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Dipping in
to the North
Living, Working and Traveling in
Sparsely Populated Areas
Edited by Linda Lundmark
Dean B. Carson · Marco Eimermann
Dipping in to the North
Linda Lundmark • Dean B. Carson
Marco Eimermann
Editors

Dipping in to the
North
Living, Working and Traveling
in Sparsely Populated Areas
Editors
Linda Lundmark Dean B. Carson
Department of Geography Centre for Tourism and Regional
Umeå University Opportunities
Umeå, Sweden Central Queensland University
Cairns, QLD, Australia
Marco Eimermann
Department of Geography
Umeå University
Umeå, Sweden

ISBN 978-981-15-6622-6    ISBN 978-981-15-6623-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6623-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting,
reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by
similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
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claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © Paul Breddels

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore
Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
 Contents

1 Dipping in to the North: Living, Working and Traveling

in Sparsely Populated Areas  1
Dean B. Carson, Marco Eimermann, and Linda Lundmark

2 Who Lives in the Inland North? Dynamic, Diverse,

Fragile, Robust 15
Dean B. Carson and Neil Argent

3 Small Villages and Socio-Economic Change in Resource

Peripheries: A View from Northern Sweden 27
Dean B. Carson, Doris A. Carson, Marco Eimermann, Michelle
Thompson, and Matthew Hayes

4 The Myth of the Immobile Rural: The Case of Rural

Villages in Iceland 55
Þóroddur Bjarnason

5 The Changing Youth Population 71

Dean B. Carson, Þóroddur Bjarnason, and Olof Andreas
Stjernström

v
vi Contents

6 Housing in SPAs: Too Much of Nothing or Too Much for

‘Free’? 89
Linda Lundmark

7 Lifestyle Migrants and Intercultural Communication in

Swedish Villages107
Marco Eimermann, Daniel Tomozeiu, and Doris A. Carson

8 Who Works in the North? Challenges and Opportunities

for Employment133
Marco Eimermann and Ingemar Elander

9 Tradition Is Essential: Clashing Articulations of Sami

Identity, Past and Present151
Carina Green, Benedict E. Singleton, and Firouz Gaini

10 A Socially Accountable Health and Care Workforce in

Northern Sweden: Who Should It Contain, Who Is It for
and What Should It Do?175
Dean B. Carson and Frida Jonsson

11 Is Downshifting Easier in the Countryside? Focus Group

Visions on Individual Sustainability Transitions195
Marco Eimermann, Charlotta Hedberg, and Mari Nuga

12 Stayin’ Alive: New Associations in Southern Lapland

Farming217
Alexandre Dubois and Michelle Thompson

13 Spicy Meatballs and Mango Sylt: Exploring Food

Practices as a Means to Promoting Entrepreneurship in
Rural Sweden241
Natasha A. Webster and Gunnel Forsberg
 Contents vii

14 Who Travels to the North? Challenges and Opportunities

for Tourism265
Linda Lundmark and Doris A. Carson

15 Cities of the North: Gateways, Competitors or Regional

Markets for Hinterland Tourism Destinations?285
Doris A. Carson, Kajsa G. Åberg, and Bruce Prideaux

16 Strategic Objective? Contemporary Discourse on Russian

Second-Home Ownership in Finland311
Olga Hannonen

17 Selling Greenness333
Jundan Jasmine Zhang and Linda Lundmark

18 Arctification and the Paradox of Overtourism in Sparsely

Populated Areas349
Linda Lundmark, Dieter K. Müller, and Dorothee Bohn

19 Tourism, Seasonality and the Attraction of Youth373

Tara Duncan, Maria Thulemark, and Peter Möller

20 Epilogue: From Growth to Decline to Degrowth? The

Future of Northern SPAs393
Dean B. Carson, Marco Eimermann, and Linda Lundmark

Index403
 Notes on Contributors

Kajsa G. Åberg works as a tourism strategist at the regional develop-

ment organization of Västerbotten (Region Västerbotten) in northern
Sweden. She is engaged in national and international collaborations
aimed at strengthening sustainable operations in tourism and the con-
nections between academia, policy-makers and practitioners. Current
and prior research endeavours address the view on knowledge in both
operational and strategic spheres of tourism development.
Håkan Appelblad (PhD) is Senior Lecturer in Human Geography in
the Department of Geography, Umeå University. Appelblad’s research
interests relate to tourism, rural and arctic tourism as well as regional
development. He teaches regularly on various subfields within geography
like tourism, population geography, urban and regional planning and
regional development.
Neil Argent is Professor of Human Geography in the Department of
Geography and Planning at the University of New England (UNE),
Australia. His research focuses on the geography of rural economic,
demographic and social change in developed world nations. He is an
editorial board member of the Journal of Rural Studies and the Journal of
Community and Rural Development.

ix
x Notes on Contributors

Þóroddur Bjarnason is Professor of Sociology at the University of

Akureyri, Iceland. He holds an MA from the University of Essex and a
PhD from the University of Notre Dame. His research interests include
the regional impact of higher education, patterns of inclusion and exclu-
sion, adolescent well-being and the causes and consequences of geo-
graphical mobility.
Dorothee Bohn is a PhD candidate in Human Geography at Umeå
University, Umeå, Sweden. Her dissertation focuses on the nexus between
political economy and tourism development in the European Arctic. She
is a member of the Formas-funded research project ‘Climate Change and
the Double Amplifications of Arctic Tourism: Challenges and Potential
Solutions for Tourism and Sustainable Development in an Arctic
Context’. In addition to issues of tourism policy and planning, she is
interested in exploring labour relations in the service sector and the inter-
section of the economy and the environment.
Marta Bystrowska holds a doctorate degree in human geography from
the Centre for Polar Studies, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland.
Her research was focusing on the perspectives of Arctic cruise tourism
development in the time of climate change. She holds a master’s degree in
political sciences and spatial economy with specialization in regional and
local development from Warsaw University, Poland.
Dean B. Carson is a research professor with the Centre for Tourism and
Regional Opportunities at Central Queensland University in Australia,
and a guest professor with the Arctic Research Centre at Umeå University.
His interest is in who lives in, works in and visits sparsely populated areas
in high-­income countries. He has a publication record covering topics
such as migration, health, tourism, resource economies and policy. He
has conducted research in Australia, Sweden, Canada and Scotland, and
was the founder of the Free Range international student exchange pro-
gramme designed to promote interest in rural research among graduate
students in those and other countries.
Doris A. Carson is an assistant professor in the Department of
Geography at Umeå University in northern Sweden. Her research focuses
on changing population mobilities and their contributions to new local
 Notes on Contributors xi

development paths in sparsely populated areas, particularly those found

in Sweden and Australia. Her work examines the implications of urban-
ization for small ‘hinterland’ communities in sparsely populated areas.
She has published widely on the topics of rural and remote area tourism,
local innovation systems in peripheral areas, lifestyle migration and
demographic change in remote resource peripheries.
Robin Cranmer was, until retirement, Senior Lecturer in Linguistics at
the University of Westminster, London. He gained his PhD at the
University of Oxford. His research centres on language and intercultural
education. He jointly co-ordinated an EU project ‘Promoting Intercultural
Competence in Translators’ and worked with London museums on the
intercultural challenges of translating for international visitors. His pub-
lications focus on intercultural aspects of Translation, translating Tourism
Discourse and Intercultural Pragmatics.
O. Cenk Demiroglu is a researcher and a lecturer in the Department of
Geography at Umeå University and Associate Professor of Tourism with
the Turkish Interuniversity Council. His research is mainly focused on
the interrelationships of climate change and ski tourism. Besides research,
he has served as an expert to several destination development projects and
teaches tourism and GIS-related courses.
Alexandre Dubois is a human geographer, a spatial planner and a
researcher at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences in Uppsala
(Sweden). His research has focused on the opportunities and challenges
for regional development in sparsely populated areas of Europe address-
ing varied issues such as innovation, entrepreneurship, the bioeconomy
or local food systems. He is leading a project on short food supply chains
in remote rural communities of Sweden and Australia granted by
FORMAS, the Swedish Research Council for Sustainable Development,
and participated as an expert in the pan-European ESPON BRIDGES
project. He also contributes to another FORMAS project about
‘Innovation far from the core’.
Tara Duncan is a senior lecturer at the Centre for Tourism and Leisure
Research (CeTLeR), Dalarna University, Sweden, and Chair of
Association for Tourism and Leisure Education and Research (ATLAS).
xii Notes on Contributors

Duncan’s main area of research focuses on the intersections between tour-

ism, work and mobilities with a focus on young budget travellers, aca-
demic mobility and sustainability within tourism and hospitality careers.
Marco Eimermann is research assistant professor in the Department of
Geography, and affiliated with the Arctic Research Centre (ARCUM),
Umeå University, Sweden. His research interests regard lifestyle migra-
tion, downshifting practices and sustainable entrepreneurship in rural,
remote and northern sparsely populated areas. Eimermann works in sev-
eral FORMAS research projects (being the project leader in one of them).
He is involved in the Lifestyle Migration Hub, an expanding network of
migration scholars studying social rather than economic reasons for vol-
untary mobility and migration across the globe. He has published peer-
reviewed articles (e.g. in the Journal of Rural Studies and in Population,
Space and Place), book chapters and books about transient and strategi-
cally switching populations in Europe.
Ingemar Elander is Senior Professor of Politics at Örebro University
and Mälardalen University, Sweden. His research interests cover policy
studies and urban governance in a broad sense as exemplified in several
publications on cities and climate change; environment and planning;
faith-based organizations and social exclusion in cities. His research has
recently covered sustainable development and urban renewal in Swedish
neighbourhoods and cities, with a special focus on social aspects as docu-
mented in several publications with geographer Eva Gustavsson. Elander
is co-editor of Urban Governance in Europe (2009), and co-author of
Faith-Based Organisations and Social Exclusion in Sweden (2011), an
extensive report which has inspired several reviewed articles and book
chapters authored with Charlotte Fridolfsson. Work in progress includes
submitted, co-authored articles on securitization and counter-securitiza-
tion related to politics and religion.
Eléonore Fauré holds a PhD in Planning and Decision Analysis special-
ized in Environmental Strategic Analysis and is a researcher and teacher
in Strategic Sustainability Studies at KTH Royal Institute of Technology,
Sweden. Her research interests are about sustainability and environmen-
tal justice related to planning, decision-making and future studies as well
 Notes on Contributors xiii

as about the importance of having a system perspective and of highlight-

ing the values embedded in sustainability assessments.
Gunnel Forsberg is Professor of Human Geography at Stockholm
University with a specialization in Urban and Regional Planning since
1998. During 1999–2005, she was visiting professor of Gender Studies
at Karlstad University. Her research interests lie in the realm of regional
planning and the social and demographic transformation of rural areas.
She has a continued interest in gender research and the importance gen-
der makes in understanding spatial outcomes.
Firouz Gaini is Professor of Anthropology in the Department of History
and Social Sciences, University of the Faroe Islands. His interests revolve
around youth, identity, gender and place, especially in small island con-
texts. He has conducted fieldwork in the Faroe Islands, Greenland, France
and Japan (Okinoshima and Okinawa Islands). Among recent publica-
tions, he is the co-editor of Among the Islanders of the North (2011) and
Gender and Island Communities (2020). Gaini has recently received a
grant from the Research Council Faroe Islands for the project Faroese
Fatherhood in Transition, which looks at two generations of fathers from
rural and urban communities in present-day Faroe Islands.
Carina Green holds a PhD in Cultural Anthropology from Uppsala
University. She is a researcher at the Swedish Biodiversity Centre (CBM),
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU). Her research interests
revolve around environmental knowledge production, ethnic ­identity
processes, eco-governance and local/indigenous participation in nature
conservation management. She has conducted fieldwork in Sápmi
(Northern Sweden), New Zealand and Australia. In recent years, the use
of ‘Indigenous and Local Knowledge’ in global environmental fora has
been the main focus of her research.
Pernilla Hagbert holds a PhD in Architecture and is a researcher in
Urban and Regional Studies at KTH Royal Institute of Technology,
Sweden. Her research explores everyday practices, actor perspectives, the
interpretations (and paradoxes) of sustainability in housing and urban
development, and norm-critical, alternative ways of living and organizing
society as part of transformations to a low-impact society.
xiv Notes on Contributors

Olga Hannonen (PhD), is a post-doctoral researcher at the Karelian

Institute, University of Eastern Finland. Her work focuses on trans-­
border tourism and mobilities, including Russian trans-border second-­
home ownership in Finland; intra-European residential tourism and
digital nomadism on Gran Canaria, Spain; residential mobility in the
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and digital nomadic mobilities.
Thematically, she works with the socio-political implications of interna-
tional mobilities and property ownership, travel constraints and on bor-
dering mobilities in various forms.
Matthew Hayes is Canada Research Chair in Global and International
Studies and Associate Professor of Sociology at St. Thomas University,
Fredericton, Canada. His research focuses on cultural interpretations of
global inequality. He is the author of Gringolandia: Lifestyle Migration
Under Late Capitalism published by the University of Minnesota
Press (2018).
Charlotta Hedberg is Associate Professor of Human Geography at the
Department of Geography, Umeå University, Sweden. Her research
focuses on migration and spatial mobility, particularly international
labour migration, but also with an interest in internal and lifestyle-related
mobilities and regional development. Hedberg is the author of 14 scien-
tifically published papers, and a number of book chapters and policy
reports.
Grete K. Hovelsrud is Professor of Environmental Sociology, Nord
University, and at Nordland Research Institute, Bodø, Norway. She is an
arctic anthropologist focusing on interdisciplinary studies of adaptation
to changing climatic and societal conditions, on adaptive capacity of
coupled social-ecological systems, and on the societal transformation to a
low-emission society in the context of climatic and societal change. She
focuses on perceptions of risk, cultural theory of risk, co-­production of
knowledge, narratives and adaptive co-management of natural resources
with respect to changing climatic, environmental and societal conditions.
Gunnar Thór Jóhannesson is a professor in the Department of Life and
Environmental Sciences at the University of Iceland. His recent research
has been on destination dynamics and place making with a focus on the
 Notes on Contributors xv

entanglement of nature and culture. This has involved studies on entre-

preneurship, innovation and policy making. He has published his research
in various books and journals. Most recently, he co-edited a volume titled
‘Tourism Employment in Nordic Countries – Trends, Practices and
Opportunities’, published with Palgrave in 2020.
Frida Jonsson holds a PhD in Public Health from the Department of
Epidemiology and Global Health at Umeå University. She has a back-
ground in health-related project management and evaluation. Her
research centres broadly on different forms of social inequalities in and
determinants of health and health care. With a specific focus on health
system access and strengthening, she is particularly interested in the chal-
lenges and strengths of marginalized populations in rural areas such as
youth and elderly.
Svante Karlsson is Senior Lecturer in Human Geography at Karlstad
University, Sweden. His PhD thesis (2007) focused on forestry and local
development in Värmland. More recent publications include articles
about post-productivism, international migration, self-employment and
restructuring in sparsely populated areas. He contributed to PLURAL, a
Formas strong research environment programme over six years, led by
Carina Keskitalo. This focused on understanding the new—and increas-
ingly urban and female—forest owners. The outcomes were useful for
planning rural-urban dynamics, when people live and act at several places.
Stefan Kordel is a post-doctoral researcher in the Institute of Geography
at Friedrich-Alexander-University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany.
After his PhD in Geography in 2015, he has worked on various research
projects in the field of migration and rural studies. His empirical research
covers lifestyle and refugee migration in Europe (e.g. Germany, Spain)
and beyond (Latin America).
Traian Leu holds a PhD in human geography from Umeå University,
Sweden. He holds a master’s degree in natural resource management from
University of Akureyri, Iceland, and a master’s in spatial planning and
development from Umeå University. His research interests include tour-
ism, planning and development in both urban and sparsely popu-
lated areas.
xvi Notes on Contributors

Linda Lundmark is an Associate Professor in the Department of

Geography at Umeå University, Sweden. She has published extensively
on the topics of regional development and tourism in rural areas in the
North. Her research interests also include climate change, natural
resources and mobility as part of contemporary and future economic
development prospects in sparsely populated nations like Sweden. Among
the publications are an edited book on Polar tourism and a book on
Tourism, mobilities and development in sparsely populated areas. She is
the chair of the centre of regional science scientific advisory board and
has received funding for several large research projects from Swedish
research councils, and she is part of several research networks on tourism
and tourism in polar areas.
Roger Marjavaara is Associate Professor of Human Geography with a
specialization in tourism and GIS. His primary research interest is in
second-home tourism, shopping tourism, air transport and migration.
Other areas of interest lie within mobility of individuals and places.
Marjavaara is also a leader of the undergraduate programme in tourism
geography at Umeå University.
Ruth McAreavey is a Reader in Sociology at Newcastle University. Her
research focuses on migration, particularly to regional and rural areas and
the inequalities faced by migrants in the labour market and in other parts
of everyday life. She has published extensively on rural development, and
she is an active member of various international research networks includ-
ing the Trans-Atlantic Rural Research Network and the European Society
for Rural Sociology (ESRS). She is co-editor of Sociologia Ruralis.
Peter Möller is Lecturer in Human Geography at Dalarna University
and an analyst in the Regional Development Department at Region
Dalarna. Möller’s research focuses on regional development, and he has
wide interests in rural, tourism, youth and adult transition research. As
an analyst, he investigates subjects relevant to regional development
including population change, integration and labour markets.
Dieter K. Müller is Professor of Human Geography, Umeå University.
His research centres around second-home tourism and tourism in north-
ern environments, respectively. Recently, he has developed a particular
 Notes on Contributors xvii

interest for the Arctification of northern tourism. Among his recent

books are the (co)edited volumes Routledge Handbook of Second Home
Tourism and Mobilities (2018), Tourism and Indigeneity in the Arctic
(2018) and A Research Agenda for Tourism Geographies (2019). Between
2012 and 2020, he has been the chair of the International Geographical
Union Commission for the Geography of Tourism, Leisure and Global
Change. He is also a co-editor of the book series Geographies of Tourism
and Global Change and a resource editor for Scandinavian Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism.
Mari Nuga holds a PhD in human geography and regional planning at
Tartu University, Estonia. She is a post-doctoral researcher in the human
geography department at Umeå University, Sweden. Her research focuses
on downshifting, transitioning towards more sustainable l­ifestyles and
voluntary simplicity. Her approach employs ethnographic interviews in
the context of the FORMAS-financed project ‘Money makes the world
go round? Geographical perspectives on downshifting and voluntary sim-
plicity as sustainable ways of life.’ Her articles on summerhouse settle-
ments and durable domestic dreams, for example, have appeared in the
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research (2016).
Julia Olsen is a researcher at Nord University and Nordland Research
Institute, Bodø, Norway. Her primary research areas are local commu-
nity’s vulnerability and socio-economic adaptation to multiple changes in
the Arctic. Olsen is involved in a number of projects that examine the
impacts of increased shipping and tourism activities in the Barents Sea on
local coastal communities in order to understand what the implications
are for local adaptation.
Albina Pashkevich is Associate Professor of Tourism Studies at the
Centre for Tourism and Leisure Research (CeTLeR), Dalarna University,
Sweden. Her research interests include a wide range of topics primarily
connected to Arctic tourism development—representations of indige-
nous culture, tourism management, power relations and institutional
structures impact on tourism development. She also works with issues
connected to the sustainable use of mining heritage in the area of
Bergslagen, Sweden, and remote Arctic mining communities.
xviii Notes on Contributors

Bruce Prideaux is director of the Centre for Tourism and Regional

Opportunities at the Cairns campus of Central Queensland University
and programme director of the Masters of Sustainable Tourism
Management. He has a wide range of research interests including sustain-
ability issues, climate change, coral reef tourism, protected area tourism,
rural tourism, remote area tourism and crisis management. He has
authored over 200 journal articles and book chapters on a range of
tourism-­related issue. He has also authored or co-authored 11 books and
is working on a new co-authored book that examines tourism in agricul-
tural areas.
Benedict E. Singleton is a post-doctoral researcher at the School of
Global Studies, University of Gothenburg, where he conducts research
on the project Intersectionality and Climate Policy Making: ways for-
ward to a socially inclusive and sustainable welfare state. His previous
research has involved explorations of ‘nature-based integration’ projects
aimed at migrants to central Sweden; investigations of Faroese whaling
(grindadráp); research on carers of sick and disabled people in the UK;
and HIV stigma and treatment in Jamaica.
Olof Andreas Stjernström is a professor in Human Geography at Nord
University in Norway. He has a special interest in northern studies related
to natural and human resources, planning and migration. His most recent
studies focus multilevel planning and indigenous rights in northern
Sweden and studies on mining and multilevel planning.
Göran Sundqvist works as a full-time chairman in the Tavelsjö- and
Rödåbygdens development (TuRe), with commitment also in village
development throughout Umeå municipality. He participates in the non-­
profit sector’s involvement with Leader’s activities in the Umeå region,
which includes Bjurholm, Nordmaling, Umeå, Robertsfors, Vindeln and
Vännäs municipalities.
Michelle Thompson is Lecturer in Tourism at Central Queensland
University, Cairns, Australia. She has a PhD from James Cook University
(2015), which modelled the drivers and barriers to tourism development
in agricultural regions. Her research interests include aspects of regional
and remote area tourism development, and focus on the niche areas of
food, wine and agri-tourism.
4 D. B. Carson et al.

Box 1.1 (continued)

need efforts to strengthen the municipalities’ capacity to combat the
challenges to guarantee equal elderly care, schools and other munici-
pal services for all citizens in Sweden in the long run. (Karlsson 2020:
my translation)

The population in Sweden’s 290 municipalities varies between less than

2500 in Bjurholm (northern Sweden) and almost one million in Stockholm.
Together, half of all municipalities in Sweden comprise only 14% of the
population. Calculations made in neighbouring Nordic countries estimate
that there should be at least 20,000–30,000 inhabitants in a municipality to
be able to deliver financially stable welfare output to their inhabitants
(Karlsson 2020). Although the report suggests a number of reforms to
improve the capacity of the municipalities to accomplish this, there is of
course no quick fix in sight and the political preconditions for solutions
are scant.
Since the 2018 elections the Swedish Government is based on a parlia-
mentary coalition including Social Democrats, the Green Party and the
Centre Party, the latter being the most market-liberal party of all in the
Swedish political landscape. Paradoxically, an ‘unholy’ coalition consisting
of the Left Party, the Conservative Party (Moderaterna), the conservative
Christian Democrats and the retrotopian Sweden Democrats in early spring
2020 demanded financial boosts to the local and regional government sec-
tor. However, the suggested financial additions to the sector were modest,
and they have to be related to substantial taxation cuts decided and imple-
mented by the conservative-liberal government 2011–2014. As I will address
in Box 20.1 the corona virus haunting most countries in Europe and the rest
of the world since March 2020 added still more financial and political pres-
sure on Swedish municipalities.

obscures all other mobility and migration flows (Carson et al. 2019). This
idea is also guiding much practical work and rural development policies
in rural municipalities. However, when researching this issue it becomes
evident that other flows are also developing. There are many mobilities:
from long-distance commuting, tourism such as second-home tourism
and resort-based tourism (in the mountains or at the coast) to domestic
and international in-migration to escape from hectic lives, oppression,
starvation or war. This book addresses questions regarding who these
migrants are, why and how they come to the north, where they settle and
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Calthrop, 184;
of Radiolaria, 83
Calycophorae, 300 f. 305
Calymma, 79, 82
Calymma, 420
Calymmidae, 420
Calyptoblastea, 275 f.
Calyx, of Echinus esculentus, 513;
of Echinarachnius parma, 545;
of Pelmatozoa, 579;
of Crinoidea, 580, 588 f.;
of Carpoidea, 580;
of Cystoidea, 580, 598;
of Blastoidea, 580, 599;
of Holopus, 592;
of fossil Crinoidea, 595
Camerata, 595
Campanularia, 280
Campanulariidae, 280
Campascus, 52;
test of, 55
Camptolithus, 346
Camptonema, 70, 73
Canalaria, 201
Canals, "feeding," afferent, or replenishing of contractile vacuole
system in Ciliata, 14, 143, 146;
of Stylonychia, 139 f.;
of Stentor, 156
Cannopora, 283
Cannopylaea (= Phaeodaria), 76
Cannotidae, 278
Capillitium of Myxomycetes, 90 f., 92
Capnea sanguinea, 383
Capria, 321
Caravella, 308
Carbohydrates, formation of, 33
Carbon dioxide, attracts Paramecium, 23;
 excretion of, 8, 13 f.;
secreted by Arcella, etc., 53
Carchesium, 138;
feeding of, 145, 158
Carinal ossicle of Asteroidea, 436
Carlgren, 378 n.
Carmarina, 295
Carpenter, P. H., on the classification of the Crinoidea, 589
Carpenter, W. B., classification of Foraminifera, 58;
on their true nature, 62;
on their structure, 63 f.;
on Arenacea, 65 f.;
on the nervous system of Antedon rosacea, 585
Carpoidea, 580, 596 f.
Carter, on Protozoa, 45;
on Sponges, 167, 180, 208, 237 n.;
on fossil Hydrozoa, 270 n.
Caryophyllia, 386, 398
Cash, on Rhizopoda, 58 n.
Cassidulidae, 554
Cassidulina, 59
Cassiopea, 324
Cassiopeidae, 324
Castellani, on Trypanosomic fever and sleeping sickness, 120
Catabolic, catabolism, 13 f., 24
Cataclysmal metamorphosis of Dipleurula, 613
Catallacta, 89
Catostylidae, 325
Cattle, Trypanosomic diseases of, 119 f.
Caudal cirrhi, 139 f.
Caudina, 575
Caullery and Mesnil, on Actinomyxidiaceae, 98 n.
Cavernularia, 359, 364;
C. obesa, 364
Cell, 3 f.;
definition of, 3;
nutrition of, 15 f., 35 f.;
 -membrane of ovum of Sea-urchin, 7;
-wall, 3;
in Flagellates, 109, 113;
in Dinoflagellates, 130;
-boundary in Flagellates, 113;
-division, 24 f., 25, 27;
Spencerian division, 31 f.;
-unions in Volvox, 126, 127;
collar-, of Choanoflagellates, 121, 122;
of Sponges (= choanocytes), 171, 176, 186
Cellular relationship explained, 10
Cellulose, 37;
cell-wall of holophytic Flagellates, 113;
in Dinoflagellates, 130
Central blood plexus—see Heart
Central capsule, 49, 76, 77, 82, 84;
its functions in regeneration, 35;
of Collozoum inerme, 76
Centrifugal force, stimulus of, 19 f.
Centriole, 25, 27
Centripetal canals, 289
Centro-dorsal ossicle, of Crinoidea, 580;
of Antedon rosacea, 582;
of Actinometra, 588, 594;
of Atelecrinus, 594
Centrogenous (used of spicules = meeting in a common centre and
growing outwards), 76
Centropyxis, 51;
test of, 55;
C. aculeata, reproduction of, 57
Centrosome, 19, 26 f.;
of Heliozoa, 72;
(= blepharoplast) in Flagellates, 115
Centrosphere, 25 f., 27
Centrostephanus, 522, 539;
C. longispinosus, 522, 532, 539
Cephalis (= uppermost chamber of monaxonic Radiolarian shells),
83
Cephalodiscus, 617
Cephalont of Gregarines, 98
Cephalopoda, erroneous reference of Foraminifera to, 62
Cephea, 325
Cepheidae, 324
Ceratella, 263, 271;
C. fusca, 271
Ceratellidae, 271
Ceratium, 110;
habitat of, 131
Ceratosa, 211, 220
Cercomonas, 116 n., 119;
C. dujardini, gametes of, 116 n.
Cereactis (family Actiniidae, 381);
C. aurantiaca, 378
Cerianthidea, 367, 373, 377, 409
Cerianthus, 328, 366, 409;
nematocyst of, 247;
C. americanus, 411;
C. bathymetricus, 411;
C. lloydii, 411;
C. membranaceus, 370, 410, 411;
C. oligopodus, 411;
C. vogti, 411
Cestidae, 420
Cestoidea, 413, 414, 416, 420
Cestus, 420;
C. pectenalis, 420;
C. veneris, 417, 420
Chaetetidae, 346
Chalarothoraca, 71
Chalina, 217, 223
Chalk, Foraminifera, etc., in, 69 f.
Challengeridae (a family of Phaeogromia, 79);
shells, skeleton of, 84, 85
Chambered organ, of Antedon rosacea, 584;
of Pentacrinidae, 592
Chambers, of Foraminiferal shell, 62
Chapman, on Foraminifera, 58 n., 70
Charistephane, 417
Charybdea, 311, 314, 319;
C. xaymacana, 310, 319;
C. marsupialis, 319;
C. grandis, 319
Charybdeidae, 318
Cheilostomella, 59
Cheilostomellaceae, 59
Chela (a complex microsclere derived from a sigma and consisting
of a curved shaft bearing recurved processes), 234
Chemical, reactions, of protoplasm and of vacuoles, 13;
substances in solution, 19, 22 f.;
rays of spectrum in relation to plant pigments, 36 n.
Chemiotaxy, 23;
its rôle in syngamy, 34;
of Coccidians, 100
Chirodropidae, 319
Chirodropus, 319
Chironephthya, 349;
C. variabilis, 338
Chiropsalmus, 319
Chitin, 37
Chlamydomonadidae, 111, 125, 126;
brood-division of active, 115
Chlamydomonas, 111, 125 f.;
barotaxy of, 20;
conjugation of, 115 f.;
Dill on, 119 n.
Chlamydophora, 71
Chlamydophrys, 52;
C. stercorea, reproduction of, 57;
habitat of, 57 f.
Chloramoeba, 110
Chloromonadaceae, 110;
trichocysts in, 113 n.
Chlorophyll, 36 n.;
in Flagellates, 115 n.;
bodies of Euglenaceae, 124 f.
Chloroplasts (= chlorophyll bodies), of Eutreptia viridis, 124 f.
Choanocytes, 171, 176, 186, 200, 237
—see also Collar-cells
Choanoflagellata, Choanoflagellates (= Craspedomonadidae, 111),
121, 122 f.;
in relation to Sponges, 41, 171, 181
Choanophrya, 159 f., 162;
C. infundibulifera, 162
Choanosome, 170
Chondrilla, spicules of, 233
Chondrioderma, 90;
C. diffusum, 93
Chondrocladia, 216
Chondrophoridae, 301, 308
Chone, 213, 214
Choristida, 212
Chromatin, 6 f.;
function of, in cell-division, 24 f.;
of ovum of Sea-urchin, 7;
of Radiolaria, 81;
-granules, 7, 24
Chromatophore, 13, 21, 36 f., 113, 115;
of Sphaerella, 126
—see also Chromoplastid, Chlorophyll, Plastid
Chromidia, 30;
of Rhizopoda, 51;
of Foraminifera, 67 f.
Chromoplastid, 21, 36 f.;
of Zooxanthella, 86
—see also Chromatophore
Chromosomes, 25 f., 27;
functions of, 28 f.
Chromulina, 110
Chrysamoeba, 110
Chrysaora, 312, 315, 316, 323;
C. isosceles, 311, 314, 323
Chrysogorgia, 355
Chrysogorgiidae, 355 (= Dasygorgiidae, 333)
Chrysomitra, 302, 309
Chrysomonadaceae, 110;
external plasmic layer of, 113;
symbiotic, 86, 125
Chun, 197 n., 300, 307 n., 308, 414 n.
Chunella, 360, 363
Chytridieae, movements and affinities of, 114 n.;
relations of, 40, 48, 119
Cidaridae, 530, 531, 532, 533, 558
Cidaris, 533, 534;
C. (Dorocidaris) papillata, 534
Cienkowsky, on Monadineae (= Flagellates and Proteomyxa), 40, 89;
on Radiolaria, 88;
on Zooxanthella, 86;
on Cystoflagellates, 135
Cilia, 17, 18;
of Protozoa, 47;
paroral, 156 n.;
preoral, 139;
of Trichonymphidae, 123;
of Opalina, 123;
of Maupasia, 124;
of Ciliata, 141;
organs formed of combined, 138, 141, 413;
sensory, of Stylonychia, 138;
Schuberg, A., on, 141 n.
Ciliary motion, 18;
mechanism of, 18 n.
Ciliata, 18, 41, 137 f., 181;
animal nutrition, 40;
conjugation, 149 f.;
contractile vacuole, 14 f., 143;
encystment, 147 f.;
 feeding, 145;
fission, 147 f.;
form of body, 141;
galvanotaxy, 22;
infested by Suctorian parasites, 160 f.;
gut, 146;
mouth, 145;
nuclear apparatus, 144 f.;
parasitic, 152;
pharynx, 145;
pellicle, 141;
regeneration, 35, 145;
relations to Metazoa, 41;
rheotaxy, 21;
Suctoria allied to, 159;
thigmotaxy of, 20;
tubicolous, 152;
Zooxanthella symbiotic with, 125
Ciliated, buds of Suctoria, 159, 160 f., 162;
epaulette, 607
Cilioflagellata (= Dinoflagellata, given by misinterpretation of
transverse flagellum), 130.
Ciliophrys, 75 n., 89
Cilium of Noctiluca, 133
Cinachyra, 212, 215;
C. barbata, 212
Cinclides, 369
Cinetochilum, 137
Ciocalypta, 225
Cirripathes, 408;
C. spiralis, 408
Cirrus, of Crinoidea, 430, 580;
of Antedon rosacea, 581, 585;
of Rhizocrinidae, 588, 590;
of Pentacrinidae, 588, 591, 592;
of Rhizocrinus, 591;
of Comatulidae, 594;
 of Actinometra, 594;
of Antedon, 594;
development of, in A. rosacea, 620;
of fossil Crinoidea, 595
Cladocarpus, 279
Cladocora, 373, 400
Cladocoryne, 272
Cladocrinoidea, 595
Cladonema, 266, 270;
C. radiatum, 267
Cladonemidae, 270
Cladopathes, 408
Cladophiurae, 491, 494, 502
Cladorhiza, 216
Cladotyle (a rhabdus on which one actine is branched, the other
tylote or knobbed at the extremity), 222
Claparède and Lachmann on Protozoa, 45;
on Suctoria, 162
Clark—see James-Clark
Classification, of Protozoa, 48 f., 50;
of Rhizopoda, 51 f.;
of Foraminifera, 58 f.;
of Heliozoa, 70 f.;
of Radiolaria, 76 f.;
of Proteomyxa, 90;
of Sporozoa, 97;
of Flagellata, 109 f.;
of Protomastigaceae, 111;
of Volvocaceae, 111;
of Infusoria, 136;
of Ciliata, 137;
of Suctoria, 159;
of Sponges, 183 f.;
of Coelenterata, 249 f.;
of Ctenophora, 417 f.;
of Eleutherozoa, 430 f.;
of Asteroidea, 459 f.;
 of Ophiuroidea, 491 f.;
of Echinoidea, 529 f.;
of Endocyclica, 532;
of Clypeastroidea, 548 f.;
of Spatangoidea, 552;
of Holothuroidea, 567 f.;
of Pelmatozoa, 580;
of Crinoidea, 589 f.
Clathria, 225
Clathrina, 186, 221, 231;
C. blanca, larva of, 227
Clathrinidae, 185 f.
Clathrissa, 223
Clathrozoon, 277, 279;
C. wilsoni, 279
Clathrulina, 71, 73, 74
Clava, 272;
C. squamata, 263
Clavatella, 267, 270
Clavatellidae, 270
Clavidae, 272
Clavularia, 330, 334, 344;
C. viridis, 329, 337, 343 f., 344
Clavulariidae, 344
Clearing of tissues, physical explanation of, 11
Climacograptus, 282
Cliona, 219, 224
Clionidae, 218
Cloaca of Holothuria nigra, 563
Clypeaster, 548, 549
Clypeastridae (= Echinanthidae), 549
Clypeastroidea, 529, 542 f., 556, 559, 566
Clytia, 280;
C. johnstoni, 275, 280 f.
Cnidoblast, 247, 248
Cnidocil, 248
Cnidopod, 248
Cnidosac, 300
Coalescence of individual Rhizopods during bud-fission, 55
Coccidiaceae, 97, 99 f.;
relations to Trypanosoma, 120
Coccidiidae, 97, 99 f., 101
Coccidiosis, 102
Coccidium, 99 f., 101 f.;
C. cuniculi, 102;
C. lacazei, syngamy of, 101;
C. schubergi, 99 f., 101
Coccolithophora, 110
Coccolithophoridae, in Chalk, 70;
wall of, 114
Coccoliths, 83, 110, 114, 242
Coccoseridae, 346
Coccospheres, 83, 114
Cockroach, Lophomonas parasitic in gut of, 123
Codaster, 599
Codosiga, 111
Coelenterata, 243 f.;
definition, 245;
almost all immune from Gregarines, 99
Coeliac canal of Antedon rosacea, 586
Coelogorgia, 349
Coelogorgiidae, 349
Coelom (including body-cavity), 428;
of Asterias rubens, 437;
of arm of Ophiothrix fragilis, 480;
of Echinus esculentus, 516;
of Holothuria nigra, 562;
of Antedon rosacea, 585;
development of first rudiment in larva, 605;
subsequent development in Dipleurula, 608, 609;
in Asterina gibbosa, 611;
in Antedon rosacea, 618, 619
Coelomic nervous system, of Asterias rubens, 448;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 488;
 of Echinus esculentus, 524;
of Holothuria nigra, 566;
of Antedon rosacea, 584, 585
Coeloplana, 412, 422;
C. mitsukurii, 422
Coeloplanidae, 422
Coenocyte, 30
Coenograptus, 282
Coenopsammia, 404
Coenosteum, 371, 387
Coenothecalia, 344
Cohn, Ferdinand, on cultures of Schizomycetes, etc., 44
Cold-blooded Vertebrates, as hosts of Haemosporidae, 102
Coleps, 137;
mail-like pellicle of, 141, 152;
C. hirtus, group feeding, 150
Collar, of Choanoflagellates, 121 f., 122;
of peristome of Vorticella, etc., 156
Collar-cells, in Choanoflagellates, 121 f., 122, 171, 237;
of Calcarea, 186;
of Non-Calcarea, 176, 200
—see also Choanocytes
Collencyte, 171
Colletocystophores, 320
Collida, 77 n.
Colloblasts, 414
Collodaria, 77
Colloidea, 77
Collosphaera, 77;
symbiotic Diatoms in, 86
Collosphaeridae, 85
Collozoidae, 85
Collozoum, 77;
C. inerme, 76
Collyritidae, 559
Colobocentrotus, 532, 542
Colonial, cells, 31;
 Protista, 31
Colony, 31;
of Collozoum inerme, 76;
-formation in Polycyttarian Radiolaria, 84 f.;
in Flagellata, 113;
of Choanoflagellates, 121, 122;
in Vorticellidae, 158;
of Volvocidae, 126 f.;
of Pandorina, 128 f.;
of Eudorina, 129
Colour, red, of lakes and ponds, often due to Dinoflagellata, 131
Coloured vegetal nutrition, 36 f.
Colouring matter of chromatophores of Flagellates, 115 n.
Colpidium, 137;
C. colpoda, diagram of conjugation, 149;
nuclear relations in conjugation, 151
Colpoda, 137;
C. cucullus, 153;
brood-fission in cyst, 147
Columella, 370, 385
Columnals, 619 (= Stem-ossicles, q.v.)
Columnaria, 344
Comatula = Antedon, q.v.
Comatulidae, 594
Combs of Ctenophora, 141, 412
Comitalia, 201
Commensals, of Heliozoa, 73;
of Radiolaria, 80, 86 f.;
of Infusoria, 153 f.;
—see also Zoochlorella, Zooxanthella, and Symbiosis
Comminator muscles of Aristotle's lantern, 526
Commissure of radial cords of aboral nervous system of Antedon
rosacea, 585
Compasses (or radii) of Aristotle's lantern, 526
Conant, 319
Conaria larva, 302
Conchophtheirus, 137
Conchula, 380
Confervaceae, related to green Flagellates, 48
Confervoid form of Hydrurus, 113
Conjugatae, syngamy of, compared to certain Chlamydomonads,
126
Conjugation, 33 f.;
of Rhizopoda, 54, 56 f.;
of Trichosphaerium, 54, 56 f.;
exogamous, in Foraminifera, 68 f.;
of Heliozoa, 72, 73 f.;
of Sporozoa, 95 f.;
of Lankesteria, 95 f.;
of Monocystis, 96;
of Gregarines, 97, 100;
of Stylorhynchus, 99;
bisexual, of Sarcocystis tenella, 108 n.;
of Flagellates, 115;
of Bodo saltans, 117;
of Trypanosoma, 120;
by a fertilising tube in Chlamydomonas, 125;
of Volvocaceae, 127 f.;
of Volvox, 127 f.;
isogamous and endogamous, of Stephanosphaera, 128;
in Dinoflagellates, 131 n.;
of Noctiluca, 133;
of Ciliata, 148 f.;
of Paramecium caudatum, 148;
of Colpidium colpoda, diagram, 149;
of Peritrichaceae, 151 f., 157;
of Vorticella, 157;
of Suctoria, 161;
of meganucleus in Dendrocometes, 161, 162
—see also Syngamy, Fertilisation
Conoclypeus, 558
Constancy of type in Protista, 42 f.
Conte, 292 n.
Contractile vacuole, 5, 10, 14 f.;
 of Amoeba polypodia, 5, 10;
of fresh-water and brackish Protozoa, accessory spaces and
canals, 47;
of Rhizopods, 52;
of fresh-water Allogromidiaceae, 60;
of Microgromia socialis, 60;
of Heliozoa, 71, 72, 74;
of zoospore of Clathrulina, 74;
of Myxomycetes, 92;
of Flagellata, 110, 112, 115;
of Cryptomonas, 112;
of Diplomita, 112;
of Oikomonas, 112;
of Tetramitus, 112;
of Trachelomonas, 112;
of Bodo saltans, 117;
of Choanoflagellates, 122;
absent from Opalinidae, 123;
of Euglenaceae, 125;
of Volvox, 126;
of Ciliata, 143 f.;
in fission, 147;
of Stylonychia, 139 f.
of Stentor, 156;
of Vorticella, 157;
of Suctoria, 160 f., 162
Contractility, 8, 9;
muscular mechanism of, 14 f.
Contraction, of Amoeboid cell, 16 f.
Copepoda, infested by Epistylis, 158
—see also Cyclops
Coppinia, 280;
C. arcta, 280
Coprolites, Radiolaria in, 87
Copromyxa, 90
Coral, 326, 365;
Organ-pipe, 343;
 Precious (= Red), 326, 352;
Flexible (= various Alcyonaria), 326;
Stony (= Madreporaria), 326, 384 f.;
Brain-, 401;
Black (= Gerardia, 406, and Antipatharia, 407);
-Reefs, 390 f.;
Reef-, 389 f.
Coralliidae, 335, 352;
commercial importance, 328
Corallimorphidae, 383
Corallimorphus, 383
Corallium, 333, 350, 352;
C. boshuensis 352;
C. confusum, 352;
C. elatius, 352;
C. inutile, 352;
C. japonicum, 352;
C. johnsoni, 352;
C. konojoi, 352;
C. nobile, 340 n., 341, 352;
C. pusillum, 352;
C. reginae, 352;
C. stylasteroides 352;
C. sulcatum, 352
Corbula, 276
Cordylophora, 269, 272
Cormidia, 301, 305
Cornularia, 334, 344
Cornulariidae, 344
Cornuspira, 59;
shell of, 64
Corona, of Echinus esculentus, 504, 511;
of Endocyclica, 530;
of Cidaridae, 530;
of Echinothuriidae, 530, 535;
of Temnopleurinae, 539
Coronaster, 474
Coronata, 314, 321
Cortex, 190, 191, 213;
gastral cortex, 188
Corticata, 49 n.
Corydendrium (family Tiaridae, 273);
C. parasiticum, 269
Corymorpha, 263, 265, 266, 273;
C. nutans, 273
Corymorphidae, 273
Corynactis, 372, 383;
C. viridis, 383
Coryne, 272
Corynidae, 272
Cosmiolithus, 346
Costae, 385, 387;
of Ctenophora, 413, 416 n.
Costia, 111;
C. necatrix, produces epidemics in fresh-water fish, 119
Cothurnia, 138, 158
Cotte, 218 n.
Cotton-spinner, 564
Cotylorhiza, 325
Coupled cell, 31, 33 f.;
in Flagellates, 116 f.
—see also Zygote
Covering-plates, of arms of Ophiuroidea, 491;
of arms of Crinoidea, 589;
of Hyocrinus, 589, 590;
of Rhizocrinidae, 589, 591;
of Pentacrinidae, 589;
of Antedon, 589, 594;
of Thecoidea, 596;
of Blastoidea, 599
Crambessa, 325
Crambione, 325
Craniella, 213, 213, 214;
C. cranium, 222
Craspedomonadidae, 111, 115 n., 121 f., 122;
transverse division in, 115 n.
—see also Choanoflagellata
Crescent (gametocyte of Laverania), 104 f.
Cretaceous firestone of Delitzet contains Peridinium, 132
Cribrella, 457, 462;
C. (Henricia) sanguinolenta, 462, 463;
C. laeviuscula, 462
Cribriform organs, 470
Cricket, Mole-, Lophomonas parasitic in gut of, 123
Crinoidea, 430, 580 f.;
development of, 617 f.
Crinorhiza, 212, 216
Cristellaria, 59
Crotalocrinus, 595;
C. pulcher, 595
Crustacea, small, rheotaxy of, 21
Cryptabacia, 404
Cryptogams, Higher, spermatozoa of, 38
Cryptoglena, shell of, 113
Cryptohelia, 284, 287;
C. ramosa, 285
Cryptomonadaceae, 110
Cryptomonas, 110
Cryptozonate, 454
Crystals, in isospores of Collozoum inerme, 76;
proteid, 37
Ctenocella, 357
Ctenodiscus, 458, 471
Ctenophora, 412 f.;
comb-plates of, 141
Ctenophoral plates, 141, 412
Ctenoplana, 416, 421
Ctenoplanidae, 421
Cubomedusae, 310, 316, 318 f.
Cucumaria, 573;
C. crocea, 573, 602;
 C. laevigata, 602
Cuénot, on Sporozoa, 94;
on reproduction of Monocystis, 96 n.
Culcita, 453, 472;
C. tetragona, 453
Culex, host of Haemoproteus or Proteosoma, 103;
intermediate host of a Trypanosoma, 120
Cultures, pure, 43
Cunanthidae, 296
Cunarcha, 296
Cunina, 296;
C. proboscidea, 296;
C. rhododactyla, 296
Cunoctantha, 296;
C. octonaria, 295
Cup (= theca), of Flagellates, 113;
of Salpingoeca, 122;
of Acineta, 159, 160
—see also Theca, Tube
Cupulita, 307;
C. sarsii, 304
Current, 169, 171, 234 f.;
electric, stimulus of, 19, 22;
in liquid, relation of protoplasmic movements to, 7, 19, 21
Cuticle, of Dinoflagellata, 130;
of Gregarines, 96;
of Noctiluca, 133
—see also Membrane, Pellicle
Cuticular shell of Flagellates, 113
Cuvier, 245, 246
Cuvierian organs of Holothuria nigra, 564
Cyanaea, 311, 312, 324;
C. capillata, 311, 324;
C. lamarcki, 324
Cyanaeidae, 324
Cyathaxoniidae, 394
Cyatholiths, 114