sepals, gamosepalous, calyx tube completely encloses the flower, the calyx splits
into irregular segments, persistent, green, valvate
Corolla
4-5, polypetalous (free), white, imbricate
Androecium
Stamens numerous, free, with long filament
Gynoecium
Style one, extends beyond ovary, capitate stigma, Inferior ovary, 4 locules, numerous
ovules, axile placentation, syncarpous
Fruit
Berry, round or ovoid, persistent calyx; skin green yellow or green; flesh white
yellow, pink or red
Seed
Small light yellow or yellowish brown, which makes the central core.
Pollination
 Guava flowers twice a year April – May, August – September.
 Flower buds requires 38-42 days for full development.
 Time of anthesis between 5 to 8.0 a.m.
 Anthers start dehiscing 15 minutes before anthesis, pollen grain of guava are
generally triangular. Pollen viability i.e. 84 - 96%.
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 Stigma receptivity starts even two days before anthesis and extends upto 4 th days
after anthesis.
 Self pollinating crop.
vi. Botany – Sapotaceae

Economic Importance
- Edible fruits : notable edible of sapotaceae include
 Achras sapota (Sapota),
 Manilkara hexandra (Khirni),
 Chrysophyllum cainito (Star apple)
- Chewing gum : chewing gum is obtained from the coagulated resinuous latex
obtained from the bark of A.sapota.
- Oil : oil obtained from seeds of Madhuca indica is used in the manufacturing of
candle and soaps
- Timber : Valuable timber is obtained from M.hexandra, and M.indica
Systematic position
Gamopetalae, Heteromerae, Ebenales
Distribution
- It includes 40 genera and over 800 sp., with main distribution in tropical regions of
the world. Only 12 genera and 50 sp., have been reported in India, mainly from
Eastern and Southern regions.
Important genera
 Achras
 Madhuca
 Manilkara
 Mimusops
Botanical Description – Sapota (A. sapota)
Important
- Commonly known as Chiku in India
- It is a long life fruit tree
- Sapota is native of Tropical America
- believed to have originated in Central America
Habit
Evergreen tree; grow about 10m high;
3 categories, based on the habit (Nature of branches and colour of foliage)
1. Trees with erect growing habit
2. Branches with dropping habit
3. Trees with spreading habit
Root - Tap root system
Leaf - Elliptic to obovate, milky latex in bark of the plant.

Inflorescence - Solitary cyme; Auxillary
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Flower - Ebracteate, pedicillate, bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous ; protogynous
Calyx - Sepals 6; gamosepalous; arranged in 2 series of 3 each;
Corolla
Petals 6, gamopetalous ; single whorl corrugated top, tubular or companulate corolla
longer than calyx; 1/3 its length is divided into 12 segments, biseriate, outer series
represents the true corolla when as inner series consist of petalloid staminodes, imbricate;
Androecium
6 perfect stamens, 6 staminodes. Stamens are joined in between petals, epipetalous
stamens, filament short, obliquely erect anthers, ovoid, yellowish brown, basified four celled
anther.
Gynoecium
Protogyny, stigma oblique, ovary superior, ovary multichambered. Syncarpus, no.of
carpels = no. of ovules, axile placentation
Fruit
Berry, persistant calyx, at the apex of the fruit with style is presistent; shape – round,
ovoid, ovate; epicarp rusty brown colour; mesocarp is yellowish brown tender granular
containing gelatinous material. Unripe fruit are astringent in taste; ripe fruits are rich in
flavour and sweetness.
Seed
12 in number, some of the ovary may not be fertilized, sometimes embryo is
aborted; seeds are hard black colour, laterally compressed shinning easily separated from
the pulp ; spreads out in the central axis like the spokes of a wheel.
Anthesis and Pollination

 Flower open between 4 & 4.30 a.m. The anther dehisce 8.00 p.m. to 10.0 p.m.
Stigma receptivity two days before anthesis and continues to be receptive 12 hrs
after anthesis.
 Protogyney - Crosspollination
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Lecture 6
I. Botany – Bromeliaceae
Economic Importance
 Bromeliaceae being the family of famous and delicious fruit ‘pineapple’
 Several sp. are grown as indoor plants for ornamental purposes.
 Several sp. are sources of fiber for fabrics
Systematic position
- Monocotyledons, Epigynae, Bromeliaceae
Distribution
- It is represented by about 45 genera and over 2000 sp. And distributed in Tropical
America and West Indies. It is believed to have originated in Brazil.
Important genera
1. Ananas, 2. Bromelia, 3.Billbergia, 4.Tillandsia
Botanical Description – Pine apple (Ananas comosus)

Important Sp.
i. Ananas comosus, ii. A. bracteatus, iii. A. ananassoides, iv. A. fritzmuelleri,
v. A. erectifolius
Description of the family
Habit - Herbaceous perennial, roboust, stoloniferous; 1.0 to 1.5 m high
Leaf - Numerous, sessile, long and linear ; serrate or thorny margin; spinescent at the tip,
produce 40 leaves
Inflorescence - Takes 11-12 months for flowering; Terminal stalked spikes; 15 cm long
Flower
> 100 spirally flower arranged; bracteate; actinomorphic; trimerous ; hermaphrodite
flowers; blue – violet or pale lilac colour; base white; 1.5 to 2.5 cm
Perianth - 6 tepals in 2 series, of which outer 3 calyx like free and inner 3 corolla like free
Androecium - Stamens 6 ; free
Gynoecium - Tricarpellary; syncarpous; overy inferior; trilocular; style 1; Stigma 3
Fruit - Sorosis or multiple fruit
Seed
- Self incompatability presents, fruits develop partenocarpically. Some cases cross
pollination by humming birds
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ii. Botany of Punicaceae
Economic Importance
Edible Fruit
Pomegranate is a good source of protein, cerbohydrate, mineral matters and
appreciable quantities of oxalic acid and nicotinic acid, thiamine and riboflavin
Important species
 Punica granatum
 P. protopunica
Botanical description of Pomegranate (Punica granatum)
Habit
Small shrub or tree (6 – 10 m tall), evergreen under tropical condition.
Leaf
Clustered, opposite on small axillary branchlets, shiny, oblong, lanceolate, midrib
prominent; short petiole, broadly furrowed
Inflorescence
Cyme and due to heavy drop of secondary and tertiary buds they appear to be
solitary in clusters.
Flower
Flowers are borne in either terminally or in leaf axils in clusters of 1-5, campanulate
(Bell shaped). Two types of flowers a. Male flower& b. Bisexual flower
Calyx
Calyx 6, gamosepalous, tubular, persistent, red to pale yellow in colour.
Corolla
Petals 6 in number, free, inserted between the calyx lobe, petals red orange/
varigated, valvate
Androecium
Stamens numerous, epipetalous, placed irregularly on the calyx tube, unequal in
length, filament short, two celled, dorsifixed.
Gynoecium
Ovary embedded in the calyx tube, inferior ovary, several locules (3-7), many ovules;
style solitary with swelled base, yellow red stigma, suppresses the stamens.
Fruit
Round or globose berry called Balusta, persistent calyx; Aril - The out growth of seed
forms the edible part; It is juicy and of variable colours, red, pink, or yellow white.
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Pollination
 Anthesis – 11 am – 2 pm
 Opt. temp. for anthesis – 37 to 380C
 Dehiscence – few hrs before anthesis to 24 hrs later
 No. of pollen grains/anther – 16,000 to 23,000
 Pollen viability – 92 days at 90C
 Stigma receptivity - a before anthesis, peak at the time of anthesis
iii. Botany – Annonaceae

(Custard apple family)
Economic Importance
 Annona squamosa
– cultivated for its edible fruits.
 Artabotrys odoratissmus
– Cultivated for its ornamental and scented flowers.
 Polyalthia longifolia and P.pendula
– Are grown for their beautiful green drooping branches on road sides and
inresidential buildings.
Systematic position
- Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae, Ranales
Distribution
- It is largest families of order Magnoliales. It is represented by about 130
genera and over 2300 sp. Over 25 genera and 200 sp.have so far been reported in India,
mostly from peninsular region.
Important Indian Genera

1. Annona squamosa
2. Cananga odorata
3. Artabotrys odoratissimus
Botanical Description
Botanical description - Annona (Annona squamosa )

Important species
A. A. quamosa
B. A. reticulata
C. A. muricata
D. A. cherimola
E. A. diversifolia
Habit - Evergreen trees and shrubs
Root -Branched tap root

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Leaf
Simple, alternate, exstipulate, petiolate, petiole - short and hairy petioles; leaf apex
acute or obtuce; dull-green on the upperside, pale, with a bloom, below; slightly hairy when
young; aromatic when crushed.
Inflorescence - Solitary axillary ; 2-4 flowers in leaf axils
Flower - Bracteate, pedicillate, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, hypogynous
Calyx - Sepals 3, polysepalous, valvate
Corolla
Petals 6, arranged in 2 whorls of 3 with larger outer whorls and fleshier inner whorls;
polypetalous; valvate
Androecium
Stamens numerous; stamens inserted below the ovary, spirally arranged and forming
a ball or flat-topped mass with short and stout filaments; linear to oblong anthers which
face outward and open longitudinally.
Gynoecium
Multicarpellary; capels spirally arranged on receptacles; ovary superior; unilocular;
marginal placentation; Each flower can have from one to many pistils; ovary superior. The
stigmas are arranged in a cone in the flower center.
Fruit
A type of aggregate fruit known as Etaerio of berries. Berries are embedded in a
fleshy thalamus
Seed
Large endospermic
 Anthesis and pollination
- Anthesis throughout the day and night continuously
- Maximum 5.30 to 8.30 am
- Dichogamy (Proptogyny)
iv. Botany of Rahmnaceae

Economic Importance
 Fruits are generally eaten fresh
 Ber contains good amount of sugars, Vit. C, and B
 In India, the species is employed to rear lac insects
 Dye extracted from tree bark.
Edible fruits
Zizyphus mauritiana L.
Z.nummularia
Z.vulgaris
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Systematic Position
Polypetalae, Disciflorae, Celastrales

Rahmnaceae comprises of 58 genera and about 900 species.
Important genera
 Rhamnus – 150
 Phylica – 150
 Zizyphus – 100
 Ceanothus – 55
 Frangula – 50
 Colletia - 17
Botanical Description of Ber - Zizyphus jujube L.

Habit
Ziziphus mauritiana is a spiny, evergreen shrub or small tree up to 15 m high, with
trunk 40 cm or more in diameter; spreading crown; stipular spines and many drooping
branches. Bark dark grey or dull black, irregularly fissured.
Leaf
Simple, alternate, oblong-elliptic; 3-nerved, finely wavy-toothed on edges, shiny
green and hairless above; dense, whitish, soft hairs underneath; stipulate, stipules modified
into spines (stipular spines)
Inflorescence - Auxillary cymose inflorescence
Flower
Small, greenish cream, pedicellate, bracteate, pentamerous, bisexual, prominent
disc, star shaped ; actinomorphic; Hypogynous,
Calyx
5 sepals, free or basally connate, shortly tubular, broad at the base and narrow
towards the apex, valvate
Corolla
5 petals, white, small, free, smaller than calyx lobes, concave, reflexed, alternate
with sepals, valvate
Androecium
Stamens 5 (as many as petals), opposite to the petals, and enclosed by them,
conspicuous disc; anthers dithecous
Gynoecium
Bilocular, 2 carpels, 1-2 ovules in each locule; style simple, shorter than stamens,
bilobed; ovary superior to half inferior
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Fruit and seed
Fruit a drupe, globose to ovoid; skin smooth, glossy, thin but tough; yellowish to
reddish or blackish; flesh white, crisp, juicy, subacid to sweet.
Seed a tuberculate and irregularly furrowed stone, containing 1-2 elliptic brown
kernels each 6 mm long with straight embryo and little endosperm
v. Botany of Rosaceae (Rosa sp.)

Economic Importance
Edible fruits
Pyrus malus – Apple
P. communis – Pear
Prunus domestica – Plum
P.persica – Peach
Ornamental plants
Rose damascena
R.moschata
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, calyciflorae, Rosales

A family of 100 genera and 3000 species. About 25 genera and 230 species of
Rosaceae have so far been reported in India.
Important genera
 Rosae -250
 Pyrus -
 Prunus - 430
 Eriobotrya
 Rubus - 250
 Spiraea - 100
Botanical Description Rose (Rosa sp)
Habit - These are shrubs and climbers
Leaf
Unipinnately compound, alternate; stipulate, stipules paired, often adnate to the
petiole; serrate, pinnately reticulate venation
Inflorescence - Terminal solitary cyme
Flower
These are regular, bracteate, pedicellate, bisexual, usually perigynous; the receptacle
is hallowed and cupshaped; actinomorphic
Calyx - 5 sepals, free or basally connate, imbricate, sepals often foliaceous.

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Corolla - 5 corolla to numerous, polypetalous, imbricate; various colour forms
Androecium - Nmerous, free, anther two celled, dorsifixed.
Gynoecium
Hypanthium, Unilocular, many carpels, they are free (apocarpous); one ovule in each
carpel.
Ovary - Perigynous (half inferior ovary); style simple; capitate stigma
Fruit and seed - Fruit – Hip; seed - achnes

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Lecture 7
Botany of Solanaceae
Economic Importance
1. Food crops
2. Ornamental plants
3. Tobacco
4. Medicinal plants
Systematic position
Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, polemoniales
1. Mostly herbs and climbers
2. Leaves simple and alternate
3. Flowers – actinomorphic, bisexual, hypogynous, pentamerous
4. Corolla- gamopetalous, imbricate
5. Stamens – epipetalous and alternipetalous; adnate to the corolla
6. Gynoecium – 2-5 carpels, syncarpous, superior
Important members of Solanaceae
1. Tomato – Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.
2. Brinjal – Solanum melongena L.
3. Chilli – Capsicum annuum L.
4. Potato – Solanum tuberosum L.
i. Botanical description of Tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum L.)

 Most popular and widely grown vegetables in the world
 Origin - It is probably originated in Mexico-Peru.
Lycopersicon - 12 species
1. Eulycopersicon
 Characterized by red fruitededible species with carotenoid and lycopene
pigmentation
 The species present in this group are annual
L. esculentum – Cultivated species
L.pimpinellifolium – Wild relative
2. Eriolycopersicon
This group is characterized by green fruited in nature with anthocyanin pigmentation
L. pissisi, L. peruvianum, L. hirsutum, L. glandulosum, L. cheesmani
Habit
• It is herbaceous perennial but cultivated as annual. It has a tap root system with
numerous lateral roots
• Based on growth habit , it is further divided into two types
- Indeterminate : The terminal bud is always a vegetative bud. It continUous to grow
infavourable condition. It is climbing or trailing in nature.
- Determinate :The vegetative growth is restricted and the terminal bud is always a
flower bud. It plants become bushy and dwarf.
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Stem
Stem is green in colour, highly pubescent and moderately branched. Branches
usually sympodial, terminal bud aborts or produces an inflorescence The axis in continued
by development of axillary bud, each axis producers leaves at several nodes and terminates
in inflorescence.
Leaf
Spirally arranged, imparipinnate, opposite or alternate, ovate to oblong, irregular
toothed. Upper surface is pale green; lower surface is pale green
Inflorescence
Arise terminally; borne opposite, sometimes born between leaves; having 4-12
flowers, recemose with dichotomous branching.
Flower
Yellow in colour, Pendant, regular; hermaphrodite; pedicellate, pedicel 1-2cm long,
pubescent;The flower cluster is called truss; hypogynous,
Calyx
Calyx tube is short, 5-7 sepals, alternate with petals, sepals persistent and enlarging
in fruit;
Corolla - Petals 5 - 7, bright yellow colour, alternate to sepals;
Androecium
Stamens 5, greenish yellow, free at the base and united at the top; filaments short,
5mm long bright yellow; anthers attached at the base of the corolla (epipetalous); anthers
white and form anther cone; anthers dehisce longitudinally.
Gynoecium
Style and stigma green in colour; present within the anthredial cone; ovary superior;
5-6 locule; numerous ovule in each locule; syncarpous; axile placentation.
Fruit and seed

It is berry; at mature stage deep red in colour; persistent calyx. Seed, numerous,
reniform, hairy yellow or brown in colour.
Anthesis and pollination

 Anthesis starts at 6.30 am and continuous upto 11.00 a.m.
 Anther dehiscence is longitudinal. It occurs 1-2days after anthesis.
 The stigma receptivity at the time of anthesis. The stamen shed its pollen when the
sryle grows up through anther tube, thus leads shelf pollination.
 The optimum temperature for pollination is around 21oC.
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ii. Botanical description of Brinjal ( Solanum melongena L.)
 Brinjal is commonly known as egg plant or Aubergine
 Origin - It is probably originated in Indonesia and India
 Solanus is alarge genus
 Among 22 Indian species, the 5 closely related are
S. melongena, S. coagulans, s. xanthocarpum, S. indicum, S. maccanii
Habit - Perennial plant cultivated as an annual;
Stem
Erect bushy plant with compact and well branched stem and a deep root system.
Leaves
Alternate, simple, lobed, petiolate and lower surface of most cultivars covered with
dense wool like hairs; old plants robust spines are present.
Flowers - Hermaphrodite, large and showy

Calyx - Sepals 5, gamosepalous, light green in colour and persistent;
Corolla - Petals 5, gamopetalous, purple or white in colour;
Androecium - 6 stamens, attached at the base of the petals (epipetalous).
Gynoecium - Stigma capitate, stigma either above or on the same level or below the
stamens; carpels 2; syncarpous
Fruit & Seeds - Fruit – Berry; seeds many
Based on length of the styles (Heterostyley) classified into

1. Long styled with big ovary
2. Medium styled with medium ovary
3. Pseudo short styled with rudimentary ovary
4. True short styled with very rudimentary ovary
- The long and medium styled flowers set fruits, whereas pseudo short and true
short styled flowers did not set any fruit. However , chances of cross pollination is more
in long styled flowers.The highest percentage of fruit set is found where the stigma is
above the stamens.

 Flowering commences 70-75 days after planting
 Anthesis starts 5.35 a.m. and continuous upto 7.35 a.m. with peak at 6.05 a.m.
 The dehiscence of anthers begin 30 min. after anthesis. It commences at 6.00 a.m.
and countinued upto 8.00 a.m. with maximum at 6.35 a.m.
 The stigma is receptive from 2 days before anthesis and upto 8 days. The maximum
receptivity is on the day of anthesis which is remain effective upto 4 days.
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iii. Botanical description of Chilli – Capsicum annuum L.
 Origin - It is probably originated in Mexico
Species wealth
1. Capsicum annuum – Sweet pepper and chilli
2. C. baccatum – Tabasco pepper
3. C. frutescens
4. C. chinense
5. C. pubescens
Habit - Perennial herb or sub herb; grown as annual.

Stem - Main shoot is radial, erect, much branched.
Leaves - Simple, petiolate, ovate, entire
Flowers - Solitary, terminal, pedicillate
Calyx - Sepals 5, Campanulate (Bell shaped), shortely dentate 10 ribbed
Corolla - Petals 5, Campanulate, white or greenish in colour
Androecium
Stamens5, White or greenish stamens, anthers blueish, dehiscing longitudinally
Gynoecium - Superior ovary, locules 2, style simple, capitate.
Fruit & Seeds - Fruit - Berry; Indehiscent ; many seeded;

 Self pollinated crop
 Flowers open in the morning between 5.00 a.m. and 6.00 p.m.
 Anther dehiscence between 8.00 a.m. and 11.oo a.m.
 Pollens are fertile on the day of anthesis and stigma is receptive for about 24 hrs.
after flower opening
iv. Botanical description of Potato – Solanum tuberosum L.
 Chromosome no. 2n = 4x = 48
 Origin - It is probably originated in South and Central America
 In India potato was introduced in the beginning of the 17th century from Europe
Wild species of potato are
1. S. demissum – 2n=72, S. antiporzii - 2n=48, s. acaula - 2n=48, S. curtilobum - 2n=24
S. rybinii - 2n=24, S. phureja - 2n=24, S. phureja - 2n=24, S. chacoense - 2n=24
Habit - Branched, erect, herb; perennial
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Stem - Solid, hallow except at the nodes; ribbed and quadrangular
Leaves
Compound, pinnate, alternately arranged; petiolate; terminal leaflet is much bigger
and ovate, lateral leaflet short petiolate.
Flowers - Monochasial cyme, arising from extra auxillary position.

Calyx - 5 sepals, five lobed, gamosepalous;
Corolla - 5 petals, five lobed, gamopetalous;
Androecium
5 stamens; epipetalous; anthers are erect and longer than the filaments with apical
dehiscence.
Gynoecium - Superior ovary;bi carpellary; many ovules; style simple; capitate stigma.
Fruit & Seeds - Fruit - Berry; Globular or oval; seeds - numerous

 Anthesis time varies with varieties and species
 Pollen production is abundant from early morning to 10.00 a.m.
 Stigma receptivity and anther dehiscence are at the same time
Botany of Malvaceae
Economic Importance
 Cotton
Gossypium hirsutum - seed Fiber
G.barbadense – seed Fiber
 Other fibers
Hibiscus sabdariffa – Stem fiber
H.cannabinus – stem fiber
 Oils
Cotton seed oil – edible oil & for soap industries
H.cannabinus oil – edible & paint, varnishes
 Ornamentals
H.rosasinensis, H.schizocarpus, Thespesia sp.
 Vegetables
Abelmoschus esculentus – Vegetable
H.sabdariffa, H.cannabinus - Chutney
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae (Poly petalous & hypogynouss), Malvales
1.Bisexual and actinomorphic
2. Pentamerous with calyx valvate
3. Many sepals; epicalyx
4. Tri or multicarpellary
5. Axile placentation
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A family of about 85 genera and 1,500 sp. Malvaceae are widely distributed in
tropical and temperate regions. About 22 genera and 125 sp.Have so far been reported in
India.
Important genera
Hibiscus –300, Sida – 200, Pavonia – 200.,Abutilon – 100, Alcea – 60, Malva – 40
Gossypium – 20, Althaea – 12
Botanical Description of Bhendi ( Abelmoschus esculentus)
Habit - Herbaceous annual, .5 m to 2 m ht.
Leaf - Simple, alternate, and palmately veined. 2 free lateral stipules.
Flower
Regular, polypetalous, bisexual, hypogynous and copiously mucilaginous, they have
whorls of bracteoles known as epicalyx.
Calyx - 5 sepals, gamosepalous, valvate.
Corolla
5 petals, polypetalous, attached at the base of the staminal tube, twisted aestivation.
Androecium
There are many stamens which are monoadelphous (united into one bundle called
the staminal column or tube). Pollen grains are large and spiny
Gynoecium
There are 5 to numerous carpels, syncarpous; superior ovary, 5 to numerous locules,
each locules has one to many ovules;
- Style passes through the staminal column,
- Stigma are free, and the same number as the carpels.
Fruit and seed - The fruit is a capsule, some times a schizocarp

 Potentially self pollinated crop
 Time of anthesis varies with cultivar, temperature, and humidity
 The anthesis time is 8.00 to 10.00 a.m
 Anther dehiscence is transverse and occurs 15 – 20 minutes after anthesis
 Pollen fertility is maximum on the period between an hour before and an hour after
opening of the flower.
 Stigma is receptive at opening of the flower
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Lecture 8
Botany of Cucurbitaceae
Important crops
1. Bitter gourd – Momordica charantia L.

2. Ridge gourd – Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.
3. Pumpkin – Cucurbita moschata (Duch.)Poir.
4. Watermelon – Citrullus lanatus Thumb.
5. Cucumber – Cucumis sativus L.
6. Musk melon – Cucumis melo L.
Economic Importance
• Curcurbitaceae is a family of several edible fruits which are cooked or eaten raw in
our daily food.
• Some of them include i.Cucumis sativus – Cucumber ii.Citrulus lanatus – Water
melon iii.Cucurbita moschata – Pumpkin etc.
• Some species of are having ornamental value.
• Some Luffa species provide sponges for oil filters and bathing
• Systemic Position
Polypetalae , Calyciflorae (Epigynous & Perigynous), Passiflorales
Common Features of Cucurbits

 Flowers regular, unisexuals& only some times bisexual
 Flowers pentamerous,usualy epigynous (Inferior ovary) and only rarly perigynoys
(half inferior).
 Calyx and corolla are united i.e. gamosepalous and gamopetalous
 Ovary is usually tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior, unilocular or trilocular
 Placentation – Parietal or axile
 Fruit – Pepo or capsule and no endosperm.
Origin - Tropical Africa

• This group comprises of 117 genera and 825 species.
• Out of this 30 species of 9 genera are used as cultivated plants
• Most of the cucurbits are monoecious and annual in habit
• However plants like
1.Trichosanthus anguina – Pointed gourd
2. Sechium edule - Chow Chow
3.Momordica cochinchinensis – Kakral (Sweet Gourd)
4. Momordica dioica - Kakral
5. Coccinia indica – Ivy Gourd
aredioecious and perennial in nature
This genus comprises of about 30 species distributed over two distinct geographic areas
i. South East Himalayas – Asiatic group

The important in this group is cucumber with basic chromosome no. x = 7.
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ii.African group – Africa, middle East & Central Asia
Musk melon is one of the important members of this group. The basic chromosome
no. x = 12. Few tetraploids and hexaploids are also found in this group.
Sexforms in cucurbitaceous
A. Monoecious
i. Trimonoecious
Plants bearing staminate, pistillate and hermaphrodite flowers
(eg. Cucumber, Musk melon, Ridge gourd)
ii. Monoecious
Plants bearing staminate and pistillate flowers (eg. Most of the cucurbits)
iii. Androecious
Plants bearing only staminate flowers
iv. Andromonoecious
Plants bearing staminate and hermaphrodite flowers (eg. Musk melon)
v. Gynoecious
Plants bearing only pistillate flowerseg. Rider gourd, cucumber, musk melon
(Segregating population during hybridization)
vi. Gynomonoecious
Plants bearing pistillate and hermaphrodite flowers
vii. Hermaphrodite
Plants bearing only hermaphrodite flowers (eg. Cucumber)
viii. Gynomonodioecious
A group consisting of gynoecious and monoecious individuals
ix.Gynoidioecious
A group consisting of gynoecious and hermaphrodite plants
x. Androdioecious
A group consisting of androecious and hermaphrodite plants
B. Dioecious
A group consisting of androecious and gynoecious plants eg.
1.Trichosanthus anguina – Pointed gourd
2. Sechium edule - Chow Chow
3.Momordica cochinchinensis – Kakral (Sweet Gourd)
4. Momordica dioica - Kakral
5. Coccinia indica – Ivy Gourd
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i. Botanical description of Bitter gourd – Momordica charantia L.
 Chromosome No. 2n = 22
 Origin and Distribution
- Originated in Tropical Africa
- Genus momordica comprises of 23 sp.
- Mamardicin – Bitter principle of momordica
Related species
i. Momordica dioica (Roxb.) - Kakral
Chromosome no. 2n = 28; Dioecious; perennial;
Propagated through tubers
ii. Momordica cochinchinensis - Sweet Gourd
Chromosome no. 2n = 14
ii. M.balsamina – Balsam apple
iii. M. cymbalaria (M.tuberosa)
Habit : Annual climber
Stem
Stem is angular at the base, branching, prostrate; tendrils are produced on leaf axils.
Leaves : Simple, alternate, palmately deeply lobed
Flower : Monoecious, unisexual, pentamerous; large; yellow in colour.
Calyx
Sepals 5, tubular, gamosepalous, calyx lobs are alternate with corolla lobe, fused to
ovary wall in female flowers; imbricte or valvate aestivation
Corolla
5 petals/ lobed, united to form a campanulate, alternate with sepals; yellow in
colour; imbricte or valvate aestivation
Androceium
Stamens 3; Staminate flowers with long pedicle; filaments free, two stamens having 2
chambered & one unichamber.
Gynoecium : Inferior ovary; 3 carpels, syncarpous; short styled
Fruit & seed

Fruit is berry with warty growth on the surface; dark green to whitish in colour and
turn yellow to orange yellow on ripening. Seeds – many, parietal placentation, seed covered
with gelatinous layer
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• Flowers starts opening between at 5.00 a.m. to 10.30 p.m.
• Anthers dehise about 2 hours before blooming i.e., between 7.00 to 8.00 a.m.
• though the pollen fertility starts from 5.00 a.m and lasts till 12.30 p.m. and it is
maximum at the time of anther dehiscence.
• Similarly the stigma becomes receptive one day before anthesis and continuous to
be till one day after anthesis it is maximum at the time of anthesis.
Ridge gourd – Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.
Chromosome- No.2n=26
Origin & distribution - Native of India
Related Sp.
 Luffa acutangula (L.)Roxb. – Ridge gourd
 L.cylindrica – Sponge gourd
 L. Graveolens
 L.echinata
Habit : Annual climber
Stem : Stem is slender at young and become angular on maturity; branching at base
Leaf : Simple, smooth, 5 lobed; tendrils are seen on leaf axils
Flower
4 flowering forms are available i. Monoecious ii. Andromonoecious
iii. Hermophrodite iv. Gynoecious. Flowers are solitary; pale yellow colour; Staminate flowers
borne in racemes; some time both staminate & pistillate flowers are borne on the same
node.
Calyx : 5 sepals/ lobed, gamosepalous; united at the base.

Corolla : 5 petals; companulate; bright yellow in colour
Androcium : Stamens 3, attached to the calyx tube, anthers free.
Gynoecium : Inferior ovary; 3 carpels, syncarpous;
Fruit&seed
Fruit is berry in which endocarp is edible which later becomes fibrous and spongy.
Seeds : Many, black in colour.

• Anthesis starts in the evening by 5.00 p.m. and countinous up to 8.00 p.m.
• The anther dehiscence is seen immediately after anthesis.
• Pollen viability starts from the time of dehiscence to till 2 – 3 days in winter and 1- 5
days rainy season.
• Stigma receptive 6 hours before anthesis and continuous till 84 hrs. anthesis.
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Botanical description of Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata)
Chromosome =No. 2n – 40
Origin & distribution

Northern and Southern America. It is extensively grown in India , mainly because of
its storage capacity.
Related Sp.
1. Cucurbita moschata (Duch.)Poir. – Pumpkin
2. C. pepo L. – Summer Squash
3. C. maxima Dusch – Winter squash / Red pumpkin
4. C. mixta - Winter squash / Red pumpki
Habit : Annual trailing vine
Stem
Stem is thick, angular, branched and prostrate with branched tendrils. The trailing
vine strikes roots at every node.
Leaf : Simple, smooth, 5 lobed, non hirsute, soft textured
Flowers : Unisexuals, deep yellow in colour, solitary in leaf axils.
Calyx : 5 sepals / lobed and adnate to the ovary
Corolla : 5 petals; deep yellow in colour
Androceioum : Stamens 3; anthers free.
Gynoecium : Inferior ovary; 3 carpellary; syncarpous
Fruit
Fruit isPepo and varies in shape, colour, flavour and taste. Fruit rind is hard greenish
to reddish brown in &SEED.Fruit has hallow cavity. Seeds - many
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Watermelon – Citrullus lanatus Thumb. (C.vulgaris Scrad.)
Chromosome No.= 2n – 22
Origin & distribution

- It is indigenous to Tropical Africa
- It is consumed as thirst quenching dessert fruit during summer
- Suitable for river bed cultivation
- Seedless watermelons (triploid) areproduced artificially for commercial cultivation
Related species
- Citrullus vulgaris var. fistulosus Schrad. - Tinda
Habit : It is an vine or creeper ; It has an extensive root system
Stem : Branched and prostrate
Leaves
Simple, alternate, cordate at the base, deeply pinnated into 3 - 4 lobes; tendrils are
borne on the axils of leaves
Flower
Monoecious; Unisexual (both male and female flowers borne on the same vine);
flowers are light yellow in colour.
Calyx :5 sepals / lobed; companulate
Corolla :Petals 5 , united; yellow in colour
Androcium :3 stamens; attached to the calyx tube; anthers are cohering
Gynoecium :Inferior ovary; 3 carpels; syncarpous; many seeds
Fruit&Seed
Pepo – (Berry with hallow cavity & thick rind); parietal placentation; flesh red or pink
in colour; many seeds, dark brown in colour.
Floral Biology , anthesis & Pollination
The whole period of bud development stage is completed in 12- 16 days by the male
and in 11-13 days by female bud.The anthesis starts in the early morning at 6.00 a.m.
continuous up to 7.30 a.m. with peak between 6.30. - 7.00 a.m.The dehiscence of anthers
starts 1 hour before anthesis and continuous up to 6.30 a.m.The peak period varies from
5.15 a.m to 5.45 a.m The stigma become receptivity 2 hours before anthesis and continuous
upto 3 hrs. after anthesis.From the date of pollination to maturity it takes 30 to 40 days to
full maturity and ripening of fruits.
Botanical description of Cucumber – Cucumis sativus L.

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Chromosome= No. 2n =14
Origin & Distribution - Originated in India
Related Sp. : Cucumis sativus var. anguria - Gherkin
Habit : Annual vine; trailing or climbing habit
Stem : Angular and hairy; slender and hallow
Leaves
Simple, large with petioles; alternate; green to dark green colour; palmately lobed
with hairs
Flower
Monoecious; Unisexual; solitary; axillary; yellow to deep yellow in colour; staminate
flowers are more than pistillate flowers.
Calyx : Sepals 5; tube; adnate to the ovary
Corollla : Petals 5 , lobed; camapnulate; yellow in colour
Androceium : 3 stamens; yellow in colour; anthers are adhering to the corolla tube.
Gynoecium : Inferior ovary; 3 carpels; syncarpous;
Fruit : Pepo – (Berry with hallow cavity & thick rind);
Seed : Seeds – many, parietal placentation;
Anthesis and Polination

- Anthesis between 5.30 a.m. to 7.00 p.m.
- Dehiscence takes place between 4.30 a.m. to 5.00 a.m.
The pollen viability attain from the time of anther dehiscence upto 2.00 p.m.
The stigma receptivity takes plancr 12 hrs before flower opening and continuous to be till 6
to 7 hrs. after that.
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Botanical description of Musk melon – Cucumis melo L.
Chromosome No.= 2n – 24

- Native of North West India
- From there the plants spread to china, Japan, Iran, Turkey and Asia Miner
- It includes both salad and cooking types
Related Species
• Cucumis melo L. - Musk melon
• Cucumis melo var. reticulatus – Netted Melon
• Cucumis melo var. flexuosus – Snake Melon
• Cucumis melo var. utilissimus – Long Melon
• Cucumis melo var. momordica – Snap melon
Habit : Annual vine with trailing habit
Stem : Branched stem (3 to 8), prostrate, angular
Leaves : Simple, 3 to 5 lobed, palmate, alternate, some time hairy
Flower
Solitary, axillary, unisexual; yellow in colour; most of the cultivated forms are
andromonoecious (bisexual & staminate flowers in separate nodes of the same plant)
Calyx : Sepals 5, forms a tube, its lobes alternate with corolla lobes
Corolla : Petals 5, Campanulate; 5 lobed
Androceium : Stamens are 3 with filaments forming column
Gynoceium : Ovary superior; style short and thick
Fruit : Fruit - Berry; many seeds; parietal placentation
Floral Biology
• Anthesis (Flower opening) takes place between 5.30 a.m. to 6.30 p.m.
• The dehiscence of anthers takes place just before anthesis i.e 5.00 a.m to 6.00 a.m.
• The pollen viability lasts from 5.00 a.m. to 2.00 p.m. goes down as the day advances
from morning to evening.
• The stigma are highly receptive 2 hours before anthesis and receptivity continous up
to 2-3 hours after anthesis
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Lecture 10
Botany of Moringaceae
Botanical description of Moringa oleifera Lam. / (M. pterigosperma Goertu.)
- Indigenous to India and Tropical Africa

- Chromesome No. 2n=28
- Monogeneric family
- It is used as vegetables , neutraceutical and medicinal purposes
- Pod (Fruit) and leaves are the economic part of the plant
There are two common species,

M. oleifera
It is characterized by leaves usually tripinnate, leaflets 12-18 mm long, petioles
yellow or white without red streaks and the tree is medium-sized.
M. concanensis
It is characterized by bipinnate leaves, leaflets 15-30 mm long, petals with red
streaks or reddish at base and the tree is large.
PKM 1 - Annual Moringa

• PKM 1 variety was released in 1988. It is a pureline selection from
Eppothumvendran of Tirunelveli region.
• Propagation through seeds
• Though the flowers are in clusters of 25-150/cluster, only one pod develops usually
and rarely 2-4 develop per cluster.
• The pods are 75 cm long with a girth of 6.3 cm and weigh 150 g with 70% flesh.
• The average yield is 220 fruits/tree.
• The estimated yield is around 52 t/ha. The pods attain edible maturity 65 days after
flowering. The leaves can be used as a nutritive green.
• Ratoon crops can be maintained for 3-4 years. After every year the trees have to be
cut back to 1 m from ground level.
• This variety can be grown as inter crop in coconut orchards during the early period.
Chilli, onion and groundnut can be grown as intercrop in moringa fields.
PKM 2 Annual Moringa

• It is a hybrid derivative of a cross between MP 31 (Eppothumvendran local) and MP
28 (Arasaradi local)
• It can be propagated through seeds.
• The tree comes to bearing six months after planting and is suitable for growing in
different cropping systems.
• The pods are 126 cm long, with a girth of 8.3 cm and individual fruit weight of 280 g
with 70% flesh.
• The pods are less seeded and delicious. The average number of pods per tree is
220/tree/year. It yields 98 tonnes/ha.
• Ratoon crop can also be taken up for three years. It is suitable for growing in Tamil
Nadu and is adapted to most soil types varying from sandy loam to clay loam with
good drainage.
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• The fruits are fleshy and tasty. It comes to flowering within 5-6 months of sowing
and comes to harvest in 7-8 months.
• The peak harvest is during March-August. The plants grow to a height of 4-6 m in a
year and produce 6-12 primary branches.
• The pinnate leaves are about 40 cm long with small leaflets which are dark green on
the upper side and pale green on the lower side.
Moringa Oil - Ben Oil

• The bright yellow oil with a pleasant taste
• The Moringa seeds yield 38–40% edible oil
• Moringa oil is most stable oil in nature and it does not go rancid.
• It does’t boil at high temperature and does’t freeze at very low temperature
• Moringa oil is very long lasting oil with a shelf life of up to 5 years.
• Moringa oil has been used as a perfume base and gives a good soap
• Moringa oil has tremendous cosmetic value and is used in body and hair care as a
moisturizer and skin conditioner.
• Moringa oil has been used in skin preparations and ointments since Egyptian times.
• Moringa oil can also be used as a fuel and for oiling machinery
• Moringa oil used in finely crafted equipments
• Moringa seed kernel powder used as water clarifier
Systematic Position
Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae, Parietales
• Polypetalae – Corolla of separate petals

• Thalamiflorae – Stamens many; Hypogynous; disc absent
• Parietales - Pentamerous flowers
- Stamens as many as petals or more
- Ovary tricarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular
- Numerous ovules, parietal placentation
Habit : A small or medium sized tree; bark corky, soft, fissured; tuberous root.
Stem : Bark corky, wood soft.
Leaves
Usually tripinnate; 25-48 cm long, crowded at the distal end of the branches,
longpetioled; glands between the pinnate leaflets; leaflets stalked, ovate or obovate; entire,
dull green on both sides, lighter coloured abaxial side, pinnately nerved.
Flowers
Flowers are fragrant, bisexual, pedicellate, axillary, many flowered panicles, densely
pubscent, 0.7-1 cm long; zygomorphic.
Calyx : Sepals 5,united, green, sepals unequal in size; tuberculous outside,
Corolla : Petals 5, unequal, yellowish white with a greenish base;

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Androecium
Stamens 5; (2 – small, 2- medium & 1 tall) alternating with 5 staminodes
Gynoecium
Superior ovary on a short gynophore; 3 carpelled, one locule, with many ovules;
parietal placentation.
Fruit
pod; pendulous, linear, ribbed, usually 20-45 cm long, sometimes 120 cm long; 3-
valved, valves spongy and thick. Seeds are numerous, globular, about 1 cm diameter, three
winged.

• Crosspollinated crop
• acommence as early as 4.30a.m. and continue till 6.30 a.m. , peak observed at 5.30
a.m.
• Anther dehiscence starts around 4.00 a.m. and continues upto 6.30 a.m., the peak at
5.30 a.m to 5.45 a.m.
• In anther of longest stamen dehisces first followed by the stamens in the descending
order of filaments length.
• At full maturity the anthers are greenish yellow and after dehiscence they turn to
pale colour.
• On an average each anther has 7400 pollens and diameter of each pollen measures
5.4 microns.
• The stigma become receptive a day prior to opening of flowers and continue to be
receptive on the day of opening.
• The receptivity is lost on the next day of anthesis.
• Pollen viability is 72 % at anther dehiscence.
• Under natural condition the fruit setting percent ranges from 11-15 per cent .
• Cross pollination yields good fruit set and seed set than self pollination.
Botany of Fabaceae
i. Peas – Pisum sativum L.

ii. French beans – Phaseolus vulgaris L.
i. Peas – Pisum sativum L.

• Chromosome no. 2n=14
• Propable origin is Ethiopia
• Edible forms
P. sativum Linn. hortense : Garden pea
P. sativum Linn. Var. arvense : Field pea
P. sativum Linn. Var. macrocarpum : Edible podded pea
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• Wild species
- P. arvense
- P. elatius
• Father of genetics - Gregor Jonann Mendel
• He found plants such as peas, the most suitable material for his experiments
i. easy to culture
ii. short growth period and life cycle
iii. self pollinating crop
iv. contrasting heritable characters
- length and colour of the stem
- size and form of leaves
- position, size and colour of leaves
- length of flower stalk
- colour and size of pods
- size, colour and form of seeds
ii. French beans – Phaseolus vulgaris L.

- Chromosome no. 2n=22
- Probable origin is Central and South America – Mexico
- Species
Phaseolus vulgaris
P. lunatus – Lima bean
P. coccineus – Scarlet bean
P.acutifolius – Tepary bean
Uses
• It is an excellent food for human consumption, taken either as a vegetable or in
soup.
• Large proportion of peas are processed canned, frozen or dehydrated for
consumption in the off-season.
• Pea –straw is a nutritious fodder.
• Pea is very rich in protein and, therefore, very valuable for the vegetarians.
• Pea is being used in a growing snack market.
• One snack item is prepared by soaking the peas overnight and frying them in palm oil
or coating them with other food items such as rice flour before frying for the
purpose of imparting different flavours.
Another product is prepared by finely grinding the peas and extruding them under pressure
to create
• different shapes.
• The different shapes are then fried, seasoned and packaged.
Systematic Position
• Polypetalae, Calyciflorae, Rosales,
• Polypetalae – Corolla of separate petals
• Parietales - Flowers hypogynous to epigynous
- Stamens arranged in many whorls
- Gynoecium apocarpous to syncarpous
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- Ovary generally inferior to superior ovary
Habit
Herbaceous annual, glaucous, tendril bearing, climbing or trailing plant with white or
purple coloured flowers on long stalked axillary racemes.
Stem - Bush type, Pole type, Slender, circular and weak, trailing or bushy habit
Leaves
Pinnately trifoliate; terminal leaflets ending in branched tendrils; petiolate;stipules
very large and foliaceous and denticulate at base (foliaceous – stipule lamina directly
attached to the petiole); Leaves - ovate or elliptic, upto 6 in number, entire with undulating
margin.
Inforescence
Racemose raceme; Large and attractive, solitary, axillary, upto 3 flowers per raceme;
Bisexual; actinomorphic; Hypogynous
Calyx - Sepals 5, connate (gamosepalous); valvate
Corolla
Petals 5, free; white or purple, one standard petal is broad; 2 wing petals; 2 keel
petals(boat shape) fuse along their lower margin, .It encloses the reproductive parts of the
flower, which leads to self pollination; imbricate (desendingly)
Androecium - Stamens 10, Diadelphous (9+1), filaments broad,
Gynoecium
Unilocular; marginal placentation; provided with a small stalk at the base; superior
ovary; Style simple and unbranched, ovules in two alternating rows.
Fruit
Pod; Smooth, swollen or compressed; straight or curved on short stalks upto 12-
15cm with as many as 10 seeds
Botany of Alliaceae
i. Big Onion – Allium cepa var cepa

Small Onion - A. cepa var. aggregatum
ii. Garlic - Allium sativum
iii. Leek – Allium porum
Propagation
 Big Onion – Allium cepa var cepa - Seeds

 Small Onion - A. cepa var. aggregatum - Bulbs
 (Co (On) 5 onion propagated through seeds)
 Garlic - Allium sativum - Clove
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Garlic
• Chromosome no. 2n=16
• Propable origin is Central Asia or Mediterranean region
Habit : Bulbous biennial or perennial herbs
Stem : Narrow flat, longitudinally folded leaf blades.
Iflorescence
Inflorescence is umbels with numerous small flowers; Bisexual; flowers are white to
bluish in colour; flowers are form in simple umbels at the apex of floral stem which is
commonly hallow when mature; Umbel is enclosed by papery spathe, which splits open by
the pressure of flowering buds; number of flowers vary from 50 to 2000; actinomorphic;
trimerous;
Perianth :6 tepals are arranged in two whorls, reflexed, free; valvate
Androecium : 6 stamens, arranged in two whorls of three; anthers bilocular
Gynoecium :Superior ovary; trilocular; 2 ovules per locule; nectary at the base
Fruit :Capsule or berry; 2 seeds per locule (6 seeds per berry)

 The anthesis starts at 7.00 a.m. and continuous upto 1.00 p.m.
 The phenomenon of Protoandry viz., anthers coming to maturity before the
stigma becomes receptive, makes the flowers mostly cross pollinated .
 The anthers of inner whorl dehise first and shed pollen followed by anthers of
outer whorl and all of pollen shed over a period of 2 to 3 days.
 The style begins to elongate slowly when the flower opens but reaches its full
length only after all the pollen have been shed.
 Then stigma becomes receptive viz.,14 hours after anthesis
 The receptivity of the stigma lasts for 34 hours.
 Cross pollinated crop
A. cepa
- Leaf bases store food
- Fertile diploid, so can propagate through both seed and vegetatively
A.sativum
- Leaf bases do not store food, but mature as dry scales enclosing cloves.
- Sterile diploid (inflorescence turn bears bulbils instead of flowers) so exclusively
vegetatively propagated plants.
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Lecture - 11
Botany of - Brasicaceae
• Family - Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (Mustard Family)

• Family of about 375 genera & 3,200 sp. About 50 genera & 140 sp have so far reported
in India.
Important generas are
Draba -300 Ibris - 30
Cardamine – 160 Sisymbrium - 90
lepidium – 150 Heliophila – 75
Alyssum – 150 Rorippa - 70
Arabis – 120 Brassica - 50
Erysimum – 100 Raphanus- 8
• It has originated from wild non heading type Cole warts (Brassica oleraceae var.
sylvestris)
Economic Importance
• Vegetable
- B. oleraceeae var. capitata - Cabbage
- B. oleraceae var. botrytis - Cauliflower
- B. oleraceae var. gongylodes - Knol- Khol
- Raphanus sativus - Radish
- Brassica rapa - Turnip
• Oils – Fatty oil used for cooking , pickles etc., is obtained from the seeds of several
species of this family.
- B. compestris var. sarson
• Ornamentals – Among the well known ornamentals are
- Candytuft – Ibris sp.
- Sweet alyssum – Lobularia sp.
• Medicinal – Majority of crucifers produce an abundance of vitamin c. The
characteristic pungent smell of its members is because of sulphur compounds.
Systemic Position
Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae, Parietales
• Thalamiflorae
- distinct sepals free from ovary
- Presence of many stamens
- Hypogynous ovary
• Parietales
- Pentamerous flowers; imbricate aestivation
- Stamens as many as petals or more
- ovary tri or bi carpellary; syncarpous; unilocular
Recognition of Cruciferae members
- Herbs with a smelling watery juice
- flowers of 4 sepals, 4 petals and 6 stamens
- Corolla cruciform
- Stamens tetradynamous
- Fruit siliqua or silicula
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Botanical description of Cabbage(B. oleraceeae var. capitata)
- Chromesome No. 2n = 18
- Origin - South Europe
- Economic part - Head
- Propagation – Seeds
- Flavour – Glucoside sinigrin
Habit : Herbaceous Annual – Vegetable Production

Biennial – Seed Production; erect, 30-40 cm high
Leaves
Simple, alternate; leaves are sessile, ovate – oblong, entire; leaves are variable in
shape, colour and size; fleshy, thick, glabrous.
Inflorescence
Raceme and without bracts or bracteoles; terminal, 10-50cm long, 20-40 flowers.
Flowers
Ebracteate, ebracteolate, complete, bisexual, tetramerous, actinomorphic,
hypogynous
Calyx : 4 sepals, polysepalous, in 2 whorls of 2 each
Corolla
4 petals, polypetalous, pale yellow, cruciform (arranged in a cross), alternate with
sepals.
Androecium
6 stamens, arranged in 2 whorls, an outer whorl of 2 short stamens and inner whorl
of 4 long stamens (i.e. Tetradynamous); anthers dithecous; longitudinally dehiscent
Gynoecium
Bi carpellary, bilocular, syncarpous, superior ovary, numerous ovules, parietal
placentation; style 1, stigma capitates
Fruits & Seeds - Fruit – siliqua, small, curved embryo
Pollination
- Cabbage is naturally cross pollinated crop due to self incompatibility
- Pollination by bees and flies (Entomophilous)
Botanical description of Cauliflower - B. oleraceae var. botrytis
• Chromosome No. 2n = 18, 20, 36

• Origin – Eastern Mediterranean Region
• The economic part or edible part is called Curd
(Terminal inflorescence consisting of unopened immature flower buds on a
peduncle)
• Propagation - seeds
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Habit : Herbaceous annual – Curd production. Biennial – Seed production
Stem : Short, thick in nature
Leaf : Leaves large, long, entire with wavy margin
Inflorescence
inflorescence raceme; flowers borne in the main stem and its branches; pedicle
slender only 1.5 to 2 cm long
Flower
Ebracteate, ebracteolate, white in colour, complete, bisexual, tetramerous,
actinomorphic,hypogynous
Calyx : 4 sepals, polsepalous, in 2 whorls of 2 each
Corolla
sepals
Androecium
Gynoecium
placentation; style 1, stigma capitate.
Fruits & Seeds : Fruit – siliqua, small, curved embryo
Pollination
Flowers open in the morning.Stigma is receptive a few hours earlier than the dehiscence of
anther and release of pollen (Protogyny). It also exhibits self incompatibility just like other
crucifers (The pollen of a flower will not germinate on its own stigma).Cross pollinated crop.
Cross pollination by insects favors abundant seed set.Flowers secretes nectar freely and are
very attractive to pollinating insects especially bees.
Botanical description of Radish (Raphanus sativus)
• Chromosome no. 2n = 18
• Origin – West Asia (China and India)
• Economic part – Swollen fusiform roots
• Leaves are rich in vit-A & C
• Root white in colour and pink colour of roots is due to anthocynin.
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Habit : Annual, erect, more or less densely hairy herb, 20-100 cm ht.
Stem : Short and thick
Leaf
Simple, alternate, light to dark green, petiole 3-5.5 cm long; oblong- ovate; upper
leaves are shorter the lower leaves.
Flower
Ebracteate, ebracteolate, complete, bisexual, 1.5 to 2.0 cm,; pedicellate, 1-2.5cm
long; actinomorphic, tetramerous, hypogynous
Inflorescence : Inflorescence raceme; flowers small, white to light pink.
Calyx : 4 sepals, polsepalous, in 2 whorls of 2 each
Corolla
sepals.
Androecium
Gynoecium
placentation; style 1, stigma capitates
Fruit&Seed : Fruit – siliqua, small, curved embryo
Cross pollinated crop

Natural cross pollination varies, normally it will be more than 80%
• Pollination is entirely by insects of which honey are the most important.
Botany of Chenopodiaceae- (Goosefoot Family)
• A family of about 102 genera and over 1,200 sp. About 20 genera and over 55 sp.
Represent the family in India
Important genera
Artiplex – 200 Beta - 6
Salsola – 150 Spinacia - 3
Chenopodium – 150 Salicornia - 35
Kochia – 90
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Systemic Position
• Monochalamydeae or Apetalae, Curvembryeae
• Curvembryeae
- Embryo coiled
- Ovule generally one
Recognition of Chenopodiaceae Members

- Annual or perennial herbs or shrubs
- Flowers monochlamydous, small and greenish
- Basal placentation
- Fruit urticle
Beta vulgaris var. esculenta – Beet root
B. vulgaris var. bengalensis – Pakack or spinach beet
Botanical description of – Beet root (B. vulgaris var. esculenta)

Chromosome no. 2n = 18
Origin – Mediterranean Region
Economic part – Fleshy carbohydrate rich swollen tap root (Napiform)
Habit : Annual herb
Stem : Short stem
Leaf
Leaves are simple, alternate, petiolate, exstipulate; arranged on the stem closely in a
spiral fashion at the crown
Inflorescence :Long spike like inflorescence; normally develops in the second year;
Flower
Small, sessile; braceteate; arise in cluster of 3-4 in the axils of bracts of inflorescence;
complete, bisexual, actinomorphic, perigynous
Perianth
5 tepals, free, greenish yellow, fleshy, small resembles sepals; the perianth does not
wither and drop off as the fruit ripens (persistent), imbricate
Androecium
5 stamens; placed opposite to tepals segment; anthers dithecous, longitudinally
dehiscent
Gynoecium
Ovary tri carpellary, unilocular, one ovule, basal placentation, half inferior ovary;
style 3;stigma 3.
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Fruit&Seed
Fruit – utricle; The seed ball containing one to 4 or even more true seeds. The seeds
are embedded in a mass of hardened receptacle and perianth tissue. Each seed is with
embryo curved around the starchy endosperm.
Botany of Amaranthacea - (Pigweed Family)

Economic Importance
- Ornamental plants
Amaranthus tricolour
Celosia cristata
Gomphrena globosa
- Edible plants
Amaranthus sp.
• A family of about 65 genera and 900 species. About 18 genera and over 50 species
have been reported from India.
The important generas are
Alternanthers – 200
Gomphrena – 100
Iresine – 80
Amaranthus – 60
Celosia - 60
Systamic Position
Monochlamydeae or Apetalae, Curvembryeae
Curvembryeae - Embryo coiled; Ovule generally one
Recognition of Amaranthaceae Members

- Mostly herbs; dense or congested inflorescence
- flowers small with dry bracts
- stamens connate , at least at the base
- fruit – utricle or capsule
Botanical description of Amaranth sp.

• Chromosome no. 2n = 34
• Economic part – leaf and grain
• Genus Amaranthus – C4 pathway (Sugarcane, Maize, sorghum)
• Anomalous secondary growth thickening
Amaranthus divided into 2 sections

i. Amaranthotyphus Dumort
• A. caudatus, A. retorflexus
• A. dubius , A. spinosus
ii. Blitopsis Dumort
• A. gangeeicus, A. angustifolius, A. lividus
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Cultivated species of Amaranthus

Green Amaranth – A, dubius, A. tricolor, blitum, A. hybridus, A. viridis, SpinosusA. retroflexus
Grain Amaranth- A. Caudatus, A. Hypochondriacus, A. cruentus
Varieties
CO 1 - Amaranthus dubius – Mulai keerai
CO 2 - A. tricolor - Mulai keerai
CO 3 – A .tristis – Arakeerai
CO 4 - A. hypochondriacus – Thandu keerai
CO 5 - A. dubius – Thandu keerai
Habit : Annual plants,
Stem
Anomalous secondary growth occurs by the formation of collateral vascular bundles
from cambium in the pericycle.
Leaf : Simple, alternate, exstipulate, usually entire,
Flower
Bracteate, bracts scaly, membranous; bracteolate, bracteoles dry and membranous;
apetalous, very small, incomplete; unisexual, monoecious; actinomorphic, hypogynous,
Inflorescence :Dense or congested , axillary terminal spike
Perianth
3 tepals, (5 in A.spinosus) free, green or sepalloid, dry and membranous, imbricate
Androecium
Usually 5 stamens; free, present opposite to tepals; anthers dithecous, introse,
longitudinally dehiscent.
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, unilocular, basal placentation; style 3;
stigma 3, capitate stigma
Fruit&Seed :Usually utricle; seeds with curved embryo
Floral Biology
Mostly monoecious in nature. It is a self pollinated crop; - Protogynous in nature;
stigma become receptive several days before opening of staminate flowers ; - Arrangemend
and sequence of anthesis favours a combination of self and cross pollination ; - Male flowers
of the cyme situated above in the inflorescence supplying pollen to the female flowers
below their level.
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L Members
- Mostly herbs
Lecture - 12
Botany of Convolvulaceae (Morning Glory Family)
Economic Importance
1.Source of Food
Ipomoea batatas - Sweet potato, I. aquatica
2. Medicinal Value
I. violacea, Evolvulus alsinoides
3. Ornamental Value
I. carica – Railway creeper, I. lobata, I. purpurea – Morning glory, I. violacea – Heavenly vine
A family of about 55 genera and 1650 species. About 20 genera and over 150 species
have been reported in India.
Important generas are

Ipomoea – 500, Convolvulus – 250, cuscuta – 170, Jacqueemontia – 120, Evolvulus – 100,
Calystegia - 25
Systamic Position
Gamopetalae, bicarpellatae, Polemoniales
Polimoniales
- Mostly herbs and climbers
- Leaves simple and alternate
- Flowers actinomorphic, bisexual, hypogynous, Pentamerous
- Corolla gamopetalous, imbricate
- Stamens epipetalous, alternipetalous
- Gynoecium 2-5 carpels, syncarpous, superior
Field Recognition
- Climbing or twining vines
- leaves alternate, exstipulate
- Flowers axillary, pentamerous
- Corolla tubular, infundibuliform or salverform
- Stamens 5, epipetalous
- Gynoecium bicarpellary
Botanical description of Sweet potato – Ipomoeabatatas L (Lam.)
- Chromesome no. 2n = 6x=90 (Hexoploid)

- origin – Tropical America
- Economic part – tuberous fleshy root (root tuber)
- Propagation – vine cutting
Habit : Herbaceous perennial spreading vine but cultivated as an annual.

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Stem : Branching vine with milky latex; vine is long, thin and prostrate
Leaves
Simple, alternate, exstipulate, petiolate; varying in shape, more or less heartshaped;
may be shouldered, toothed, entire, deeply cleft or variously lobed.
Inflorescence : Inflorescence is a axillary cyme which bears single or few flowers.
Flowers
Bracteate, bracteolate; flowers purple or white in colour; complete; bisexual;
actinomorphic; pentamerous, hypogynous
Calyx : 5 sepals, gamosepalous, persistent, quincuncial.
Corolla
5 petals, gamopetalous; corolla funnel shaped with 5 lobes, it is purple in colour
with deeper throat and pale in margin; valvate
Androecium
5 stamens, epipetalous, alternipetalous, dithecous, introse, longitudinally dehiscent,
filaments are usually different length (heterodynamous)
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, 2 locules, one ovule each locule, axile
placentation; style 1, stigma 1 and bilobed.
Fruit & Seeds : Fruit – capsule; 2 seeds per locule.
Pollination
Flowers open before dawn close and wilt in the same morning.
 On the previous day the stigma becomes receptive in the bud stage from 6 pm to 8
pm (Protogyny)
 But the anthers begin to release pollen from 11 pm to midnight.
 The pollen remains viable for a day and can germinate on the stigma even after the
flowers wild.
 A strange of phenomenon observed in sweet potato. Most of the varieties are self
incompatible.
 Though both the ovules and pollens are fertile
 Cross pollinated crop
Botany of Umbelliferae or Apiaceae(Carrot Family)

Ecnomic Importance
i. Vegetables
- Daucus carota – Carrot, Apium graveolens - Celery
ii. Spices and Condiments
- Anethum graveolens – Dill, Coriandrum sativum – Coriander
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- Cuminum cyminum – Ajown, Foniculam vulgare – Fennel
iii. Medicinal value
- Centella asiatica - Vallarai
A family of about 275 genera and 3,000 species. Over 50 of its genera and about 200
species found in India
Important genera - Centella, Coriandrum, Daucus, Ferula, Foeniculum
Systematic Position - Polypetalae, Calyciflorae, Umbellales
Umbellales
 Flowers arranged in simple or compound umbel
 Flowers are actinomorphic, bisexual, pentamerous and epigynous
 Carpels 2, syncarpous, inferior ovary
 Style usually possesses a swollen base called stylopodium
 Fruit – dry schizocarp, called cremocarp, splitting into two mericarps
Botanical description of
i. Daucus carota – Carrot
ii. Coriandrum sativum – Coriander
Botany of Daucus carota – Carrot
 Chromosome no. 2n = 18
 Origin – Europe, Asia and North Africa
 Economic part – tuberous root (Conical)
 Propagation - Seed
 Cultivated type - Daucus carota var. sativa
 Wild form - Daucus carota var. carota
Botany of Coriandrum sativum – Coriander
 Chromosome no. 2n = 22
 Origin – Eastern Mediterranean Region
 Economic part – Seeds
 Propagation - Seed
Habit
Carrot
Annual or biennial herb with an erect to much branched stem, 30-120 high arising
from a thick, fleshy tap root which is 5-30 cm long.
Coriander
Annual herb with stout stem and hallow internodes; emit aromatic smell due to the
presence of essential oil or oleoresin in all parts.
Leaves : Pinnately compound leaves with long petioles expanded into a stalk at the base.
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Inflorescence
Inflorescence -Usually compound umbel . Primary umbel produced in the main stem
that flowers first. The umbels terminating the branches are known as secondary umbels of
the second order. In succession , 3rd and 4th order umbels may develop in the same fashion
Flowers
Complete; bisexual; white or yellowish in colour; actinomorphic; pentamerous;
epigynous;
Calyx : 5 sepals, free, very small and narrow, adnate to ovary; valvate
Corolla: 5 petals, polypetalous; valvate; alternate with sepals
Androecium
5 stamens, alternate with the petals, inserted on epigynous disc, anthers dithecous,
introse, longitudinal dehiscence.
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, bilocular, syncarpous, inferior ovary, each locule contains one
pendulous ovule, axile placentation, Style 2, often with swollen base (Stylopodium), stigma
2.
Fruit & Seeds : Fruit – Dry schizocarp (Cremocarp) splitted into 2 mericarps.
Carrot
 Anthesis in single umbel completes in 7-9 days
 The peripheral umbellate flower first followed by the inner umbellates
 Anther dehiscence occurs firstfollowed by stigma become receptive(Protandry)
Coriander
 Pollination – it opening and anthesis proceeds from periphery to inwards.
 Protandrous stigma receptive for 5 days; pollen viable for 24 hrs.
 Cross pollinated crop; cross pollination by bees
Botany of Araceae (Arum Family)
A family of 115 genera and over 2000 species. About 25 genera and 140 species have
been reported from India.
Selected Indian genera

Acorus, Alocasia, Amorphophallus, Colocasia, Pistia, Pothas, Anthurium
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Systemic Position
Monocotyledons, Nudiflorae, Arecae
Nudiflorae
Perianth generally absent, Superior ovary
Economic Importance
i. Vegetables
Amorphophallus campanulatus – Elephant foot yam
Colocasiaesculenta – Colocasia / Taro
ii. Ornamental plants
Anthurium sp., Spathophyllum sp., Caladium sp., Dieffenbachia sp.
Monstera sp., Scindapsus sp.
iii. Medicinal Plants: Acorus calamus
Botanical description of Amorphophallus campanulatus – Elephant Foot Yam

 Chromosome no. 2n =28
 Origin – Tropical Africa and India
 Economic part – Corms
 Propagation – Corms or Cormels
Botanical description of Colocasiaesculenta – Colocasia / Taro

 Chromosome no. 2n =28
 Origin – Indio Malaya region
 Economic part – Corms
 Propagation – Corms or Cormels
2 main groups
i. Eddoe type – C. esculenta var. antiquorum- The corm is small and cormels are large
ii. Dasheen type - C. esculenta var. esculenta- the corm is large and cormels are small
Habit : Perennial, rhizomatus, or tuberous herbs
Root : Climbing or clasping roots, Absorbing roots
Stem
Subterranean or underground in the form of corms (Amorphophallus, Colocasia),
rhizome (Acorous) etc.
Leaf
Amorphophallus – lamina simple, 3 parted, each part divided into numerous oblong
segments and later large acuminate and acute ; petiole is robust, thick, massive
Colocasia – large and green, the petiole to the lamina is not at the edge of the lamina but at
some point in the middle of the lamina (Peltate leaf); petiole is sheaththering at the base.
Inflorescence
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Flowers usually grouped together to form a more or less cylindrical spadix subtended
by the large spathe.The upper portion of spadix is usually naked and the lower portion bears
whorls small unisexual flowers, the male flowers above and the female flowers below.
Flower
Ebracteate, ebracteolate, usually unisexual, some time bisexual (Acorous, Pothas),
actinomorphic, hypogynous
Perianth : Perianth absent in unisexual flowers and present in bisexual flowers
Male flower
Usually 6 stamens, united into a synandrium (Colocasia), anthers dithecous, introse.
Female flower
Ovary with one locule with numerous ovules; superior ovary; stigma sessile, one
number.
Fruit & Seeds

Fruit berry; seed is hard, contains endosperm and geminates with extreme difficulty.
Pollination : Cross pollinated crop (Entomophyllus)
Botany of Dioscoreaceae
Botanical description of Dioscorea sp.
- The genus Dioscorea contains about 620 species. In this about 12 are known to edible
- Chromosome no. 2n = 20,30,40,50,60,70,80
- Origin – Asia and Africa
- Propagation – Tubers
Tubers – It is underground stem tuber. The tubers vary in number, size and forms, which
may globular,elongate or flattened.
Cultivated species of Dioscorea

i. D. alata – Greater yam; twining right
ii. D. esculenta - Lessar yam; twining left
iii. D. rotundata – White yam; twining right
Habit : deciduous perennial plants
Stem
The stems arises from the top of the tuber; it climbs by twining by either on the left
or right side; stem may be spiny or winged or with longitudinal ridges.
Leaves
Leaves are usually simple, acuminate, having main veins from the base of the
lamina.
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Flowers
In Dioscorea, the plants are dioecious; Male and female flowers are borne on
separate plants;
Male plant & flower

Male plants are more in number than female plants; male flowers are borne long
axillary panicle and flowers are small. Stamens 6, arranged in 2 whorls (3+3).
Female plant & Flower

Female flowers which are generally larger than male flowers are borne on axillary
stiff spikes of the female plants. 3 carpels, 3 locule; 2 ovules per locule; syncarpous, inferior
ovary
Perianth : 6 tepals, arranged in 2 whorls (3+3); valvate
Fruit & Seeds :Fruit – capsule; seeds winged.
Pollination
 Male plants generally begin flowering 2-3 weeks earlier than female plants
 Pollination entomophilous
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Lecture 13
I. Botany of Piperaceae (Pepper Family)
 Piperaceae is composed of 12 genera and about 1400 species.

 Monochlamydeae or Apetelae, Microembryeae
(Microembryeae – embryo very minute)
 Selected genera – Piper , Peperomia
Economic Importance
 Piper betle – Beten vine - Masticatory
 Piper nigrum – Black Pepper – Spices
 Piper longum – long pepper – Medicinal plants
 Peperomia – Ornamental plants
Field Recognition
 Succulent herbs, shrub, rarely trees
 Petals absent / Perianth absent
 Stamens 1-10
 Ovary unilocular, superior ovary
 Embryo very minute
a. Botany of Piperaceae – Pepper (2n = 52)
 Piper nigrum – Black Pepper

 King of spices
 Origin – Malabar coast of Western Ghats of India
 The oldest and world’s most important spice crop
 Economic part – Whole dried fruit
 White pepper – The fruit from which the Pericarp & mesocarp has been
removed
 Propagation – seeds and vine cutting
 Popular varieties – Panniyur 1,2,3,4,5 ; Sreekara, Subhakara, Panchami,
Pournami
General Habit
Climbing evergreen vine and grows to a height of 10m or more. The vines branch
horizontally from the nodes and do not attain length, but fully grown vines completely
cover the standard presented the bush appearance.
Stem
Based on the growth habits , 5 types stem portions can be identified in the shoot
system
1. Main stem – Which originates from a seed or from a stem cutting. It climbs on a
support with the aid of aerial or adventitious roots.
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2. Runner shoots – Are produced from the basal portion main stem, growing at right
angle to the main stem, usually restricted upto 50 cm from the ground
3. Fruiting branches (Plagiotropes) – Are produced from the nodes of the main stem
and they grow laterally more or less right angles to the main stem, bearing spikes.
4. Top shoots (Orthotropes) – After a period of vertical growth, the top portion of the
main shoots attain bushy appearance with large number of adventitious roots at the
nodes
5. Hanging shoots (Geotropes) – In a fully grown vine, some of the plagiotropes at the
top portion are seen to give rise to a special type of shoots which hang down and
grow geotropically.
Leaves
Alternate, simple,petiolate, entire.The leaves are broadly lanceolate, but wide
variations occur in leaf shape and are arranged alternately. The sheathing leaf base
described as adnate stipules.
Inflorescence
The inflorescence is glabrous, pendulous spike borne opposite to the leaves on
plagiotrophic branches. Spike are usually 3-15cm long, bearing 50-150 minute flowers
borne on the axils of ovate fleshy bracts.
Flowers
Minute, brcteate, Flowers in a spike may be staminate, pistillate or hermaphrodite,
but predominantly staminate or pistillate flowers. First flowers appears on the top of the
spike 10-15 days after the spike emergence and will be completed in about 6-10 days.
Protogyny of bisexual flowers is a common feature in pepper. Hypogynous
Perianth - Absent
Androecium
2 minute stamens are borne on each side of the ovary in bisexual and pistillate
flowers; anthers dithecous;
Gynoecium
Ovary globose; unilocular; one ovuled; star shaped stigma, covered with papillae,
white when receptive, later turn brown; hypogynous. Stigma - 5
Fruit & Seed - Fruit – Drupe; Seed - very small, embryo minute

Black pepper is self pollinated crop. Flowers open between 5.30 to 7.30 am.
While various degree of protogyny are encounted, the protogyny is ineffective to
prevent selfing as the pendent spike is abundantly assured of pollen from the upper
flowers. The stigma is receptive up to 10 days after anthesis.
Positive geotropism, spatial arrangement of flowers, sequential ripening of
stigma and non chronological dehiscence of anthers stimulate selfing. Pollination may
be due to splashing of rain and wind
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b. Botany of Piperaceae – Betel vine
 Piper betel
 Climbing vine
 Propagation – Terminal vine cutting
 Varieties – SGM 1 and SGM (BV) 2
 Economic part – Fresh leaves
 Mastication or chewing - The process by which food is crushed and ground
by teeth
Botany of Zingiberaceae (Ginger Family)
A family of about 49 genera and 1000 species. About 17 genera and 115 species have
been reported in India
Selected genera
- Amomum, Curcuma, Elettaria, Zingiber
Systemic position
- Monocotyledons, epigynae, Zingiberaceae
Field Recognition
 Aromatic herbs
 Ligule present at the top of the leaf sheath
 Perianth differentiated into calyx and corolla
 Only single fertile stamen
 Staminodes petalloid
Economic Importance
Spices and Condiments
 Elettaria cardamomum – Cardamom
 Amomum subulatum – Larger Cardamom
 Curcuma longa – Turmeric
 Zingiber officinale – Zinger
 Alpinia galanga - Galangal
 Cardamom - Elettaria cardamomum
 Turmeric - Curcuma longa
 Zinger - Zingiber officinale
a. Botany of Elettaria cardamomum (L) – Cardamom

(2n = 48 ; x=12; Tetraploid)
 Queen of spices
 Native – Western Ghats of India
 Economic part – Dried ripe fruit or capsule
 Guatemala is the world’s largest producer and exporter of cardamom
 Propagation – Rhizome bits (Suckers)
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2 botanical varieties have been distinguished

1. Elettaria cardamomum Var. major
- Comprising the wild indigenous cardamom
2. Elettaria cardamomum Var. minor
- Comprising all the cultivated groups
Habit - Cardamom is the herbacious perennial having underground rhizomes.
Stem and leaves

The areial pseudostem (tillers) is made of leaf sheath. The suckers continue their
growth for a period of 18 months. The suckers require about 10 to 12 months to attain
maturity.
Inflorescence
Inflorescence is a long paniclewith racemose. Clusters arising from the underground
stem, but coming up above the soil.
 Mysore type – Erect growing panicle
 Malabar – Panicle prostrate
 Vazhukka - Panicle semi erect
Flowers
The flowers are bisexual; Bracteate, bracts linear, oblong, persistent; Zygomorphic;
trimerous; epigynous; large bright coloured, aromatic and fragrant; perianth differentiated
into Calyx and corolla.
Calyx - 3 united sepals forming a tubular or spathiform
Corolla - 3 unequal lobed petals, united, the posterior lobe usually the largest.
Androecium
Basically 6 stamens; in 2 whorls of 3 each;
• 2 lateral stamens of the outer whorl modify into staminodes, while the 3 rd anterior
stamen of this whorl is usually supressed;
• Inner whorl posterior stamen is fertile and 2 lateral stamens of this whorl unite to
form labellum; fertile stamen is 2 celled; epipetalous
Gynoecium
Ovary - trilocular; axile placentation, ovules - numerous in each carpel; inferior ovary,
epigynous
Fruit & Seed - Fruit – Capsule;

The maximum numbers of flowers open during the early hours of the day. The anther
dehiscence takes place immediately followed by anthesis at 3.30 am, which continues upto
7.30 am. The receptivity of the stigma maximum between 8 am to 10 am.Though the
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cardamom has bisexual flowers and is self compatible, cross pollination is the rule. Self
pollination is hindered is due to the slight protrusion of the stigma above the stamens. Cross
pollination is mediated by insects (Bees)
b. Botany of Zingiberaceae – Turmeric
 Turmeric – Curcuma longa L.

 Spice for flavouring and natural colourant
 India is the largest producer and exporter of turmeric in the world
 Andhra Pradesh leading turmeric producing states follower by Tamil Nadu
 The bio component (colourant component) present is Curcumin
 Economic part – Dried rhizome
 Propagation – Rhizome (stem modification)
Species and Varieties

 Curcuma amada – Mango ginger
 C. angustifolia – Indian arrow root
 C. aromatica – Kasturi Mangal
Habit
Turmeric an erect perennial herb, cultivated as an annual crop for its under ground
stems or rhizome.
Stem- The leafy shoot or pseudostem reaches a height of about 1m, bearing 8 to 12 leaves.
leaves
The ligule is a small lobe, lamina lanceolate, acuminate and thin, dark green on the
upper surface and pale green in the lower surface, petioles sheathing.
Inflorescence
This is a cylindrical, fleshy spike, aromatic, 10-15cm long and 5-7cm wide. Which is
terminal on the leaf shoot with partly enclosed by the leaf sheath. The bracts are adnate for
less than half of their length. Bracteoles are thin, elliptic and up to 3.5 cm long.
Flowers- Flowers are borne in 2 to 3 in the axiles of the bracts; bisexual;
Calyx - 3 united sepals forming a tubular or spathiform
Androecium
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Gynoecium
Ovary - trilocular; axile placentation, ovules - numerous in each carpel; inferior
ovary, epigynous
c. Botany of Zingiberaceae - Ginger

(2n= 22)
 Zingiber officinale Rosc. – Ginger
 Origin – India
 This is the largest family of order gingiberales
 India – largest producer of ginger in the world
 Major states – Kerala, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Orissa.
 Volatile pungent substances – Gingerol
 Economic part - Rhizomes
 Propagation – Rhizomes
 Rhizome – Modified stem for storage of food materials
Habit - It is a herbaceous crop, perennial in nature but cultivated as an annual.
Stem and leaves

The aerial stem is the pseudostem and rhizomes have nodes covered with scale
leaves. Each node has an axillary bud. The pseudostem consists of narow leaves borne on
short petioles arranged in distichous manner
Inflorescence
Compact spike; produced directly from the rhizome; peduncle leaf less, erect,
enclosed by green spathaceous scales; Bracts numerous, green or yellowish green,
afterwards yellowish.
Flowers - Flowers are borne in 2 to 3 in the axiles of the bracts; bisexual;
Calyx -3 united sepals forming a tubular or spathiform
Androecium
Gynoecium
Ovary - trilocular; axile placentation, ovules - numerous in each carpel; inferior
ovary, epigynous
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Anthesis occurs between 1.30 am to 3.30 am. Anther dehiscence almost coincides with
anther dehiscence. The stigma remains receptive at the time of anther dehiscence. Pollen
sterility observed ranges upto maximum of 76%. A genetically controlled
selfincompatiblility reaction is the reason for the failure to set seed in ginger. It is a cross
pollinated crop.
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Lecture 14
I. Botany of Myristicaceae
 18 genera and 300 species
Botanical description of Nutmeg tree – Myristica fragrance
 Nutmeg tree – Myristica fragrance

 2n = 42
 Economic part – Kernal and Mace (which is the dried aril that surrounds the single
seed with in the fruit)
 Native – Moluccas in the East Indian Archipelago
 Propagation – seeds and grafts
 Myristica fragrans – Cultivated species

 Myristica argentea – Papua nutmeg
Habit
The nutmeg is a spreading evergreen tree, 4-10 m high, sometimes attaining 20m. It
is usually dioecious, but sometime male and female flowers. But some times male
andfemale flowers are found on the same tree.
Stem
Stem are numerous spreading branches with the main branches arising low on the
trunk. A reddish, watery sap is present. The bark is greyish black and slightly fissured
longitudinally in the older trees. The twigs are gbalrous, slender and greyish brown.
Leaves
Leaves are alternate, glabrous and exstipulate. Lamina, 5-15 cm long and 2-7 cm
broad; medium to dark green above and shining, light green beneath; petiole is about 1cm
long.
Inflorescence
The tree is typically dioecious with male and female flowers on different trees. The
male and female inflorescence are similar, glabrous, and axillary with the flowers in
umbellatecyme in which there are 1-10 flowers. The pedicles are pale green, 1-1.5cm long,
with a minute caducous bracteole at the base of the flowe.
Flowers
The flowers , up to 1 cm long, are fragrant, creamy yellow in colour, waxy and fleshy.
Calyx - The calyx is bell shaped, nectiferous at the base, with 3 reflexed triangular lobes
Corolla - Petals absent
Androecium
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The male flowers, which are rather smaller than the female flower; 8-12 stamens,
attached to each other by their sides.
Gynoecium - Female flowers up to 1 cm long; style very short, white, two lipped stigma.
Fruit - Drupe

 The flowers are fragrant and they secrete nectar
 They are probably pollinated by small insects
 There is incompatibility mechanism may be operating to ensure cross pollination
II. Botany of Lauraceae

 Cinnamon 2n=24 (x=12)
– Cinnamon verum
- Syn C.zeylanicum
 Consisting of 32 genera and 2000 – 2,500 species
 Origin – Sri Lanka
 Economic part – Bark /quills
 Cinnamon oil is a source of eugenol
 Related species
- Cinnamon cassia – Chinese cassia
- C. burmannii – Indonesian cassia
- C. loureirii - Saigon cassia
- C. camphora – Camphora oil
Habit
C.Veerum is and evergreen tree, which reaches a height of 8-17 m in a wild state.
The bark and leaves are aromatic.
Stem
The trunk is stout, 30-60 cm in diameter, with a thick grey bark and the branches set
low down.
Leaves
The stiff exstipulate opposite leaves, somewhat variable in size and form; petiolate,
petiole is 1-2 cm long, grooved on the upper surface; the lamina is ovate or elliptic. There
are 3 or 5 conspicuous longitudinal veins found at the base of the lamina and running
almost to the tip.
Inflorescence
Flowers are borne on axillary and terminal panicle on the ends of the twic; peduncles
are creamy white in colour and softly hairy.
Flowers
Flowers are small, about 3mm in diameter, pale yellow in colour with a fetid smell
and each subtended by small ovate hairy bract.
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Calyx – Sepals 3, campanulate and pubescent with 6 actualy pointed segments.
Corolla - Corolla is absent
Androecium
There are 9 stamens with the 6 outer stamens being opposite the perianth lobes and
an inner whorl of 3, inside which are staminodes.
Gynoecium -Ovary is superior, unilocular with a single ovule, tapering to a short style.
Fruit–Drupe; Cross pollinated crop
III. Botany of Leguminoseae

Sub Family
i. Mimosoideae or Mimoseae – Mimosa Family
ii. Caesalpinioideae or Caesalpineae – Cassia Family
iii. Papilionoideae – Pea Family or Bean Family
Botany of Caesalpinioideae or Caesalpineae (Cassia Family)
Represented by 180 genera and 3000 sp.About 23 genera and 85 species of this
subfamily have been reported in India
Selected genera
Bauhinia, Caesalpinia, Cassia, Delonix, Parkinsonia, Saraca, Tamarindus
Systemic position
Polypetelae, Calyciflorae, Rosales, leguminosae
Field recognition
- Trees, shrubs, or herbs
- Flowers zygomorphic
- Corolla aestivation ascending imbricate
- Petals 5 and polypetalous
- Stamens usually 10, rarely numerous
Economic Importance
Ornamental plants
Amherstia nobilis – Noble amherstia
Bauhinia purpurea – Purple flowered
B. tomentosa - Yellow
Caesalpinia pulcherrima – Peacock flower
Cassia fistula
Delonix regia - Gulmohar
Saraca asoka – Ashok tree
Edible Products
Tamarindus indica
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Botany of Tamarind - Tamarindus indica L.
- Leguminosae sub family Caesalpinae

 Diploid 2n=26 (x=13)
 Native - Tropical Africa
 Dough tolerant and avenue tree
 Fruit pulp acidity due to Tartaric acid
 Economic part – Fruit
Habit
It is a long lived, magnificent, large, evergreen or semi evergreen tree, upto 30m tall.
The trunk is light grey to brown, very rough and scaly, the inner barkis 1-2 cm thick, wide
spreading and drooping at the ends to form a dense crown.
Leaves
Leaves are alternate, even, paripinnately compound, 7-15 cm long with a pulvinus at
the base and 6-20 pairs of opposite leaflets. The leaflets narrowly oblong, unequal and
entire; petiole is up to 1.5cm long.
Inflorescence
The inflorescence racemes are small, 5-10, 13 cm long, terminal and lateral drooping
and often panicles.
Flowers
The flowers are Bisexual, pedicles are about 5mm long. The bracts are fragrant;
nearly as long as theflower bud; 2 boat shaped bractioles, reddish in colour, zygomorphic
Calyx - 5 sepals, free or connate at the base, imbricate; 2 posterior sepals fused.
Corolla
5 petals, free, the posterior and lateral ones are large and showy, slightly exceeding
the calyx.
Androecium
Usually 10 stamens, arranged in 2 alternate whorls of 5 each, only 3 fertile stamens,
remaining stamens reduced to staminodes.
Gynoecium
Ovary – superior ovary, monocarpellary, unilocular, up to 18 ovules; axile
placentation; stigma green, long and hooked style
Fruit - legume

 Tamarind is crosspollinated crop with honey bees and red ants.
 Fruit set percent 1-2%
 Tamarind is highly self incompatible
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Lecture 15
Botany of Camelliaceae or Theaceae
Botanical description of Tea – Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze
- Chromesome No.2n = 30, (x=15)

- Origin : South – East Asia
- The most important plantation crop in India
- India – Largest producer and consumer
- Major global producers – Sri Lanka, India and China
- Taste and briskness of the tea – Caffeine (1.25 to 4.5%)
- Fermented tea – Black tea
- Non fermented tea – Green tea
- Semi fermented tea – Oolong tea
- Propagation – Cuttings
- Economic part – Leaves
Varieties – UPASI series (United Planters Association of Southern India, Coonoor
3 types of tea
i. Assam Jat – Camellia assamica
Tree; leaves- large, light green; sparse flowering; high yield; medium quality;
susceptible to drought & frost and pests & diseases.
ii. China Jat – Camellia sinensis

Big shrub; leaves- small, dark green; profuse flowering; low yield; superior quality;
tolerant to drought & frost and pests & diseases.
iii.Cambod Jat - Camellia assamica ssp lasiocalyx

It is conical in appearance reaching a height of 6 to 10 m. Leaves semi erect, vary in
size between China and Assam types and elliptic with marginal veins not prominent.
iii. Assamica x sinensis

All the present day cultivars are hybrid derivatives of the above same.
Habit
China Tea – Shrub, 1-2 m tall with stems arising from the base of the plant near the ground
with hard. Assam Tea – Small tree, 10-15 m tall with robust branches.
Leaves
Leaves, simple, alternate, thick and leathery, matty surface, marginal veins indistinct
and appear sunken in lamina. Margin bluntly serrate, glabrous. Petiole is short, 3-7cm long,
stout
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Flowers
Flowers, bisexual, borne singly or in pairs in the cataphylls (scaly leaves) axils. Pedicel
short, 6-10 mm long, glabrous, 3 bracteoles 2-5 mm long.
Calyx
Sepals 5, imbricate, persistent, leathery, 3-6 mm long, glabrous green.
Corolla
Petals 5, shallowly cup shaped, 1.5-2 cm long, broad oval, generally white, some
times pale pink pigmentation.
Androecium
Stamens numerous, arranged in 2 whorls, inner ones are shorter, and fewer in
number, outer stamens are longer and more numbers. United at the base for a few mm
with the corolla lobes. Anthers 2 celled.
Gynoecium
Ovary, white, hairy, superior, 2- 4 locular, ovules 3-5 in each locules, axil
placentation. Style 3, free.
Fruit :Fruit-capsule.

Flowers are pollinated by insects. As tea pollens are heavy and sticky in nature and
occur mostly in clumps, wind pollination is not possible. Around 24 to 48 hours after
opening the corolla withers together with the filaments drops from the pedicel, leaving the
ovary and the stigma exposed.The stigma become receptive about 24 hours before anthesis
and remain until the corolla shows sign of withering.
Botany of Rubiaceae (Coffee Family)
A family of about 500 genera and 6500 species. About 75 genera and 275 species
Economic Importance
i. Coffee – Coffee, the most popular nonalcoholic, caffeine containing beverage of the world,
comes mainly from roasted and powdered seeds of
C. arabica. The other coffee producing species are
C. canephora. and C. liberica.
ii. Ornamental Plants – Some of the common ornamental plants grown in gardens and road
sides include
- Kadam – Anthocephalus cadamba
- Ixora – Ixora sp.
- Morinda – Morinda tinctoria &M.citrifolia
- Pentas – Pentaslanceolata
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Systematic Position
Gamopetalae, Inferae, Rubiales
Rubiales
- Leaves are simple and opposite

- Flowers arranged in cymose inflorescence
- Flowers gamopetalous, mostly actinomorphic but sometimes zygomorphic
- Stamens epipetalous
- Ovary bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary
Selected Genera
- Cinchona, Coffea, Ixora, Mussaenda, Oldenlandia, Rubia
Botanical description of Coffee sp.
- Coffee is one of the most important beverages in the world

- Indigenous to Ethiopia and Sudan
- USA- world’s largest consumer
- Brazil - World leading producer
- In India coffee is cultivated mainly in the Southern states of Karnataka (57.5%),
Kerala (23.8%) and Tamil Nadu (8.6%)
- Nearly 75% of world’s coffee is produced from
C. arabica, 24% from C.canephoraand 1% from C.liberica
- Economic part – Coffee beans
- Propagation - Seeds
3 types of commercial coffee

i. Arabica coffee – Coffea arabica L
- Accounts 70% world’s production
- Arabica coffee – caffeine content – 1-2%
- Only Tetraploid and self fertile 2n=4x=22
ii. Robusta coffee – Coffea canephora Pierre.

- Accounts 30% of world’s production
- Robusta coffee - caffeine content – 2.2%
- Diploid and self infertile 2n=2x=22
ii. Tree coffee – Coffea liberica

- it is a large tree, bearing big, darkgreen and leathery leaves
- Fruits are large and take one year to mature
- ripe fruits yellow to reddish brown
Habit
Coffee plant is a shrub or small tree. It may grow to a height of 2.4 to 4.5m (Arabica)
and 4.5 to 6.5m (Robusta) depending on cultivar and growth conditions.
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Leaves
Leaves, simple, opposite, yellowish to dark green in colour, they vary in size from 1-
40cm in length, elliptical with acuminate tip; short petioled; stipules are small.
Inflorescence
Inflorescence is a condensed dichasial cyme arising in leaf axils of mature wood, on
short peduncles and subtended by bracts. 4 -5 inflorescence of 1-4 flowers each in arabica
and 5- 6 flowers each in robusta are produced in leaf axil.
Flowers :Flowers fragrant and white, Bisexual, pentamerous, epigynous.
Calyx :Calyx 5, polysepalous, small, cup shaped, valvate
Corolla :Corolla 5, polypetalous, tubular, valvate
Androecium :Stamens 5, epipetalous, inserted in the corolla tube, anthers 2 celled.
Gynoecium
Ovary inferior, bilocular, syncarpous, one ovule in each locule, axile placentation,
stigma is bifid.
Fruit
Fruit is a Drupe and normally contains 2 seeds. Aborption of one ovule due to non
fertilization leads to formation of single seeded fruit, called Pea berry.
Anthesis &pollination
Pollination – 6 hrs after flowering opening under bright light, warm wind bees as agents
- Arabica – Self pollinated
- Robusta – Cross pollinated (self incompatibility)
Botany of Palmae or Arecaceae (Palm Family)
A family of 217 genera and 3000 species. About 28 genera and 95 species have been
reported from India.

Areca, Borassus, Calamus, Cocos, Nypa, Phoenix
Systemic Position
Monocotyledons, Calycinae, Palmae or Arecae
Calycinae – Superior Ovary, green perianth
Botanical description of Coconut - Cocos nucifera L.

- Chromosome No. 2n= 32
- Native of South East Asia
- Every part of the tree is being utilized for some putpose or other and hence, it is called ---
Kalpavriksha meaning Tree of heaven.
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- In India, Kerala, Tamil Nadu , Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh account for nearly 90 per cent
in area and production
- Propagation - Seeds
Varieties
Coconut palms broadly classified into 2 groups
i. Tall & ii. Dwarf
Tall
- East Coast Tall (ECT)& West Coast Tall (WCT)
Dwarf
- Chawghat Orange Dwarf (COD)
- Chawghat Green Dwarf (CGD)
- Malayan Green Dwarf (MGD)
- Malayan Orange Dwarf (MOD)
- Malayan Yellow Dwarf (MYD)
- Gangabondam
Habit
Palm is tall, unbranched with a terminal crown of leaves, growing to a height of 20-
30m and lives for 80-100 years. It is not a tree since no true bark, no branches, no cambium
or secondary growth are seen.
Stem
• Stem has only one growing point. Trunk is formed after 3 years ie., after production
of 12 – 18 leaves. Trunk is columnar and erect, light grayish brown in colour and 20-
40 cm in diameter.
• Stem has nodes bearing a leaf or scar if that leaf has fallen already. About 12-14
leaves are shed every year and thus age of palm can be ascertained by counting the
number of scares and dividing by 12 and adding 3 years for trunk formation.
Leaves
• Leaves are borne terminal radiating crown, which consists of 25-35 opened leaves
and a central bud with leaves in various stages of development. Leaf primordia are
differentiated 30 months prior to emergence leaf lamina. A fibrous leaf sheath
protects young leaf until it matures.
• leaves are large, paripinnate, 4.5 m long, weighs about 10-15 kg. Petiole is stout with
clasping sheath at base, attached to trunk. Number of pinnae is aboout 200-250
along upper 3 quarter of petiole,with apex acute and sessile.
Inflorescence
Palm is monoecious with numerous male and female flower in each spadix, borne
singly in axil of each leaf. In regular bearer the number of leaves and number of spadices
are same. Developing flowers are protected by spathe. Inflorescence consists of a central
axis with about 40 lateral branches called spikelets. Each spikelet bears about 200-300 male
flower at top, opening from tip to downwards, one or more female flower at base.
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Male flower
Male flower borne singly or 2 or 3 in a bunch, sessile, pale yellow, perianth
segments 6 in 2 whorls; 3 nectors glands at the center; trimerous; hypogynous; stamens 6,
arranged in 2 whorls; anther dithecous; actinomorphic; valvate
Female flower
Female flower or button are globose, bracteoles 2, perianth segments 6, arranged in
2 whorls, persistent; valvate; actinomorphic. Ovary large, 3 locules, trifid stigma.
Fruit
Fruit is a fibrous Drupe. Mature fruit is ovoid in shape, 3 angled, varying in size,
taking 12 months to mature. Fruit consist of an exocarp which is tough, fibrous mesocarp 4-
8cm in thickness and gives coir, an endocarp is ovoid shell, enclosing thick albumenous
endosperm or meat and a single seed. In between shall and endosperm there is a brown
testa adheres firmly to endosperm.
Pollination
In coconut palm , there is a distinct gap between the male and female phases.
Female flowers do not become receptive until all male flowers in the same spadix have shed
their pollens. Cross pollination is customary
Botanical description of Arecanut - Areca catechu L.
- Chromesome no. 2n = 32
- It is native of Malayan Archipelago and Philpphines
- Commercial cultivation is confined to India, Bangladesh and Sri lanka.
- Kerala, Karnataka and Assam account for more than 90 per cent of the total area and
production in out country.
- Areca palm is cultivated for its kernal obtained from the fruit, which is chewed in its
tender, ripe or processed
- Propagation – Seeds
Species
- India – Areca catechu, A. triandra
- Andamans – A. catechu, A. laxa
- Sri Lanka – A. catechu, A. concinna
Varieties
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasargod, Kerala
i. Mangala
ii. Sumangala
iii. Sreemangala
iv. Swarnamangala
v. Mohitnager
Habit :Erect and unbranched palm.

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Stem
Visible after 3 years. Mature stem is single cylindrical, 30m tall and 25-40cm
diameter. It is green when young become grayish brown with age and ringed with leaf scar.
Internode distance reduces with age.
Leaves
Leaves are borne in terminal crown about 2.5m in diameter. Adult leves are
paripinnate with long smooth sheathing base completely encircling the stem. One year old
seedling has 4-5, which increaes to 8-12 in adult palms.
Inflorescence
• Inflorescence of arecanut is a spadix. Inflorescence is produced in axil of every leaf
(intrafoliar- arise below the leaf). It is monoecious with male and female flowers
occuring in the same spadix. Spadix is completely enclosed in a boat shaped spathe
opening longitudinally.
• Spadix of a grown up palm bears upto 600 female flowers and 15,000 to 50,000
male flowers. branches.
Male flower
Male flowers are sessile, creamy white, triangular with 2 whorls of perianth
consisting of 3 minute sepals and 3 large petals. Stamens are 6 in number, situated in a ring
next to petals. There is a rudimentary trifid ovary at the center.
Female flower
Female flowers are sessile with 2 whorls of perianth; the outer boat shaped green
whorl of sepals and inner whorlof ovate petals. There are 6 flattened minute staminodes
encircling ovary; ovary superior, trifid stigma formed by 3 stiff stylar projections.
Fruit
Fruit is an ovoid Drupe with fibrous pericarp, orange red to scarlet when ripe,
endosperm is ruminate, reddish brown and astringent. Each spadix is about 100 – 125 fruits
/ spadix.
Anthesis and pollination

Female flower start opening after all male flowers are shed. Anthesis is from 2 am to
10 am. Female phase extends for 3-10 days. Maximum receptivity is between 2 nd and 4th day
of opening. Middle aged palms have higher stigmatic receptivity than young and old palms.
General mode of pollination is cross pollination. Overlapping of male and female phase
leads to self pollination. Wind is the main agent of pollination and pollen is carried upto 1-2
km.
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Botany of Palmyrah – Borassus flabellifer L.
- Native – Tropical Africa
- It is a Tropical dioecious palm
- Govt. of Tamil Nadu recognized it as the State Tree of Tamil Nadu since 1978
- In Tamil Nadu – Area under spread Thoothukudi ranking first.
- Economic part of tree – Neera or Padaneer and immature fruit.
- Propagation – Seeds or Nuts
- Varieties – SVPR 1
The genus Borassus has seven species, only 3 to 4 species alone recognized.
- Borassus aethiopum C. Mart. - Africa
- B. flabellifer L. – India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia
- B. sundaican Becc. - Indonesia
Habit
The tree is tall, unbranched and grows to a height of 20-30m. Stem diameter ranges
from 60-90 cm.
Leaves
A crown of 20-30 large leaves at the top of the stem. Each leaf has a stout long
petiole of 1.0 to 1.5m long and a rachis with lamina. The petiole base is broad, having a
vertical split , and it is persistent. The petiole base clasps the stem almost half of the
circumference.The lamina is plicate with ribs, extending along asaxial folds
Inflorescence
Palmyrah is a Dioecious palm. The inflorescence is Spadix; The sex of the palm can be
differentiated only during flowering. The inflorescence is interfoliar (with in the leaf) and
occurs as a branched spadix, sheathed by many imbricated , fibrous spathes. The outermost
spathe is the smallest, whereas the innermost spathe is the longest. A palm produces 5 to 8
spadices annually.
Male spadix
The male spadix has 5 to 10 branches, and each branch is ensheathed by a spathe.
Each branch has 2 to 3 branchlets or spikes. Each spike is stout, cylindrical, 30-40 cm long,
and 2.5 to 4.0 cm wide. The width of the spike decreases gradually from base to apex.
Numerous bracts imbricate the spikes. The number of spikelets in each spike ranges from
800-1000, and each spikelets has 12-20 small sessile flowers.Perianthe segments 6 (Sepals 3,
free, imbricate; petals 3, free) imbricate; stamens 6, connate with corolla; anthers large,
bilocular; filaments dark, dorsi fixed.
Female spadix
The female spadix has only 2 to 4 branches or spikes, sheathed by spathes. Bracts
imbricate the spike. The number of female flowers in a spadix ranges from 30 to 75, the
flowers are large and globose. Perianth is 6 lobed, fleshy, imbricate; stminodes are 6; ovary
globose, 3 celled, syncarpous; stigma 3, sessile.
Fruit& seeds
The fruit is Drupe; The endosperm is gelatinous when the seed is young.
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Palmyrah start flowering, which occurs after 15-20 years of growth. Flowering begins
in March and ceases in the first week of July. The peak flowering period is in the third week
of May.Palmyrah flowers bloom throughout the day, mostly open between 8 and 11am.
Pollination is through insects and wind. It takes 120-130 days for the fertilized female
flowers to mature into ripe fruits. It is cross pollinated crop.
Tapping
The extraction of sap from the inflorescence is called ‘Tapping’. There are different
kinds of tapping which vary according to the sex of the palm and the age of the
inflorescence,
Neera or Padaneer
The sap so tapped, is called, Neera or Padaneer which is transparent,
pleasant smelling and sweet. It contains sugar (12-16%), most of the essential amino acids
and vitamins like ascorbic acids and b complex, hence it is considered to possess medicinal
properties too. This neera is drunk as such or used for preparation of secondary products
through some processing i.e. toddy, jaggery, palm sugar, palm cola etc.
Botanical description of Oil palm - Elaeis guineensis Jacq.
 Origin – West Africa (Guinea coast)

 It is a monoecious palm
 One of the major oil bearing crops in the world
 Malaysia, the world’s largest producer and exporter of palm oil
 Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala are principle oil palm growing states in the
country.
 This oil rich in B-carotene content
Species
- Elaeis guineensis – African oil palm
- E. oleifera – American oil palm
Habit
It is an unbranched monoecious tree growing to a height of 20-30m and lives up to
200 years
Stem
Results in formation of wide stem base with a single terminal meristem. Trunk is not
formed upto 3 years when apex has reached its full diameter in the form of an inverted
cone, after which internodal elongation takes place. Leaf bases adhere to the stem for at
least 12 years, giving a rough stemmed palm.
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Stem
Leaves are produced in spiral succession from meristem at an angle of 138 o. Crown
consists of 40-50 opened leaves and central cone.
Mature leaf is paripinnate, 7.5m long, bearing linear leaflets on either side of leaf
stalk. Leaf stalk can be divided into 2 zones, the rachis bearing leaflets and petiole which is
much shorter than rachis and, bears short lateral spines.
Inflorescence
An inflorescence primordium is produced in axil of each leaf. The inflorescence is
compound spike or spadix, has a stout peduncle, 30-45cm long, and a central rachis with
spirally arranged spikelets 100-200 in number in different palms. The total number of
inflorescence produced per palm depends upon number of leaves produced.
Male flower
• Male inflorescence has finger like, spineless cylindrical spikes, 10-20cm long each
with 700-1200 closely packed small flowers.
• Each flower has a triangular bract, perianth of 6 minute segments, tubular
androecium with 6 anthers and rudimentary gynoecium.
Female flower
 Female inflorescence has thick and fleshy spilelets in axils of spiny bract and with
terminal spine of varying length. Flowers are arranged spirally in shallow cavities in
rachis with 12-30 flowers.
• Each flower has 2 bracteoles, perianth of 6 sepaloid tepals in 2 whorls, rudimentary

androecium of 6-10 short projections, ovary tricarpellary, short style, trilobed
stigma.
Fruit and seed

• Fruit is a sessile drupe nearly shperical to ovoid or elongated , bulging at top. Fruit
usually contains only one seed, but some times 2-3 due to development of 2-3
carpels.
Pollination
Oil palm is cross pollinated crop. Wind is the sole agent of pollination. Assisted
pollination is done to ensure fertilization of all female flowers. Recently, the
insectElaeidobius kamerunicus (weevil) aids the pollination in oil palm plantations.
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IV. Botany of Sterculiaceae
(Sterculia Family)
It is represented by about 60 genera and 700 species. About 18
genera and 90 species of this family have been reported from India.
Systemic Position
Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae, Malvales
Selected genera
Sterculia, Theobroma, Pterospermum
Botanical description of Cocoa - Theobromo cacao L.

 Indigenous to – South America of Amazon River Basin
 Cocoa – The alkaloid content – Theobromine
 Cocoa is the source of chocolate
 Cocoa production is mainly concentrated in West Africa (70%) , Latin America and
Southeast Asia
 In India ,it is cultivated as a mixed crop in coconut and arecanut gardens.
 Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu occupies 95 per cent of the total area and
production in India.
 Economic part – Pod (Beans)
 Propagation - Seeds
 Teobromo cacao a diploid with 2n=20, is subdivided into
2 subspecies
i. Theobromo cacao ssp. cacao
– Criollo
ii. Theobromo cacao ssp. Sphaerocarpum
– Forastero & Trinitario
S.No Character Criollo Forastero

1. Cotyledons Plumpy and white when Flat and purple when fresh
fresh and turn cinnamon and turndark chocolate
colour on fermentation brown on fermentation.
2. Pod colour Dark red Yellow
3. Other pod characters Rough surface, ridges Smooth, inconsipicous
prominent, pronounced point ridges, thick walled, melon
and thin walled shaped with rounded end
4. Flavour and aroma Blend flavour Harsh flavour, bitter taste
5. Fermentationduration 3 days 6 days
6. Adaptability Poor adaptability and less good adaptability and high
yield potential and hence yielding potential and
discourage for commercial hence recommended for
cultivation. commercial cultivation.
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Habit
Cocoa is a small tree, 6-8m tall sometimes reaching up to 12-14m
Leaves
Large, simple, dark green when mature; petiole 1-4 cm long, pubescent, well marked
pulvinus at each end; stipules lanceolate, pubescent; lamina elliptic or obovate oblong,
entire, usually glabrous, base rounded and obtuse and apex acuminate.
Inflorescence
Cocoa is cauliflorous – the flowers and fruits are borne on old wood of main stem and fan
branches and never on current flushes; Cocoa flowers are borne on thickened leaf axils on
stem called ‘Cushions’ . Inflorescence is a compressed dichasial cyme; peduncles and bracts
are pubescent
Flowers
Flowers are regular, bisexual, pentamerous and hermaphrodite; bracteate; Pedicles,
1-2 cm long, greenish, whitish or reddish; actinomorphic; hypogynous
Calyx : Sepals 5, free, pink or whitish, triangular, valvate aestivation.
Corolla
Petals 5, free, narrow at base, expanded above into a cup shaped pouch, beyond
which they end in a relatively broad tip.
Androecium
Usually 10 stamens arranged in 2 whorls; the outer whorl of 5 stamens is
antisepalous and reduced into staminodes and inner whorl of 5 stamens are fertile and
joined at base into vary short tube (connate). Fertile stamens are stand opposite to petals
(antipetalous); anthers 4 celled, dehise longitudinally.
Gynoecium
Ovary- 5 carpels, syncarpous, numerous ovules per carpel, superior ovary. Style ,
simple divided into lobes.
Fruit and seed

Fruit is and indehiscent Drupe commonly called Pod. Seeds called beans constitute
the economic part of this crop are usually 20-60/pod, Forastero having more seeds than
Criollo.
Flowering and Pollination

 Flowers are ill adapted for pollination by natural methods as well as for self
pollination as fertile stamen is concealed in pouched portion of petals and stigma is
surrounded by a ring of staminodes
 Self incompatible shown in cocoa
 Flowers start to open late in the afternoon and are fully open by forenoon next day.
As such , most pollination occurs in early hours of day.
 Pollination through insects – midges – Forcipomyia sp.
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Lecture 16
Botany of Oleaceae (Olive Family)
A family of approxmately 29 genera and 600 species.
Systemic Position
Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Gentianales
Selected genera
Nyctanthus, Jasminum
Field recognition
- Trees or shrubs
- Leaves opposite
- Flowers bi to tetramerous
- Gamosepalous and gamopetalous
- Stamens 2 ; Ovary bilocular
a. Jasminum sambac – Malligai

 Description : Jasmine is a evergreen semi vining shrub, It grows to the height of 8- 10
feet.. ; Its stems are slender, trailing, green and glaborous; Leaves- cordate to
oblong; waved, almost sessile; Jasmine flowers are white in colour, small, fragrant;
cymose inflorescence
 Varieties – Gundumalli, Koya, Madanbanam, Single Mogra, Double Mogra, Iruvatchi,
Kasthurimalli, Oosimalli, Soojimalli.
 Propagation – Cuttings (Semihard wood)
 Concrete recovery – 0.14 to 0.19 %
b. Jasminum auriculatum – Mullai

 Plants shrubby; Leaves- simple, shiny; Flowers - white, sweet scented, compound
many flowered cyme.
 Varieties – CO 1, CO2, Parimullai, Long Point, Long Round, Medium Point, Short
Point and Short Round
 Propagation – Cuttings (Semihard wood)
c. Jasminum grandiflorum – Jathimalli or Pitchi

 Straggling bush; leaves - pinnate, blunt; Leaves-pinnte; flowers – white, reddish
 Varieties – CO 1, CO2, Arka Surabhi (IIHR)
 Propagation – Cuttings (Terminal wood)
General Botanical Description of Oleaceae
General Habit - Tropical crop, shrub, climber, erect flowering plant
Leaves - Usually opposite, rarely alternate, entire, exstipulate.

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Inflorescence - Axillary or terminal racemose
Flowers
Bisexual, ebracteate, pedicellate, actinomorphic, usually tetramerous, hypogynous
Calyx
Usually sepals 4, gamosepalous, valvate, persistent
(J. sambac – 8 to 9 , J. auriculatum - 6 , J. grandiflorum – 5 - 6 )
Corolla
Usually petals 4, gamopetalous, valvate.
(J. sambac – 7 to 8 , J. auriculatum – 7 to 8 , J. grandiflorum – 5 )
Androecium - Stamens 2, epipetalous; anthers dithecous.
Gynoecium
Ovary bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, 2 ovules in each locule, axile
placentation; style simple, stigma capitate.
Fruit & Seed - Fruit, drupe
Botany of Asteraceae
Compositae is one of the largest families of flowering plants, represented by about

1100 genera and over 20,000 species. About 140 genera and over 700 species have been
reported in India.
Systematic Position
Gamopetalae, Inferae, Asterales
Selected genera
Ageratum, Aster, chrysanthemum, Dahlia, Eclipta, Helianthus, Veronia, Helichrysum,
Artemisia
Field Recognition
- Herbs, vines or shrubs, rarely trees
- Inflorescence an involucrate head or capitulam
- Stamens syngenesious
- Carpels 2, united
- Ovary inferior.
Important Crops
1. Chrysanthemum
2. Marigold
3. Gerbera
4. golden rod
5. Aster
6. Dhavanam
7. Pyrethrum
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1.Chrysanthemum 2n=36
 Chrysanthemum – Dendranthema grandiflorum
 Origin – Europe and Asia
 Utilized for both cut and loose flower
 Propagation - Suckers
2. Marigold
 Origin – Central and South America
 Loose flower – garland and flower offerings
 Xanthophyll obtained from the petals of marigold. It is a kind of yellow colouring
agent.
 Varieties – Pusa Narangi Gainda, Pusa Basanti Gainda,
 Propagation – Seeds
a.African Marigold – Tagetes erecta

Plants hardy, annual, tall, about 90cm high, erect and branched. Leaves pinnatisect,
leaflets are lanceolate , serrated; flower heads, lemon yellow to yellow, golden yellow to
orange, florets 2 lipes or quilled.Diploid 2n=24 (n=12)
b. French Marigold or Pot Marigold– Tagetes patula
A hardy annual, dwarf, 30cm tall, bushy; leaves dark green; stem reddish; leaves
pinnatisect, leaflets are lanceolate, serrated; flower heads small , yellow to red, peduncles
long. Tetraploid – 4n= 48
3. Gerbera – Gerbera jamesoni

 Native of South Africa and Asia
 Ranked among the top 10 cut flower
 2n=50
4. Golden rod - Solidago gigantea

A 0.3-1.5 meter (1-5ft) herbaceous weed, this is North America's most common
goldenrod. Stems are hairy below flower branches. Many lance-shaped toothed
leaves. Yellow flowers arranged in triangular panicles. Flowers found July through
September
5. Botany of – China Aster (2n = 18)- Callistephus chinensis

 Popular for cut flower crop
 Erect, branched herb; leaves- alternate, ovate, deeply and irregularly
toothed; ray florets white; disc florets tubular, bisexual, yellow; fruit achenes
6. Davana (2n = 16) – Artemisia pallens Wall.

 Economic part – Herbs or Leaves
 Exploited for essential oil
 Chief constituent of essential oil – Davanone (32%)
 Oil content 0.1 to 0.2 %
 Propagation - Seeds
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Description of Davana
- Aromatic erect herb, about 60cm tall, with much divided leaves and yellow flowers
-The stem and leaves are covered with greyish white tomentum
- The leaves are alternate, petiolate and lobed.
- Inflorescence is heterogamous capitulam, having bisexual disc florets in the center and a
few pistillate ray florets (3 lobed) on the periphery.
- Stamens are 5 in number with free, epipetalous filament, dithecous.
- Stigma is generally 2 lobed7. Botany of – Pyrethrum (2n = 18)
7.Pyrethrum – Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium Vis.

 Origin – Dalmatia (Yugoslavia)
 Uses – Insecticides, Repellents
 Parts used – Dried flower heads
 Chief constituent – Pyrethrins (1.0 to 1.5%)
 Variety – Hansa, Jhelum, KKL-1
 Propagation - Seeds
Description – Pyrethrum
-Perennial herb, grows up to 60cm high.
-It has an unbranched stem with short, scattered hairs below the flower
-Leaves are petiolate, long, finely cut and silky beneath, with distinct segments
-Numerous flower heads are borne which measures 9-12 mm.
-Flower head bears a receptacle 4 to 8 mm in diameter. This receptacle is nearly flat and
bears numerous yellow disc florats and a single row of cream coloured ligulate ray florets
General Botanical Description of Asteraceae compositae
General Habit - Annual or perennial herbs
Leaves
Usually alternate, simple, margins pinnately or palmately lobed or divided; leaves
usually with oil passages.
Inflorescence
The primary inflorescence is Head or Capitulam with many flowers (called florets)
borne on the conical, flat or convex receptacle.
Head or Capitulum : The main axis is suppressed, becoming almost flat, and the flowers are
also without any stalk so that they become crowded together on the flat surface of the
receptacle. Although the whole inflorescence looks like a single flower.
* Ray floret – Periphery (female)
* Disc floret - Central (bisexual)
Eg. Marigold, Sunflower etc.
Flowers
Flowers are actinomorphic or zygomorphic; bisexual or unisexual; pentamerous;
epigynous. The capitulam may be
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 Heterogamous capitulam – The central florets are disc florets, which are bisexual and
actinomorphic; peripheral florets are ray florets which are generally female and
zygomorphic
 Homogamous capitulam– All florets are similar, usually bisexual and actinomorphic
Calyx
Represented by pappus of bristles or scales
Corolla
Petals 5, gamopetalous, ligulate; valvate.
Androecium
Stamens 5, epipetalous, alternating with corolla lobes; anthers nearly united into a
tube around the style and filaments free i.e., syngenesious, dithecous.
Gynoecium
Ovary, bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary, unilocular, one ovule, basal
placentation; style 1; stigma branched into 2, nectar secreting disc is also present at the
base of the corolla tube or surrounding the style.
Fruit & Seed - Fruit cypsela

Pollination
The pollination mechanism is entomophilous .Insects are attracted by the
consipicuous ray florets of the capitulam .Cross pollination is promoted also by the
protandrous condition of the androecium
III. Botany of Amaryllidaceae (Daffodil Family)
A family of about 85 genera and over 1100 species. About 9 genera and over 60
species have been reported from India.
Systematic Position
Monocotyledons, Epigynae, Amaryllidaceae
Selected genera
Agave, Crinum, Narcissus, Zephyranthes, Polianthus
Field Recognition
 Bulbous or rhizomatus; perennial herbs
 Inflorescence usually a leafless scape or umbel subtended by spathe like bracts
 Perianth gamophyllus
 Stamens 6, antiphyllus and epiphyllus
 Ovary inferior.
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Botanical description 0f Tuberose - Polianthes tuberosa
 Origin – Native of Mexico
 Single type – Loose flower- Garland making and flower offerings
 Double type – Cut flower
 Propagation – Bulbs or bulb segments
Varieties
Single
Rajat Rekha, Sringhar, Prajwal, Arka Niranthra, Phule Rajani, Mexican Single, Culcutta Single.
Double
 Swarna Rekha, Suvasini, Vaibhak, Mexican Double, Culcutta Double
 There are three types of tuberoses named on the basis of the number of rows
of petals they bear.
 Single – Flowers with single row of petals, single type has the most fragrance
 Semi- Double – it bears two to three rows of corolla segments.
 Double - More than three rows of corolla segments
Description – P.tuberosa
-P.tuberosa has a tuberous root-stock and a mass of basal foliage.
-The leaves are pale-green, long, narrow and very dense. The leaves at the base are 30 to 40
cm long, 1.2 to 1.5 cm in width, sometimes reddish near the base.
- The flowering stems are long and can reach a height of up to 100 cm, although 60 to 75
cm is normal. It is approximately the top third of the stem which bears the pure, white,
waxy-textured raceme of bloomsThe flowers are borne in pairs on a lax spike and are 3 to 6
cm in length.
-The segments are 1 to 2 cm long, the tube is long, narrow and funnel-shaped, slightly bent
near the base.
-The filaments are attached to the upper part of the corolla.
-The ovary is 3-celled, there are 3 stigmas which are ovate-falcate.
-The fruit is crowned by a persistent perianth, and the seeds are flat.
General Description of Amaryllidaceae
General Habit - Usually perennial, bulbous or rhizomatus
Leaves
Mostly basal, simple, alternate, exstipulate, more or less linear, entire, parallel
venation
Inflorescence - Usually on a long leafless scape/ spike, one or more spathes or bracts
Flowers - Bisexual, Bracteate, actinomorphic, trimerous, epigynous and usually fragrant

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Perianth
Tepals 6, arranged in 2 whorls of 3 each, not differentiated into calyx and corolla;
free and united at the base; valvate.
Androecium
Stamens 6, arranged in 2 whorls of 3 each, eiphyllous, present opposite to tepals,
inserted at the throat of perianth tube, anthers dithecous.
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary, numerous ovules in each locule,
axileplacentation ; style 1; stigma capitate.
Fruit & Seed - Fruit – capsule
Pollination - It is entomophyllus .Crosspollinated crop .
Botany of Acanthaceae (Acanthus Family)
A family of over 250 genera and over 2500 species. About 70 genera and over 340
species have been reported from India.
Systematic Position
Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Personales
Selected genera
Acanthus, Adhathoda, Barlaria, Eranthemum, Ruellia, Thunbergia, Crossandra
Field Recognition
• Herbs, shrubs or trees
• Leaves opposite decussate
• Flowers zygomorphic
• Corolla bilipped (2/3)
• Seeds capsule
Botany of Acanthaceae – Crossandra

• Crossandra – Crossandra infundibuliformis
• All cultivated types are Tetraploid – 2n=40
• Delhi Crossandra 2n=30
• Mainly cultivated for loose flower – veni and garland making
• Varieties
– Orange, Red, Lutea Yellow, Sebaculis Red & Delhi
• Propagation - Seed
- Delhi Crossandra – cutting
Habit - Mostly perennial herbs or shrubs and rarely trees
Leaves - The leaves are simple, opposite and decussate; stipules are lacking.
Flowes
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The flowers are bisexual, zygomorphic, and usually are associated with conspicuous ,
often brightly colored bracts.
Calyx
Calyx is usually deeply 4-5 lobed or sometimes is highly reduced with
more numerous minute teeth.
Corolla
The corolla is sympetalous , usually 5-merous, mostly zygomorphic, and commonly 2
lipped.
Androecium
The androecium usually consists of 4 didynamous stamens or only 2 stamens adnate to
the corolla tube or epigynous zone, alternate with the lobes .
Gynoecium
The gynoecium consists of a single compoundpistil of 2 carpels, a single style, and
a superior ovary with 2 locules, each with usually 2-10 axile ovules in one or
two collateral vertical tiers . An annular nectary disk is usually found around the base of
the ovary.
Fruit
The fruit is commonly an elastically dehiscent loculicidal capsule. The seed
stalk or funiculus of each seed is modified into a hook shaped jaculator
or retinaculum that functions in flinging out the seeds during dehiscence.
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Lecture - 17
Botany of Caryophyllaceae(Pink Family)
Represented by about 75 genera and over 2000 species. Over 20 genera and
about100 species have so far reported from India
Systemic Position
Polypetalae, Thalamiflorae, Caryophyllineae
Selected genera
Antigonon, Dianthus, Gypsophila
Botany of – Carnation (2n = 30)

-Carnation – Dianthus caryophyllus
-Native – Southern Europe
-Uses – Cut flower
-Propagation - Cuttings
Varieties
1. Standard Type – In standard varieties, the flowering buds formed on short lateral
shoots are removed. Leave one large, terminal flower on a long leafy stem. It has one large
flower on an individual stem.
2. Spray Type – The terminal flower bud is removed at an early stage to encourage
more even development of lateral flowers, which then produce a multiple flowered stem.
Botany of – Carnation (2n = 30)

Carnation – Dianthus caryophyllus
-Native – Southern Europe
-Uses – Cut flower
-Propagation –Cuttings
General Botanical Description of Caryophyllaceae
General Habit
Perennial herbs; stem – herbaceous, nodes swollen at the point of leaf attachment,
branching dichotomous but some time monopodial.
Leaves
Simple, usually opposite decussate, linear to lanceolate, entire, usually exstipulate.
Inflorescence - Flowers are solitary terminal
Flowers
Bisexual, bracteate, bracteolate, actinomorphic, hypogynous, pentamerous.
Calyx - Sepals 5, gamosepalous (united into tube), persistent.

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Corolla - Petals 5 to many, polypetalous, imbricate
Androecium
Stamens 5 or as many as petals or twice as many as petals, arranged in 1 or 2 whorls;
anthers 2 celled;
Gynoecium
Carpels 2, syncarpous, superior ovary, numerous ovules in each locule, free central
placentation; style and stigma as many as the carpels.
Fruit & Seed - Fruit - Capsule
Pollination
Pollination is entomophilous.Cross pollinated crop.
Botany of Iridaceae(Iris Family)
Represented by about 70 genera and over 1500 species.
Systemic Position
Monocotyledons, Epigynae, Iridaceae
Selected genera
Crocus, Gladiolus, IrisBotany of Iradiaceae – Gladiolus or Sword lily
Botanical description of Gladiolus – Gladiolus sp.
Chromosome number :2n = 30

Origin – South Africa
Propagation – Corms and Cormels
Uses –Cut flowerGeneral Botanical Description of Iridaceae
General Habit
Perennial herbs with roots produced from corm (crocus), bulb (Gladiolus) or
rhizome (Iris).
Leaves
These plants produce fan-like clumps of sword-shaped leaves and range in height
from 2 to 6 feet, usually simple, exstipulate, sessile, linear, mostly basal, numerous and
crowded at the base of stem.
Inflorescence
The flowers develop on distinct aerial flowering axis spike or scape; long
spikes of trumpet-shaped blossoms. The flowers open first at the base of the spike with
the older ones dying as the new ones unfurl. The flowers may be frilly, ruffled, or plain
and range in size from 1 inch in diameter up to 8 inches in diameter. Healthy plants
produce two dozen or more flowers on a single stem
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Flowers
Bisexual, bracteate, zygomorphic, epigynous, trimerous; showy, large, and beautifully
coloured; usually subtended individually by 2 apathe like bracts.
Perianth - 6 tepals arranged in 2 whorls of 3 each, basally connate; valvate
Androecium -3 stamens, opposite to tepals, epipetalous; anthers dithecous.
Gynoecium
Tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary, trilocular, axile placentation; style-1, stigma 3,
Fruit & Seed– Capsule.
BOTANY OF APOCYNACEAE
A family of about 200 genera and 2000 species. About 30 genera and over 60 species
Systemic Position
Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Gentianales
Selected genera
Catharanthus, Nerium, Plumaria, Tabernaemontana, Thevetia, Rawvolfia, Vinca
Botanical description of Nerium

Nerium - Nerium oleander. L
Origin : India and Mediterranean region
Three species are commercially important.
• Nerium indicum
• Nerium oleander
• Nerium oleander var variegata
Cultivars - Single Rose, Single White, Single Red and Double Types.
Plant
It is widely grown in tropical and subtropical gardens, parks, avenues and is popular
for its hue and fragrance.
Habit - Shrubs, It raises up to 3-4mts.
Leaves
Simple, exstipulate, dark dusty green leathery narrow leaves, which grow in whorls.
They are narrow lance like , 5-21cm long and 1-3.5 cm broad, and with an entire margin.
Inflorescence - Flowers panicle
Flower
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The flowers grow in clusters at the end of each branch; they are white, pink or red ,
2-2.5 cm diameter; Bisexual, bracteate, bracteolae, pentamerous, hypogynous,
actinomorphic.
Calyx - 5 sepals, gamospealous
Corolla - 5 petals fringed at the base, gamopetalous (As tube/funnel shaped), twisted.
Androecium
5 stamens, epipetalous, alternate with corolla tube; filaments hairy and twisted,
anthers dithecous.
Gynoecium
Usually bicarpellary, syncarpous, many ovules per carpel, marginal placentation;
style one, simple, stigma characteristicly thickened and bilobed (crown shape).
A necteriferous disc is often present around or at the base of the gynoecium
Fruit
The fruit is a long narrow capsule 5-23 cm long, which splits open at maturity to
release numerous downy seeds (crown of hairs).
Botanical description of Periwinkle

 Periwinkle (Chatharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don),
• Periwinkle gained further importance after the isolation of vincristine and vinblastine
alkaloids which have importance in cancer therapy (leukemia)
• The plant is a native of Madagascar
• Economic part – Leaves and roots
Habit - Aa perennial herb. 90 cm height
Stem - Eerect, branching flexible long purple or light green colour.
Leaves - Simple, opposite, exstipulate, petiolate
Inflorescence - Racemose
Flowers
Rose – purple or white axillary pairs, pedicillate, hermaphrodite, complete,
actionomorphic hypogynous
Calyx and corolla

5 – petals rose – purple or white or white with rose purple spot, tabular swollen in
the region of anthers corolla tube hairs forming a corona like structure.
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Androecium
5 stamens, in corolla tube, filament very small, epipetalous anthers farm cone like
structure above the stigma.
Gynoecium
2 carpels free below but united in the stylar region 2 ovaries free, single style with
dumbbell shaped stigma
Fruit
Follicles elongated 2 fruits and firmed seed are small black in colour 1g contains 835
seeds.
Botany of Geraniaceae(Geranium Family)
Geraniaceae is a family of about 11 genera and 780 species. Only 3 genera and about 25
species have been reported in India
Selected genera
- Geranium, Pelargonium
Systemic position
- Polypetalae, Disciflorae, Geraniales
Geraniales
- Stamens twice as many as petals; Disc present
- Ovary multicarpellary and syncarpous
- Style persistent with fruit
Field recognition
- Herbs; leaves palmately lobed or dissected ; Pentamerous flower
2 types of geranium
1. Algerian or Tunisian – slender, dark pink flower, suitable for wet condition
2. Bourbon or Reunion – Sturdy, light pink flowers, more suitable for wet condition
General Botanical Description of Geraniaceae

General Habit
It is a bushy aromatic perennial herb. The stem is cylindrical, woody at base, pubescent
green when young and turning brown with age.
Leaves
Leaves are alternate, stipulate, simple with 5 primary lobes and secondary lobes and
densely pubescent. Leaves are highly aromatic
Inflorescence - Inflorescence is Umbellate and hairy

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Flowers
The Flower is bisexual, bracteate, bracteolate, hypogynous, actinomorphic, pentamerous.
Calyx - 5 sepals, free, imbricate, persistent.
Corolla - 5 petals, free, alternate with sepals, imbricate.
Androecium
Androecium – Stamens 10, filaments subequal, united at the base, dithecous and shed easily
Gynoecium
Gynoecium – The ovary is hairy, superior, penta carpellary syncarpous; style is hairy
distally breaking into 5 stigma.
Fruit & Seed – Capsule, styles adhering to the overian beak.
Botany of Gramineae or Poaceae
Gramineae, the largest and most important family of angiosperm from the economic
point of view. It is represented by about 620 genera and over 10000 species.About 240
genera and over 1200 species have been reported in India.

- Avena, Bambusa, Cynodon, Hordeum, Oryza, Saccharum, Secale, Sorghum,
Triticum, Zea, etc.
Systemic Position
- Monocotyledons, Glumaceae (reduced perianth, bracts large, scaly) , Gramineae
Field Recognition
- Herbs with round stem (culm), having hallow internodes
- leaves mostly flat, ligule present
- bracts of glumes, lemma and palea
- Fruit - caryopsis
Lemongrass
i. East Indian Lemon grass – Cymbopogon flexuosus
Commercially cultivated in Kerala. It is popularly known as Cochin Oil.
ii.West Indian Lemon grass – Cymbopogon citrates
iii. Jammu Lemon grass – Cymbopogon pendulus
- Chief constituent, Citral (80%); oil content 1.0 to 1.2 %

- Citral is starting material in manufacturing of synthetic Vitamin A
- Oil has antibacterial, insect repellent and medicinal uses
- Propagation –Seeds
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Citronella grass
i. Java citronella – Cymbopogon winterianus
Best source of citronella oil
ii.Ceylon citronella – Cymbopogon nardus
- Chief constituent Citronellal 30 to 38 %

- Oil content 1.2 to 1.5 %
- Propagation –Slips
Palmarosa grass or Rusa or Rosha

-Palmarosa grass – C. maritini var.motia
-Economic part– Leaves or grass
-Chief constituent of oil – Geraniol (95%)
-Oil- content – 0.43 to 0.52
-Propagation – Seeds
-Varieties – Trishna (CIMAP)
Vetiver grass or Khus

-Vetiver grass – Vetiveria zizanoides L.
-Native – India
-Economic part – Root
-Variety – Hybrid 7 and Hybrid 8 (IARI)
-Chief constituent – Vetiverol 65 to 75%
-Oil content in root – 1.00 to 1.50 %
-Propagation - Slips
General Botanical Description of Gramineae or Poaceae
General Habit
Perennial herbs; round stem (culm), having hallow internodes, prostrate, branched
at base,
Leaves- Simple, crowded at the base and consisting of sheath, blade and ligule.
Inflorescence
Terminal Panicle, the basic unit of inflorescence is a spikelet, each spikelet consists of
one or more flowers
Flowers
Flowers also called florets, are small, bisexual, Zygomorphic, hypogynous, develop on
the rachilla above the glume. Each floret is subtended by 2 bracts called lemma and palea.
Perianth - Reduced to 2-3 minute scale
Androecium - 3 stamens, filaments free, anthers dithecous.

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Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, unilocular; stigma 2, plumose or feather like.
Fruit & Seed - caryopsis
Awn— A stiff bristle situated at the tip of a glume or lemma.

Caryopsis— A seed-like fruit with a thin outer wall; a grain.
Collar— The junction of the leaf sheath and blade.
Culm— The stem of a grass.
Floret— A single small flower, usually a member of a cluster, such as a spikelet or ahead.
Glume— The lowest two (sometimes one) empty scales subtending the usually fertile scales
in grass spikelets.
Lemma— The lowermost of the two scales forming the floret in a grass spikelet -- the
uppermost, less easily seen, is called the palea.
Ligule— An extension, often scarious (papery), of the summit of the leaf sheath.
Nerve— Same as a vein. The central vein running lengthwise on a scale
Node— The point along a stem which gives rise to leaves, branches, or inflorescences.
Palea— The uppermost of the two scales forming the floret in a grass spikelet (often
obscure or hidden).
Rachilla— A secondary rachis. The axis of a spikelet.
Sheath— A tubular structure effected by the formation of leaf margins around the stem. The
base of a grass leaf that runs from the node up to the blade.
Spikelet— A secondary or small spike; specifically, in the Poaceae family, the unit composed
or one or two glumes subtending one to several sets of lemma and palea combinations.
Botany of Labiatae or Lamiaceae
A family of about 200 genera and 3,500 species. About 65 genera and over 400
Selected genera
- Coleus, Lavandula, Leucas, Mentha, Ocimum, Salvia.
Systemic position
- Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Lamiales
Field recognition
- Aromatic herbs or shrubs with square stem
- leaves, opposite, decussate
- inflorescence, verticillaster
- Flowers, zygomorphic, pentamerous
- Ovary, 4 lobed; fruit, schizocarpic
Coleus (2n=30)
-Coleus – Coleus forskohlii Brig.
-Origin – India
-Economic part – Tuberous root
-Chief constituent – Forskohlin
-Uses – Hypertension & glaucoma
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-Variety – K8
-Propagation – Cuttings
Patchouli (2n=34)
-Patchouli – Pogostemon patchouli Pellet.
-Native – Philiphines
-Exploited for essential oils
-Economic part – Leaves
-Chief constituent – Patchouli alcohol
-Uses – Cosmetics, drugs, Flavouring, perfumery
-Varieties
Johore (It yields best quality oil)
Singapore
Indonesia
Mint
- Japanese mint – Mentha arvensis L.
- Peppermint – M. piperita L.
- Spearmint – M. spicata L.
- Bergomot mint – M. citrata L.
Origin – Meditrerranean Region
Economic part used – leaves
Uses – Cosmetics, culinary purposes, flavoring , perfumery
Chief constituent - Menthol (65 – 75%)
Oil content – 0.4%
Varieties
- Japanese mint – Himalaya, Kalka, shivalik,
- Peppermint – Kukrail,
- Spearmint – Arka, Neera (CIMAP)
- Bergomot mint – Kiran
Basil
-Common or French or Sweet or roman basil- Ocimum basilicum L.
-Exploited for essential oil
-Chief constituent – linalool (55%), Methyl Chavicol (70%)
-Economic parts – Herbs, leaves & seeds\
-Propagation - Seeds
General Botanical Description of Labiatae or Lamiaceae
General Habit
Perennial herbs with square stem, covered with glandular scales.
Leaves
Simple, opposite; often hairy and with epidermal glands secreting volatile oils.
Inflorescence
Cymose, the cyme at nodes condensed into verticillaster
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Verticellaster
It is a special type of inflorescence seen in Leucas. At each node of the stem
two axillary opposite cymose inflorescences develop on either side. The cyme in the
axil of each leaf, starts as a dichasial cyme but subsequently become monochasial
scorpioid cyme. As a result the cyme bends round the stem on either side and meets
a similar cyme from the opposite side. Hence, at each node there is a cluster of
flowers completely surrounding the stem.
Flowers
Bracteate, bracteolate, bisexual, zygomorphic, rarely actinomorphic (Mentha)
Calyx
5 sepals, gamosepalous or united into funnel or campanulate tube, persistent in
fruit, valvate, usually 2 lipped (1/4 in ocimum)
Corolla
5 petals, gamopetalous, 2 lipped (4/1 in ocimum- 4 in posterior lip & 1 in anterior
lip), valvate
Androecium
4 stamens, didynamous, epipetalous, filaments free.
Gynoecium
Bi carpellary, syncarpous; ovary superior, deepely 4 lobed, 2 ovules in each locule,
axile placentation; style 1, stigma bifid, hypogynous, nectar secreating disc is present.
Fruit & Seed - Schizocarp
Botany of Scrophulariaceae(Snapdragon Family)
Represented by about 220 genera and 3500 species. About 60 genera and 360
Selected genera
- Antirrhinum, Digitalis, Veronica
Systematic position
- Gamopetalae, Bicarpellatae, Personales
Botany of Digitalis
-Fox – Glove : Digitalis lanata Ehrh. &Digitalis purpurea
-Native : Europe
-Important bio principles – Digitoxin, Gitoxin and Digoxin
-Mainly for heart ailments
-Economic part - Leaves
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Digitalis lanata
- Glycoside content 1-1.4 %
- Shorter inflorescence with smaller flowers having cream or yellow colours
Digitalis purpurea
- gylcoside content 0.2 to 0.4 %
- purple coloured much elongated raceme
General Botanical Description of Scrophulariaceae
General Habit : Erect, branched biennial herbs, attaining a height of 60-90cm
Leaves : Simple, exstipulate, alternate; both stem and leaves are hairy.
Inflorescence : Spike
Flowers : Bracteate, bracteolate, bisexual, zygomorphic, hupogynous, pentamerous
Calyx : 5 sepals, united, imbricate
Corolla : 5 petals, united, bilipped, imbricate
Androecium : 4 stamens, didynamous, epipetalous
Gynoecium
Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary, bilocular, unmerous ovule, axile
placentation; style simple, stigma bilobed, nectar secreating disc present below the ovary.
Fruit & Seed - Capsule

Botany Full Theory

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 Lawful arrangement or arrangement by rules

a. Common Name or Vernacular Name

d. International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

“ Study of stages in the evolutionary history of group of organisms ”

Classification - Based on life span

Special types of plants - Mode of Nutrition

ii. Adventitious root system

iii. Modified root system

B. Branched root modified

c. Adventitious root modified

Fasciculated Roots -Storage Food

Nodulose Root -Storage Food

Moniliform or Beaded root- -Storage Food

Annulated Root -Storage Food

2. Sub aerial modifications of stems

3. Aerial modifications of stems - Metamorphoses

f. Branching - ‘ Mode of arrangement of branches on a stem’

II. Dichotomous Branching

2. Cymose inflorescence (or) Definite

a. Uniparous cyme or Monochasial cyme

b. Biparous cyme or Dichasial cyme

c. Multiparous cyme or Polychasial cyme

Position of floral leaves – Thalamus

Bracts – Are special leaves from the axil of which

II. Cohesion of stamens

iii. Adhesion of stamens

2. Epiphyllous - Stamens attached to the perianth. Eg. Liliaceae.

IV. Length of stamens

I. Self pollination or autogamy

Mechanism promoting self-pollination

II. CROSS POLLINATION OR ALLOGAMY

Mechanism promoting cross – pollination

ii. Dioecy or Dioecious

Dichogamy is of two types

CLASSIFICATION – TYPES OF FRUITS

ii. Indehiscent fruit

iii. Splitting or Schizocarp

iv. Fleshy Fruit,

FRUITS = TYPE OF FRUITS = EDIBLE PARTS

Fruit and Seed

2. Botanical Description of Cashew – Anacardium occidentale L

Fruit and Seed

Important commercial crops

1. Botanical Description of Acid lime - C.aurantifolia L.

Inflorescence - Short occur axillary usually 1-7 flowered

Flower - Bisexual, actinomorphic, white, small, Hypogynous – superior ovary

Calyx - 4-5 sepals, calyx cup shaped, free, imbricate

Corolla - 4-5 petals , white, free, imbricate

Androecium - Stamens 20-25, irregularly bundled – (Polyadelphous), anthers dithecous,

Fruit -Hesperidium; polyembryony with as many as 13 embryos.

Inflorescence- Flowers axillary, borne singly or in few flowered racemes

Corolla- Petals 5, free, white, imbricate

Androecium- Stamens 20-25,

Seed - Many, obovoid, white inside, polyembryonic.

Habit - Relatively small (2-8m tall), spiny, twigs are slender,

Inflorescence - Flowers occur singly or in small clusters in the leaf axils.

Calyx - Sepals 5 , free, imbricate

Corolla - Petals 5, white, free, imbricate

Androecium- Stamens 20, irregularly bundled – Polyadelphous, anthers dithecous,

Fruit - Elongated Berry

Many members of the Moraceae, the presence of cystoliths, deposits of calcium

Fruit & seed

iii. Botany of Caricaceae