Full Chapter Chemistry For Csec Second Edition Anne Tindale PDF

Chemistry for CSEC Second Edition
Anne Tindale
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Chemistry
for
®
CSEC
Anne Tindale
Elizabeth Ritchie
Dianne Luttig
Sarah Chapman
Jennifer Murray
Anna Bowman
s s er P
ytisrevinU
dr o f x O
I N C LU D E S
fo
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t r aP
2nd Edition
Chemistry
for
®
CSEC
Anne Tindale
2nd Edition
Elizabeth Ritchie
Dianne Luttig
Sarah Chapman
Jennifer Murray
Anna Bowman
1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom
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It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
Text © Anne Tindale, Elizabeth Ritchie, Dianne Luttig, Sarah Chapman 2014
Original illustrations © Oxford University Press 2014
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First published by Nelson Thornes Ltd in 2014
This edition published by Oxford University Press in 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
978-1-4085-2503-6
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Printed in India by Multivista Global Pvt. Ltd
Acknowledgements
Cover photograph: iStockphoto
Illustrations: GreenGate Publishing and Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead
Page make-up: Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead
Thanks are due to Anna Bowman and Jennifer Murray for their contributions in the
development of this book.
Photo credits: Alamy/Helene Rogers 2.2.2, /Photoshot Holdings Ltd 20.5.6; Anne
Tindale 1.1.2, 1.2.10a, 1.2.10b, 1.2.9, 1.3.2, 2.1.3c, 2.2.3b, 2.5.2, 2.5.3, 5.5.4a, 8.1.1b, 8.1.5,
8.2.1, 8.4.2, 8.4.8, 9.1.2, 9.3.1, 9.3.2a, 9.3.2b, 15.1.9, 16.1.4, 16.2.12a, 16.2.12b, 17.1.2, 17.3.1,
18.3.1, 18.3.2, 18.3.4, 18.3.5, 19.2.1, 20.4.3, 20.6.1, 21.2.2, 22.2.2; Corbis 20.4.1; Corel (NT)
4.4.2; Corel 340 (NT) 5.5.4b; Corel 501 (NT) 20.4.2; Fotolia 20.5.3; Greg Evans
(greg@gregevans.net) 2.1.3a; Ingram PL V1 CD2 (NT) 19.1.1; iStockphoto 15.3.10,
15.3.8; James Lauritz/Digital Vision C (NT) 18.3.7; Leslie Garland Picture Gallery/
Andrew Lambert 4.4.1c; Martyn Chillmaid 1.1.3, 2.2.1a, 17.2.2, 20.5.1, 21.1.4; Mike
van der Volk 2.2.1b, 2.2.3a, 2.5.1, 10.5.2, 16.1.5, 17.1.1, 17.1.3, 18.3.3, 18.3.8, 20.4.4, 20.4.5;
PA Photos 4.4.1a, /Shirley Bhadur/AP 14.1.4; Sandy Marshall 20.3.4; Science Photo
Library/Andrew Lambert Photography 6.1.2, 8.1.1a, 8.4.6, 17.2.1, 22.1.1, /Astrid and
Hanns-Frieder Michler 11.2.4, /JERRY MASON 18.1.1, /LAGUNA DESIGN 15.3.5,
/Maximilian Stock Ltd 4.4.1b, /Pascal Goetgheluck 3.3.2, /Sue Baker 20.5.2; Shawn
Banton 9.1.1; Shutterstock 2.1.3b, 21.2.1; www.tropix.co.uk/V. and M. Birley 3.3.3.
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this work.
Contents
Introduction 1 A5.5 Str ucture and proper ties of solids 80
Key concepts 86
Section A Principles of chemistry 2

Practice exam-style questions 88
A1 States of matter 2
A6 Chemical equations and reactions 89
A1.1 The par ticulate nature of matter 2
A6.1 Writing and balancing chemical
A1.2 Evidence for t he par ticulate
equations 89
t heor y of matter 4
A6.2 Types of chemical reactions 96
A1.3 The t hree states of matter 9
Key concepts 99
Key concepts 14
A7 The mole concept 101
A2 Mixtures and their separation 16
A7.1 The mole and mass 101
A2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures 16
A7.2 The mole and gas volumes 106
A2.2 Solutions, suspensions and colloids 19
A7.3 The mole and concentration of
A2.3 Solubility 22
solutions 108
A2.4 Separating mixtures 25
A7.4 The mole and chemical formulae 111
A2.5 Extraction of sucrose from
A7.5 The mole and chemical reactions 113
sugar cane 30
Key concepts 119
Key concepts 32
A8 Acids, bases and salts 121
A3 Atomic structure 34
A8.1 Proper ties and reactions of acids 121
A3.1 The str ucture of atoms 34
A8.2 Proper ties and reactions of bases 128
A3.2 The electronic configuration of
A8.3 Strengt h of acids and alkalis 132
an atom 37
A8.4 Salts 135
A3.3 Isotopes and radioactivity 40
A8.5 Neutralisation reactions 145
Key concepts 44
A8.6 Volumetric analysis 148
Key concepts 152
A4 The periodic table and periodicity 46 Practice exam-style questions 154
A4.1 Arrangement of elements in t he
A9 Oxidation–reduction reactions 156

periodic table 46
A9.1 Oxidation and reduction – an

A4.2 Trends in Group II of t he periodic
introduction 156
table 51
A9.2 Oxidation numbers 159

A4.3 Trends in Group VII of t he
A9.3 Oxidising and reducing agents 164

periodic table 55
Key concepts 170

A4.4 Trends in Period 3 of t he periodic

table 60
Key concepts 62
A10 Electrochemistry 173
A10.1 The electrochemical series 173
A5 Structure and bonding 65 A10.2 Electrical conduction 176
A5.1 Chemical bonding 65 A10.3 Electrolysis 179
A5.2 Formation of ionic bonds 69 A10.4 Quantitative electrolysis 188
A5.3 Writing chemical formulae of A10.5 Industrial applications of
ionic compounds 72 electrolysis 191
A5.4 Formation of covalent and Key concepts 195
metallic bonds 76 Practice exam-style questions 197
iii
Contents
A11 Rates of reaction 198 C18 Reactivity, extraction and uses of
A11.1 Measuring rates of reaction 198 metals 294
A11.2 Factors affecting rates of reaction 202 C18.1 The reactivity of metals 294
Key concepts 209 C18.2 The extraction of metals 299
Practice exam-style questions 210 C18.3 Uses of metals and t heir alloys 302
Key concepts 307
A12 Energetics 212

A12.1 Energy changes during reactions 212
A12.2 Calculating energy changes 217 C19 Metals in living systems and the
Key concepts 223 environment 309
Practice exam-style questions 224 C19.1 The corrosion of metals 309
C19.2 The impact of metals on living
systems and t he environment 311
Section B Organic chemistry 226
Key concepts 313
B13 Introduction to organic chemistry 226 Practice exam-style questions 315
B13.1 Organic compounds 226
C20 Non-metals 316

B13.2 Homologous series 230
C20.1 Physical proper ties of non-metals 316

Key concepts 236
C20.2 Chemical proper ties and

reactions of non-metals 318
C20.3 Laborator y preparation and uses

B14 Hydrocarbons – alkanes and alkenes 239
of gases 321
B14.1 Sources and extraction of
C20.4 The uses of non-metals 324

hydrocarbons 239
C20.5 Harmful effects of non-metals

B14.2 Alkanes: C H 242
n 2n  2
and t heir compounds 326

B14.3 Alkenes: C H 246
n 2n
C20.6 Green chemistr y 330

Key concepts 251
Key concepts 334

B15 Alcohols, alkanoic acids and esters 255
C21 Water 338

B15.1 Alcohols: C H OH 255
n 2n  1
C21.1 The unique proper ties of water 338

B15.2 Alkanoic acids: C H COOH 260
n 2n  1
C21.2 The treatment of water for

B15.3 Esters: RCOOR 263
domestic pur poses 342

Key concepts 269
Key concepts 345

B16 Polymers 272
C22 Qualitative analysis 347
B16.1 Addition polymers 272
C22.1 Identification of cations 347
B16.2 Condensation polymers 275
C22.2 Identification of anions 351
Key concepts 279
C22.3 Identification of gases 354
Key concepts 356
Section C – Inorganic chemistry 282
The periodic table 360
C17 Characteristics of metals 282
C17.1 Physical proper ties of metals 282 Index 361
C17.2 Chemical proper ties and
reactions of metals 283
C17.3 Reactions of metal compounds 288
Key concepts 291
iv
Introduction
To the student To the teacher
The writing of Chemistr y for CSEC® has been driven by experienced

Chemistr y for CSEC® is a comprehensive course designed to help
Caribbean science educators to ensure t hat bot h t he requirements of

you achieve your best in t he examination. It has been written by
t he CSEC® syllabus are met, and t hat t he content is appropriate and

experienced teachers who have included features to make it easier
relevant for Caribbean students.

for you to master t he key concepts.
It provides a complete coverage of t he CSEC® syllabus wit h t he

The Chemistr y syllabus is divided into t hree sections; Section A,
material presented in t he order of t he syllabus and divided into

Principles of Chemistry, Section B, Organic Chemistry, and
chapters based on t he topics in t he syllabus. To help t he students

Section C, Inorganic Chemistry. Chapters 1–12 of t his book cover
grasp impor tant concepts, and for you as a teacher to manage your
topics in Section A, Chapters 13–16 cover topics in Section B, and
teaching, each chapter is t hen broken down into several clearly

Chapters 17–22 cover topics in Section C.
dened units, each of which develops one of t hese impor tant
Key terms are highlighted t hroughout t he text to help you to ‘home
concepts.
in’ on t he key concepts. Impor tant denitions and laws which you
All impor tant denitions and laws which t he students are expected
must be able to quote are given in Key fact boxes. Each chapter also
to be able to quote are given in ‘Key fact’ boxes for students to clearly
includes Did you know? boxes which contain facts to stimulate
identify and t hen learn.

your interest, and Exam tip boxes which contain valuable tips to
help you pass your examination.

A range of practical activities which closely relate to t hose suggested
in t he syllabus can be found t hroughout t he text. You can use t hese

You will also nd a large number of clear diagrams and colour
to help you develop a practical approach to your teaching and also to

photographs to enliven and enrich your learning, and a wide
assess t he School-Based Assessment (SBA) skills of your students.

range of different practical activities. These activities have been
designed to help you develop your practical skills and to enhance

Clear, explanator y diagrams and colour photographs which are
your learning using a ‘hands-on’ approach. Your teacher may also

designed to help students gain a better understanding of each topic
use some of t hese activities to assess your School-Based Assessment

are found in all chapters.
(SBA) skills.
‘Did you know?’ boxes wit h facts to stimulate t he student’s interest,
Each chapter is broken down into several clearly dened units. and ‘Exam tip’ boxes containing valuable tips to prepare students for
The learning objectives for each unit are clearly given at t he t heir examination appear t hroughout t he text.
beginning of t he unit so t hat you can see what you are expected to
Each unit begins wit h a list of learning objectives for students to
learn in t he unit. These learning objectives relate fully to t he specic
clearly see what t hey are expected to master in t he unit. These relate
objectives given in t he syllabus. Each unit t hen ends wit h a selection
fully to t he specic objectives in t he syllabus.
of summary questions to test your comprehension of t he material
covered in t he unit. Revision questions are provided at t he end of each unit which are
designed for students to consolidate t heir knowledge of t he key
At t he end of each chapter you will nd a list of t he key concepts
material found in t he unit.
to help you to revise t he impor tant content of t he chapter. This list
A list of key concepts is given at t he end of each chapter to help

is followed by a variety of multiple-choice questions and usually
students revise t he key content of t he chapter.

two exam-style questions to help you to apply t he knowledge you
gained in t he chapter to answer t he different question types t hat you

Multiple-choice, str uctured and extended response questions similar
will encounter during your examination. The rst of t he exam-style

to t hose on t he CSEC® Examination are included at t he end of each
questions is a str uctured question requiring shor t answers and in

chapter for students to test t heir knowledge and understanding of
your CSEC® Examination you will be given spaces on t he question

t he mater ial covered in t he chapter and hone t heir examination
paper for your answers. The second is an extended response question

skills.
requiring a greater element of essay writing in your answers. The
A complete 60-question multiple-choice test wit h answers is to

marks allocated for t he different par ts of each question are clearly
be found on t he CD. This will enable your students to test t heir

given.
knowledge and understanding of t he material covered in t he entire
On t he CD you will nd a complete multiple-choice test composed of

text.
60 questions to test your knowledge and understanding of material
A Data Analysis section on t he CD provides information on answering
taken from all sections of t he syllabus. If you work t hrough all t he
t he Data Analysis question toget her wit h t hree practice questions for
end of chapter questions and t he complete multiple-choice test you
students to develop t he skills required in answering t his question.
will be well prepared for your examination.
The CD also includes a section which provides detailed information
On t he CD you will also  nd a section on Data Analysis whic h
about SBA for students to gain an understanding of what is required
provides you wit h det ails about t he Data Analysis question you
from t hem over t heir two-year programme of study.
will be required to answer as well as t hree questions wit h mark
allocations for you to practise. There is also a section whic h gives Chemistr y for CSEC® adopts a practical approach wherever possible.
you infor mation about what is required from you in ter ms of Each practical activity begins wit h a suggestion indicating how t he
School-Ba sed Assessment (SBA). It is extremely impor t ant t hat activity may be used as a basis for SBA. The table which follows t he
you read t his section before you embark on your two-year course SBA section provides t he location in t he book of t he activities which
of study. may be used for t he different types of assessment.
1
Section A
States of matter
A1
Chemistry is the study of the structure and behaviour of

Objectives
matter. Everything around us is made of matter. Matter

By the end of this topic you will
be able to:
has both mass and volume. Air, water, sand, human
● give a denition of matter

beings and animals are all matter. Matter exists in
● give the four main ideas of the
various states. The three main states of matter are solid,

particulate theory of matter
● explain why scientists nd the liquid and gas.
particulate theory of matter
useful
identify the three main states of

A1.1 The particulate nature of matter
●
matter
● explain the relationship
Matter
between temperature and the
As far bac k as 460 BC a Greek philosopher called Democr itus developed t he

motion of particles.
idea t hat matter consisted of par ticles. He asked t his question: ‘f you cut
a piece of matter, for example, a piece of gold, in half and t hen cut it in
half again, how many cuts will you have to make before you can cut it no
fur t her?’ Democr itus t hought t hat it ended at some point, t he smallest bits
Exam tip
✔
of matter, and t hat t hese smallest bits of matter, or particles , would be t he
It is important that you know the basic building bloc k s of matter. Today scientists have added to Democr itus’
definitions of key terms used in idea and now descr ibe matter and its proper ties using t he par ticulate t heor y
Chemistry. These definitions are

of matter.
provided for you in the ‘Key fact’
boxes throughout the book.
The particulate theory of matter
The particulate theory of matter states t hat all matter is made of par ticles.
This t heor y is ver y useful because it helps us to explain bot h t he physical
Key fact
! proper ties of matter and also t he differences between t he t hree states of matter.
We will be looking at t he t hree states of matter in detail in Unit A1.3.

Matter is anything that has mass
and occupies space.

The par ticulate t heor y of matter has four main ideas:
● all matter is made of par ticles
● t he par ticles are in constant, random motion
Key fact
!
● t here are spaces between t he par ticles
The particulate theory of matter

● t here are forces of attraction between t he par ticles.
states that all matter is made up of
particles.
matter is made par ticles are in there are spaces
of par ticles constant motion between par ticles
 Figure 1.1.1 The particulate theory of matter
The par ticulate t heor y of matter can be used to explain many physical
phenomena t hat we obser ve in our ever yday lives. Examples of some of t hese
are given on t he next page. t explains:
2
States of matter The particulate nature of matter
● The difference in density of solids, liquids and gases, e.g. why pebbles
sink and bubbles rise in water.
● How cooling a liquid can cause it to change into a solid, e.g. when water
is placed in a freezer it forms ice.
● Why a smell can move t hroughout a room, e.g. when chicken is fr ying,
it can be smelt at t he ot her side of t he kitchen.
● Why t he pressure of a gas increases wit h an increase in temperature,
e.g. car tyres get harder as you drive.
● Why cer tain vegetables become crisper when soaked in water,
e.g. raw potatoes.
● Surface tension in liquids, e.g. cer tain insects can ‘walk’ on water.  Figure 1.1.2 Pebbles sink in water
States of matter
Matter can exist in various forms or states. The t hree states of matter t hat are
t he most common are t he solid, liquid and gaseous states. The difference
between t hese states lies in t he energy and arrangement of t he par ticles.
Par ticles in t he solid state have t he least amount of energy, t hey simply
vibrate in t heir xed position and t hey are packed closely toget her. Par ticles
in t he liquid state have medium amounts of energy, t hey move about slowly
and t hey have small spaces between t hem. Par ticles in t he gaseous state have
t he greatest amount of energy, t hey move about rapidly and t hey have large
spaces between t hem. You will study t his in greater detail in Unit 1.3.
The energy of t he par ticles is directly related to t he temperature of t he
par ticles and matter can change from one physical state to anot her by
changing its temperature. This change of state occurs because increasing
t he temperature of a substance increases t he kinetic energ y of t he par ticles
in t he substance. The g reater t he kinetic energy t he par ticles possess, t he
faster t hey move.
hanging state by changing temperature is a physical change. A physical
change occurs when t he form of t he substance is changed wit hout changing
its chemical composition, for example, water as a solid, i.e. ice, has exactly
t he same chemical par ticles as water in t he liquid state and as water in t he

 Figure 1.1.3 The drinks illustrate the
gaseous state, i.e. water vapour. three states of matter
Summary questions
1 State the three main ideas of the particulate theory of matter.
2 If a crystal of potassium manganate( VII ) is dropped into a beaker of
water, the purple colour spreads throughout the water. What features
of the particulate theory of matter does this observation provide
evidence for?
3 Explain why scientists nd the particulate theory of matter useful.
4 What are the three states of matter?
5 What is the relationship between temperature and the movement of
particles?
3
Evidence for the particulate theory of matter States of matter
Objectives A1.2 Evidence for the particulate theory of matter
n t he previous unit we mentioned t hat scientists nd t he par ticulate t heor y

be able to:
of matter ver y useful because it allows t hem to explain t he physical proper ties
● explain evidence which
of matter. At t he same time t hough, scientists have to provide evidence to
supports the particulate theory
suppor t t heir ideas. There are simple practical activities involving d iffusion
of matter
and osmosis which we can perform to provide evidence for t he existence
● explain the processes of
and movement of par ticles.
diffusion and osmosis
● describe experiments which
Diffusion
demonstrate diffusion and
osmosis
We have all had experience of being aware of a smell, whet her it is walking
● explain the uses of salt and

into a baker y, a cosmetic shop or climbing into a car t hat contains an air
sugar to control garden pests

freshener. All of t hese smells are produced at a point in t he shop or car, but
and preserve food items.

t he smell seems to travel t hrough t he air. This process of t he smell travelling
t hrough t he air is as a result of d iffusion. Diffusion occurs because par ticles
of matter are in constant motion and will move from a region of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration.
Key fact
Diffusion is the movement of
particles from an area of higher
Investigating the particulate theory of matter

concentration to an area of lower
concentration until they are evenly

Your teacher may use this activity to assess:
distributed.
● observation, recording and reporting
● analysis and interpretation.
You will be supplied with a straw, a beaker containing distilled water and a
potassium manganate( VII) crystal.
Method
1 Place the straw vertically in the beaker of water until it touches the
bottom of the beaker.
2 Drop the crystal of potassium manganate( VII) into the straw without
moving the straw.
3 Very carefully remove the straw trying to disturb the water as little as
possible.
4 Observe how the purple colour immediately begins to spread throughout
Exam tip
✔ the water.
5 Leave the beaker and observe after a few days. Note that the purple
It is very important when answering
colour has spread throughout all the water in the beaker. What
questions in tests or examinations to
distinguish between observations conclusion can you draw about:
and conclusions. If you are asked

a the spaces between the water particles
to give your observations, then you
b the movement of the potassium manganate( VII) particles?
must describe what you would
see while the experiment is being
performed. If you are asked to state

The potassium manganate(VII) cr ystal and t he water used in t he experiment
what you would conclude from the

illustrated in Figures 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 are bot h composed of minute particles.
experiment, then you must give

The par ticles in t he cr ystal are packed closely toget her and t hose in t he water
what you can deduce from the
have ver y small spaces between t hem. When t he cr ystal is in t he water, t he
observations. A deduction is made
minute cr ystal par ticles slowly separate from each ot her and diffuse into t he
by using data from the experiment
spaces between t he water par ticles. This continues until all t he par ticles have
to arrive at a conclusion.
separated from t he cr ystal and have diffused between t he water par ticles.
4
States of matter Evidence for the particulate theory of matter
straw
beaker
of water
the water becomes a
potassium
purple colour throughout
manganate(VII)
crystal
 Figure 1.2.1 Potassium manganate(v II)

 Figure 1.2.2 After a while the purple
crystal being placed in water

colour spreads throughout the water
The cr ystal gradually d issolves and an aqueous solution is formed, i.e. a
solution where water is t he solvent. Figure 1.2.3 illustrates t he process of
diffusion occurring in t he experiment.
water particles moving

water crystal particles separate
at random with small

from each other and
spaces between
diffuse into the spaces
between the water
crystal particles particles
potassium
packed closely
manganate(VII)
together
crystal
before dissolving after dissolving

 Figure 1.2.3 Explanation of diffusion
Investigating diffusion in gases
Your teacher will perform the following experiment:
Method
1 Place a glass tube at least 1 m in length between two retort stands.
2 Soak separate pieces of cotton wool in concentrated ammonia solution and concentrated hydrochloric acid and
place them simultaneously at each end of the glass tube.
3 Seal the ends of the glass tube with rubber stoppers.
4 Allow time for the ammonia and hydrogen chloride vapours to diffuse. Observe any changes.
5 Use your observations to explain what happened during the experiment.
During t he experiment illustrated in Figures 1.2.4 and 1.2.5, t he ammonia
solution gives off a gas called ammonia gas and t he hydrochloric acid gives
off a gas called hydrogen chlor ide gas. The ammonia and hydrogen chloride
par ticles diffuse t hrough t he air in t he glass tube towards each ot her. When
t he par ticles meet, t hey collide and react to form a white solid known
as ammonium chlor ide . The ammonium chloride forms a ring inside t he
glass tube.
5
We can represent t he reaction between t he ammonia and hydrogen chloride

cotton wool soaked in
hydrochloric acid
as a chemical equation where (g) and (s) indicate t he state of t he chemicals
cotton wool soaked

involved, (g) indicating a gas and (s) a solid:
in ammonia
ammonia  hydrogen chloride ammonium chloride
NH (g)  Hl(g) NH l(s)

3 4
The ammonium chloride forms closer to t he cotton wool soaked in
hydrochloric acid because t he ammonia par ticles are lighter t han t he

glass tube
hydrogen chloride par ticles. Therefore, t he ammonia par ticles move much
 Figure 1.2.4 Ammonia and hydrogen
chloride gas diffuse towards each other faster t hrough t he air t han t he hydrogen chloride par ticles.
This experiment provides t he following evidence for t he par ticulate t heor y

cotton wool soaked in
hydrochloric acid
of matter:
cotton wool soaked

● Par ticles are able to move – t he ammonia and hydrogen chloride
in ammonia
par ticles must have moved towards each ot her to form t he white ring.
● There are spaces between par ticles – t here must have been spaces
between t he air, ammonia and hydrogen chloride par ticles to allow
t hem to move between each ot her.
white ring forms
 Figure 1.2.5 After a while a white ring
Osmosis
forms inside the glass tube
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion, which involves t he movement of
water molecules t hrough a d ifferenti ally permeable membrane from a
region wit h a lot of water molecules to a region wit h fewer water molecules.
Key fact
!
A differentially permeable membrane is a membrane t hat allows some
substances to pass t hrough but not ot hers. You may also nd t he membrane
Osmosis is the movement of water
being called a semi-permeable or selectively permeable membrane. The cell

molecules from a region with a lot
of water molecules, e.g. a dilute membrane t hat surrounds biological cells is differentially permeable.
solution or pure water, to a region
A differentially permeable membrane contains minute pores. Water molecules
with fewer water molecules, e.g. a
are able to pass t hrough t hese pores. However, t he par ticles of many
concentrated solution, through a
ot her substances, which may be dissolved in t he water, are unable to pass

differentially permeable membrane.
t hrough. When two solutions, e.g. sucrose solutions, which have different
concentrations, are separated by a differentially permeable membrane,
t he water molecules will diffuse t hrough t he pores in t he membrane from
t he more dilute solution to t he more concentrated solution. The sucrose
molecules, however, do not move because t hey are unable to pass t hrough
t he pores in t he membrane. The volume of t he more dilute solution decreases
and t he volume of t he more concentrated solution increases.
differentially permeable membrane
sucrose molecule
cannot pass
through the
differentially permeable
membrane
water molecule
diffuses through
the differentially
permeable
membrane
dilute sucrose concentrated sucrose
solution solution
 Figure 1.2.6 Theoretical explanation

net movement of
of osmosis water molecules
6
States of matter Evidence for the particulate theory of matter
Investigating osmosis in green paw-paw
● manipulation and measurement
You will be supplied with a piece of green paw-paw (the experiment may be done with potato or yam), one beaker
lled with distilled water and one beaker lled with concentrated sodium chloride solution.
Method
1 Cut the piece of green paw-paw into six strips of equal length.
2 Measure and record the length of each strip.
3 Place three of the strips into the beaker containing distilled water and place the other three strips into the beaker
containing the concentrated sodium chloride solution.
4 Allow the strips to remain in the solutions for one hour.
5 Remove the strips from the beakers. Feel the strips and take note of the texture of each strip.
6 Measure and record the length of each strip.
7 Explain why the paw-paw strips placed in distilled water become more rigid and have increased in length
(consider the direction in which the water molecules move, from the paw-paw into the distilled water or from the
distilled water into the paw-paw).
8 Explain why the paw-paw strips placed in concentrated sodium chloride solution become oppy and softer and
decrease in length (consider the direction in which the water molecules move, from the paw-paw into the sodium
chloride solution or from the sodium chloride solution into the paw-paw).
distilled
water
concentrated
beaker
sodium
chloride
paw-paw
 Figure 1.2.7 Paw-paw strips in
solution
strips
distilled water and concentrated
sodium chloride solution
concentrated sodium
distilled water chloride solution
paw-paw strips paw-paw strips
increase in size decrease in size
 Figure 1.2.8 After a while the strips in water increase in length and those in
the concentrated sodium chloride solution decrease in length
Did you know?
During t he experiment illustrated in Figures 1.2.7 and 1.2.8, t he cell
Osmosis works in the same way in
membranes of t he paw-paw cells act as differentially permeable membranes.
your cells as it does in the paw-
Water can pass t hrough t he cell membranes, eit her into or out of t he cells:
paw. If you sweat a lot you lose
● Distilled water has a higher water content (or lower sodium chloride water. This lowers the amount of
concentration) than the paw-paw cells, therefore water moves into the cells water in your blood and osmosis
takes place and starts to pull water

by osmosis, resulting in the paw-paw strip becoming longer and more rigid.
out of your cells. For this reason it is
● The paw-paw cells have a higher water content t han t he concentrated
very important to drink lots of water
sodium chloride solution, t herefore water moves out of t he cells by
on a hot day or when you exercise.
osmosis, resulting in t he paw-paw strip becoming shor ter and sof ter.
7
Practical uses of osmosis
We use t he principles of osmosis in various ways. These include controlling
garden pests and preser ving food items.
Controlling garden pests
Slugs and snails, being herbivores, are serious garden pests which ravage
many of our precious plants. The skin of t hese pests is a lot more permeable
t han t he skin of most ot her animals. This means t hat t hey need to keep
t hemselves moist to prevent water evaporating from t heir bodies causing
t hem to dehydrate and die. We make use of t hese facts to control slugs and
snails in our gardens by using sodium chloride (table salt).
 Figure 1.2.9 Snails are serious garden pests
Sodium chloride is deliquescent, which means t hat it absorbs water readily
and dissolves. When sodium chloride is sprinkled on slugs and snails, it
absorbs some of t he moisture surrounding t heir bodies and dissolves forming
a concentrated solution. This causes water inside t heir bodies to move out
and into t he solution by osmosis. f t he slugs and snails lose more water t han
t heir bodies can tolerate, t hey die from dehydration.
Preserving food items
ot h sodium chloride and sugar are used to preser ve food items, e.g. meat,
sh, fr uits and vegetables. We are all familiar wit h salt sh, salt pork,
cr ystallised fr uits, guava jelly and glacé cherries. ot h salt and sugar work in
t he same way to preser ve foods:
● They withdraw water from the cells of the food items by osmosis. This
makes the water unavailable for the chemical reactions in cells which cause
decay. Without these reactions occurring, the food items do not decay.
● They also wit hdraw water from t he microorganisms t hat bring about
decay, e.g. bacteria and fungi. This prevents t hese organisms from
growing and causing t he food items to decay.
(a) (b)
 Figure 1.2.10 (a) Salt sh and (b) crystallised fruits are examples of preserved food items
8
States of matter The three states of matter
Summary questions
1 For each of the experiments described below, state the feature(s) of the
particulate theory of matter for which the experiment provides evidence:
a If a crystal of potassium manganate(v II) is dropped into a beaker of
water, the purple colour spreads throughout the water.
b If bottles of concentrated ammonia solution and concentrated
hydrochloric acid are opened and placed next to each other, a white
cloud forms between the two bottles.
2 State any similarities and differences between osmosis and diffusion.
3 Why do we say that osmosis is a special case of diffusion?
4 When a 5.0 cm long raw potato chip was placed in water and left for
30 minutes, its length was found to have increased to 5.5 cm. Use your
knowledge of the particulate theory of matter to explain this.
5 Explain how sodium chloride is used:
a to control slugs in a garden
b to preserve sh.
Objectives
A1.3 The three states of matter
You have lear nt already t hat matter exists in t hree st ates: solid, liquid be able to:
and gas. The t hree st ates of matter have noticeable differences in t heir
● explain the difference
physical proper ties. Physic al properties are c haracter istics t hat can be
between the three states of
obser ved or measured wit hout c hanging t he c hemical composition of a
matter in terms of energy and
subst ance. Shape, volume, density, compressibility, solubility, melting
arrangement of particles, and
point and boiling point are all examples of physical proper ties. The
forces of attraction between
different physical proper ties of t he t hree st ates can be explained by t he
particles
par ticulate t heor y of matter.
● account for the physical
Table 1.3.1 summarises t he physical proper ties of t he t hree states of matter properties of the three states of
and t he arrangement of par ticles in t he t hree states. matter in terms of energy and
arrangement of particles, and
We can use t he arrangement of par ticles in t he t hree states of matter to
forces of attraction between
explain t he physical proper ties of t he different states:
particles
● Solids have a xed shape because t heir par ticles are arranged in a regular
● explain the changes of
way and t hey are unable to move out of t heir xed positions.
state in terms of energy and
● Solids have a xed volume and are ver y difcult to compress because arrangement of particles
t heir par ticles are packed ver y closely toget her and cannot be pushed ● understand melting,
any closer toget her. evaporation, boiling,
condensation, freezing and
● Liquids ow because t heir par ticles are able to move past each ot her.
sublimation
● Liquids can be compressed slightly because t heir par ticles have small
● understand and interpret
spaces between t hem enabling t hem to be pushed closer toget her.
heating and cooling curves.
● Gases take t he shape and volume of t he container t hey are in because
t heir par ticles move freely and rapidly. They have only weak forces of
attraction between t hem, t herefore t hey spread out to ll any available
space.
● Gases are easy to compress because t heir par ticles have large spaces
between t hem, t herefore t hey can be pushed closer toget her.
9
The three states of matter States of matter
 Table 1.3.1 The properties of the three states of matter
Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape and volume Solids have a fixed Liquids do not have Gases do not have a
shape and a fixed a fixed shape, but fixed shape or volume.
volume. they have a definite A gas will take up the
volume. Liquids take space of the container it
the shape of the part of is placed in. The shape
the container that they and volume of a gas
occupy and the surface is, therefore, the shape
is always horizontal. and volume of the entire
container it is in.
Density Most solids have a high The density of liquids is Gases have a low
density. usually lower than the density.
density of solids.
Compressibility Solids are very difficult Liquids can be Gases are easy to
to compress. compressed very compress.
slightly when pressure
is applied.
Arrangement of the The particles are The particles are The particles are
particles packed closely randomly arranged randomly arranged
together, usually in a and have small spaces and have large spaces
regular pattern. between them. between them.
Forces of attraction The particles have The forces of attraction The particles have
between the particles very strong forces of between the particles very weak forces of
attraction between are not as strong as attraction between
them. those between the them.
particles of a solid.
Energy and movement Particles in a solid have Particles in a liquid have Particles in a gas have
of the particles very small amounts more kinetic energy large amounts of kinetic
of kinetic energy. The than particles in a solid. energy. The particles
particles vibrate in their The particles move move about freely and
fixed position. about slowly. rapidly.
Arrangement of
particles
Changing state
Did you know?
?
Matter can be changed from one state to anot her by heating or cooling.
A change of state is, t herefore, caused by a change in temperature and

SCUBA divers make use of the
consequently a change in t he kinetic energy of t he par ticles. For example, in

fact that gases are very easy
to compress. An average sized order to change water into ice we need to put t he water into t he freezer, i.e.
SCUBA diving tank holds about we need to remove heat energy. hanging t he state of a substance wit hout
2250 litres of compressed air.

changing its chemical composition is a physical change. The different
To understand this, think of a milk

changes of state are summarised in Figure 1.3.1.
carton. Most milk cartons hold one
add heat
litre of milk, therefore, a SCUBA
diving tank holds the same volume

evaporates/
of air as 2250 empty milk cartons! melts boils
SOLID LIQUID GAS
freezes condenses
sublimates
sublimates
 Figure 1.3.1 Summary of the changes
of state remove heat
We will now look in more detail at each of t he processes t hat cause t he
changes in state in Figure 1.3.1.
10
Melting
Key fact
When a solid is heated, t he par ticles gain kinetic energy and begin to vibrate !
more vigorously. Eventually t he par ticles are able to overcome t he strong
Melting point is the constant
forces of attraction between t hem and t hey move more freely and fur t her
temperature at which a solid
apar t forming a liquid, i.e. t he solid melts. The temperature remains constant
changes into a liquid.
while t he solid is melting because all t he heat energy being supplied is used to
overcome t he forces of attraction between t he solid par ticles. This constant
temperature is known as t he melting point
Evaporation
Did you know?

When a liquid is heated, t he par ticles gain kinetic energy and move faster.
?
Some of t he par ticles near t he surface of t he liquid have enough kinetic
When we sweat and the water in

energy to overcome t he forces of attraction between t hem and are able to
the sweat evaporates from our
leave t he liquid and become a vapour. These par ticles are said to evaporate.
skin, it takes energy with it causing
The par ticles t hat leave t he liquid take lots of energy wit h t hem, leading to a
our bodies to feel cooler. If we put
cooling of t he liquid.
alcohol on our skin, it evaporates
even faster than water because
Boiling
it has a lower boiling point than
When a liquid is heated its temperature eventually reaches a cer tain point
water. This makes our skin feel
where it star ts to boil. At t his point t he liquid par ticles have gained enough even colder than when we sweat.
kinetic energy and star ted to move fast enough to change into a gas bot h
wit hin t he liquid and at its surface. The temperature remains constant
while t he liquid is boiling because t he heat energy being supplied is used to
Key fact
overcome t he forces of attraction between t he liquid par ticles.This constant !
temperature is known as t he boiling point
Boiling point is the constant
temperature at which a liquid

oiling differs from evaporation in two ways.
changes into a gas.
● oiling occurs at a specic temperature, whereas evaporation can take
place at any temperature.
● oiling takes place t hroughout t he liquid, whereas evaporation takes
Exam tip
place only at t he surface of t he liquid.
✔
If you are asked to give a difference

Condensation
between two things, it is essential
When t he temperature of a gas is lowered, t he par ticles lose kinetic energy

that you describe the specific
and begin to move more slowly. The forces of attraction between t he par ticles
property of each, using the word
become stronger causing t he par ticles to move closer toget her forming a
‘whereas’ to link the two. Do not
liquid, i.e. t he liquid condenses.

describe just one.
Freezing
When t he temperature of a liquid is lowered, t he par ticles lose kinetic energy
Key fact
!
and begin to move more slowly. The forces of attraction between t he par ticles
become stronger causing t he par ticles to move even closer toget her forming
Freezing point is the constant
a solid, i.e. t he liquid freezes. The temperature at which t his occurs is called
temperature at which a liquid
t he freezing point
changes into a solid.
The freezing point of a pure substance has t he same value as t he melting
point, e.g. water has a melting point and a freezing point of 0 °.
Sublimation
When t he forces of attraction between t he par ticles in a solid are weak, t he
addition of a small amount of heat can cause t he solid to change directly into
a gas, wit hout passing t hrough t he liquid state. f t he gas is t hen cooled it will
change directly back to t he solid. When a substance changes directly from a
solid to a gas or a gas to a solid it is said to sublime
11
Examples of substances which undergo sublimation are iodine, carbon
dioxide (known as ‘dr y ice’), ammonium chloride and napht halene. Mot h
balls or camphor balls are made of napht halene. Solid air fresheners also
sublime releasing t heir fragrances into t he air.
 Figure 1.3.2 Solid air fresheners sublime
(a)
cotton wool
Observing sublimation in iodine
est tube
● observation, recording and reporting.

iodine crystals
iodine vapour
You will be supplied with a test tube, a small iodine crystal, a piece of
cotton wool and a pair of tongs.
Method
1 Place the iodine crystal into the test tube and place the cotton wool into
the mouth of the test tube.
2 Hold the test tube with tongs at a 45° angle and heat the bottom of
the tube in the ame of a Bunsen burner until all the iodine crystal has
Bunsen burner
sublimed.
3 Observe what happens as the iodine is heated.
4 Remove the tube from the ame and let it cool.
5 Observe what happens as the tube is cooling.

(b)
iodine crystals During the experiment illustrated in Figure 1.3.3, as the iodine cr ystal is
heated, it sublimes and forms purple iodine vapour which diffuses up the test
tube. The top of the tube is much cooler and when the vapour reaches the top,
it sublimes back to a solid, forming a ring of iodine cr ystals around the inside
 Figure 1.3.3 Iodine sublimes (a) when
heated and (b) when cooled of the tube.
Heating and cooling curves
f t he temperature of a pure solid is measured at inter vals as it is heated and
changes state to a liquid and t hen to a gas, and t he temperature is plotted
on a graph against time, a heating curve is obtained. The heating cur ve for
water is shown in Figure 1.3.4.
The cur ve shows t hat as heating occurs, t he temperature of t he substance
increases. However, t he graph has two horizontal sections where t he
temperature remains constant for a period of time even t hough heating
12
continues. These happen when t here is a change of state. The rst change of
state is where melting occurs and t he temperature remains constant at t he
melting point of t he substance until all t he substance has melted, e.g. for
water t his is 0 °. The second change of state is where boiling occurs and t he
temperature remains constant at t he boiling point of t he substance until all
t he substance has boiled, e.g. for water t his is 100 °.
140
)C°(
120
gas and liquid
boiling point
100
erutarepme
80
60
liquid
40
20
solid and liquid

T
melting point
0
20 solid (ice)
40
Time as heat is added
 Figure 1.3.4 The heating curve for water
f t he temperature of a gas is measured at inter vals as it is cooled and changes
state to a liquid and t hen to a solid, and t he temperature is plotted on a graph
against time, a cooling curve is obtained. The cooling cur ve for water is
shown in Figure 1.3.5.
140
gas (steam)
)C°(
120
gas and liquid
boiling point
100
erutarepme
80
liquid
60
40
20
T
melting point
0
solid
20
40
Time as heat is removed
 Figure 1.3.5 The cooling curve for water
Like heating cur ves, cooling cur ves have two horizontal sections. The rst is
where t he state changes from gas to liquid and t he second is where it changes
from liquid to solid.
Summary questions
1 Complete the table below. The rst row is completed as an example of
what is required.
Change of Name given to change Energy added or removed to
state of state change state
Solid to liquid Melting Added
Liquid to gas
Gas to liquid
Liquid to solid
Solid to gas
2 What are the main differences between evaporation and boiling?
3 a Explain what occurs during sublimation.
b Give three examples of solids which undergo sublimation.
4 Explain what a heating curve shows.
13
Key concepts
● Matter is dened as anyt hing t hat has mass and occupies space.
● The proper ties of matter can be explained by t he particulate theory of
matter, which states t hat:
– all matter is made of par ticles
– t he par ticles are in constant, random motion
– t here are spaces between t he par ticles
– t here are forces of attraction between t he par ticles.
● Matter exists in t hree states: solid, liquid and gas
● The difference between t he t hree states is due to t he arrangement and
energy of t he par ticles.
● The energy of t he par ticles is directly related to t he temperature of t he
par ticles.
● Diffusion and osmosis provide evidence to suppor t t he par ticulate
t heor y of matter.
● Diffusion is t he movement of par ticles from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration until t hey are evenly
distributed.
● Osmosis is t he movement of water molecules from a region wit h a
lot of water molecules, e.g. a dilute solution or pure water, to a region
wit h fewer water molecules, e.g. a concentrated solution, t hrough a
differentially permeable membrane.
● The principles of osmosis are used to control garden pests wit h sodium
chloride and preser ve food items wit h sodium chloride and sugar.
● The energy and arrangement of par ticles in solids, liquids and gases
account for t he physical proper ties of t he t hree states.
● Matter can change from solid to liquid to gas wit h t he addition of heat.
● Matter can change from gas to liquid to solid wit h t he removal of heat.
● The names given to t he processes which cause t he change from one state
to anot her are melting, evaporation, boiling, condensation, freezing and
sublimation.
● Melting and boiling occur at specic temperatures known as t he melting
point and t he boiling point, respectively.
● Evaporation of a liquid occurs at any temperature and leads to t he
cooling of t he liquid.
● Sublimation is t he change in state straight from a solid to a gas, or vice
versa, wit hout passing t hrough t he liquid state. t occurs in compounds
wit h weak forces of attraction between t heir molecules.
● When t he temperature of a pure substance is measured as it is heated and
changes state from solid to liquid to gas, and t he temperature is plotted
against time, a heating curve is obtained.
● When t he temperature of a pure substance is measured as it is cooled and
changes state from gas to liquid to solid, and t he temperature is plotted
against time, a cooling curve is obtained.
14
States of matter Practice exam-style questions
i) State what you would expect to have happened
Practice exam-style questions

to t he level of t he sucrose solution in t he t histle
funnel af ter 30 minutes. (1 mark)
Multiple-choice questions
ii) Explain t he reason for your obser vations.
(4 marks)
1 Which of t he following provide(s) evidence t hat matter
iii) Name t he process occurring in t he apparatus.

is made of par ticles?
(1 mark)
 Osmosis
b A second student measured t he temperature of an

 Decomposition
unknown substance X as it was heated from t he solid

 Diffusion
state t hrough t he liquid state to t he gaseous state. Her
A ,  and 
results are plotted in Figure 2. Use t he information in
B  and  only
t he Figure to answer t he following questions.
C  and  only
D  only
80
2 Par ticles in a solid:
70
A are packed closely toget her
)C°(
60
B are capable of random movement
50
erutarepme
C have large spaces between t hem
40
D have weak forces of attraction between t hem.
30
3 Liquids differ from gases in t hat:

20
T
A t he par ticles in a liquid can move more freely t han
10
t hose in a gas
B t he par ticles in a gas are closer toget her t han t hose in
10
a liquid
20
C t he par ticles in a liquid possess more kinetic energy

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
t han t hose in a gas

Time (min)
D t he par ticles in a gas have weaker forces of attraction
 Figure 2 Graph showing the temperature of substance
between t hem t han t hose in a liquid.
X during heating against time
4 The conversion of a gas to a liquid is described as:
i) What state is X in at 68 °? (1 mark)
A melting
ii) Over what temperature range does X exist in t he
B evaporation
liquid state? (2 marks)
C condensation
iii) From t he time X star ts to melt, how long does it
D boiling.
take until it has completely melted? (1 mark)
iv) Describe, in terms of energy and behaviour of

5 Which of t he following lists consist of substances which
par ticles, what is happening to substance X as it

show sublimation?
melts. (3 marks)
A Aluminium chloride, iodine, carbon dioxide.
v) Using o to represent a par ticle of substance X,

B Ammonium chloride, iodine, carbon monoxide.
draw T WELE par ticles as t hey would appear in

C Ammonium chloride, napht halene, iodine.
X at 15 °. (2 marks)
D Aluminium sulfate, carbon dioxide, napht halene.
Total 15 marks
Structured question
6 a n order to investigate t he par ticulate nature of

Extended response question
matter, a student set up t he apparatus shown in
7 a Describe T WO pieces of evidence to suppor t t he
Figure 1 below and lef t it for 30 minutes.
par ticulate t heor y of matter. (4 marks)
b Water can exist as a solid, a liquid and a gas. Explain

glass thistle funnel
t he differences between t hese t hree states in terms
of arrangement of t heir par ticles, forces of attraction
between t hem and t heir kinetic energy. (6 marks)
original level of sucrose solution
c y reference to par ticles, explain clearly t he reason
15% sucrose solution for EAH of t he following:
i) steam can be conver ted to liquid water by
35% sucrose solution
reducing its temperature (3 marks)
glass beaker
differentially permeable membrane
ii) a cr ystal of potassium chloride has a ver y denite
shape. (2 marks)
 Figure 1 Apparatus used to investigate the particulate nature
Total 15 marks
of matter
15
A2 Mixtures and their separation
Elements, compounds and mixtures form a part of our

Objectives
everyday lives. When we wrap our food in aluminium

be able to:
foil we are using an element. When we place salt on
● distinguish between pure

our food we are eating a compound. When we drink a
substances and mixtures
cold soda we are drinking a mixture. It may be useful to

● explain the difference between
an element, a compound and a know how to separate some of these mixtures into their
mixture
component parts. An example of this is the purification
● give examples of elements,
of drinking water.
compounds and mixtures
● explain the difference between
a homogeneous and a
heterogeneous mixture.
A2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures
Matter can be classied into two main groups: pure substances and mixtures.
Pure substances have t he following general characteristics.
● They have a xed, constant composition.
● Their proper ties are xed and constant.
● The component par ts of a pure substance cannot be separated by
physical means.
Mixtures have t he following general characteristics.
● They have a variable composition.
● Their proper ties are variable since t heir components retain t heir own,
individual proper ties.
● The component parts of mixtures can be separated by physical means.
Pure substances can be fur t her classied into elements and compounds.
Mixtures can be fur t her classied into homogeneous mixtures and
heterogeneous mixtures . The tree diagram in Figure 2.1.1 shows t he
breakdown of t hese groups.
matter
pure
mixtures
substances
elements compounds
homogeneous heterogeneous
mixtures mixtures
 Figure 2.1.1 Classication of matter
Pure substances
A pure substance is composed of only one type of material and has t he
following xed proper ties:
● a shar ply dened, constant melting point or freezing point
● a shar ply dened, constant boiling point
● a constant density.
16
Mixtures and their separation Elements, compounds and mixtures
To determine if a substance is pure or not, its melting point or boiling point is
determined. Any impurities in a pure substance will usually lower its melting Did you know?
?
point and cause it to melt over a wider temperature range. mpurities will
In many countries where snow and

usually raise t he boiling point of a pure substance and cause it to boil over a
ice pose a problem on the roads in

wider temperature range.
winter, rock salt (sodium chloride)
Paper chromatography (Unit 2.4) may also be used. f a substance is pure it is spread on the roads to melt the
ice. The salt dissolves in the film

will produce only one single spot on a chromatogram. f it is not pure it will
of water on the surface of the ice,

produce more t han one spot.
this lowers its freezing point to
below the temperature of the ice
and the ice starts to melt. Salt can
lower the freezing point of water to
about 18 °C, the freezing point of

Comparing the boiling points of pure water and sodium
saturated sodium chloride solution.

chloride solution
● observation, recording and reporting.
Your teacher will perform the following demonstration.
Method
1 Place 2 cm of distilled water in a test tube.
2 Place an inverted closed end capillary tube into the test tube with the
open end facing downwards.
3 Place a thermometer in the tube.
4 Half ll a 250 cm beaker with oil and place the above test tube
assembly in the oil bath so that the surface of the water in the test tube
is beneath the surface level of the oil.
5 Heat the beaker gently over a Bunsen burner, stirring constantly to
ensure that heating is even. Continue heating until a rapid stream
of bubbles emerges from the capillary tube. This stream of bubbles
indicates that the water in the test tube is boiling.
thermometer
6 Remove the heat source and observe the stream of bubbles. When the
closed end capillary tube
last bubble emerges from the capillary tube, record the temperature.
stirring rod
7 Reheat the oil bath and repeat the cooling process twice more.
test tube
Record the temperature reading after each trial and average all three
beaker
temperatures. This is the boiling point of distilled water. oil
distilled water or
8 Repeat the procedure using a sodium chloride solution in place of
sodium chloride solution
the water.
heat
9 What conclusion can you draw about the boiling points of pure water
 Figure 2.1.2 Determining the boiling

and sodium chloride solution?
point of a liquid
Key fact
!
Elements
An element is a pure substance

An element is t he simplest form of matter. t cannot be broken down into
that cannot be broken down into
anyt hing simpler by ordinar y chemical or physical means. We say ‘ordinar y
any simpler substances by any
chemical means’ to exclude nuclear reactions. The smallest par ticle in
ordinary chemical or physical
an element t hat has t he same proper ties as t he element is an atom. Each
means.
element is composed of only one kind of atom.
17
Elements, compounds and mixtures Mixtures and their separation
Examples of elements are iron (Fe), which is composed of only iron atoms,
copper (Cu), which is composed of only copper atoms and oxygen (O ),

2
which is composed of only oxygen atoms.
Compounds
Key fact
! Compounds are composed of more than one kind of atom. These atoms
are combined toget her chemically, t hey are always present in t he same
A compound is a pure substance
propor tions by mass and t hey cannot be separated by physical means. A

that contains two or more different
compound can be represented by a chemical formula , which indicates t he

types of element which are bonded
elements t hat t he compound is made up of and t he ratio in which t hey have

together chemically in fixed
proportions and in such a way that combined, e.g. t he chemical formula of water is H O.
2
their properties have changed.
Examples of compounds are water, which is composed of hydrogen and
oxygen in a ratio of 2 : 1, sodium chloride (NaCl), which is composed of
sodium and chlorine in a ratio of 1 : 1 and met hane (CH ), which is composed
4
of carbon and hydrogen in a ratio of 1 : 4.
The proper ties of a compound are  xed and are different from t he proper ties
of t he individual elements t hat for m t he compound. For example,
hydrogen and oxygen are bot h gases at room temperature, however, water
is a liquid.
Mixtures
Key fact
!
Mixtures are composed of two or more substances which are not chemically
A mixture consists of two or more combined, t herefore t heir components can be separated by physical
substances (elements and/or

means. Some of t he physical met hods for separating mixtures, which we
compounds) physically combined

will be investigating in Unit 2.4, are ltration, evaporation, cr ystallisation,
together in varying proportions.

distillation, fractional distillation and chromatography. n a mixture t he
Each component retains its own
component par ts are not in a xed ratio and t hey retain t heir own, individual
independent properties and has
physical proper ties.
undergone no chemical reaction
with any other substance in the

Homogeneous mixtures
mixture.
A homogeneous mixture is one in which t he proper ties and composition
are uniform t hroughout t he mixture. The component par ts cannot be
distinguished from each ot her. A solution is a homogeneous mixture.
Examples of homogeneous mixtures are air, salt dissolved in water and metal
alloys such as brass, a mixture of copper and zinc.
Heterogeneous mixtures
A heterogeneous mixture is a non-uniform mixture, for example, a mixture
in which t he component par ts are in different states. The component par ts
can be distinguished from each ot her, alt hough not always wit h t he naked
(a)
eye. Suspensions and colloids are heterogeneous mixtures.
Examples of heterogeneous mixtures are salt and sand, mayonnaise, and
muddy water.
The diagrams in Figure 2.1.4 show how elements, compounds and mixtures
can be distinguished by looking at t he par ticles t hat make up t he substance.
● f t here is only one kind of atom, t hen it is an element.
(c)
(b)
● f t here are two or more kinds of atoms joined toget her in t he same ratio,
 Figure 2.1.3 (a) Gold is an example

t hen it is a compound.
of an element, (b) copper sulfate is an
● f t here is a combination of two or more elements and/or compounds,

example of a compound and (c) muddy
t hen it is a mixture.
water is an example of a mixture.
18
Mixtures and their separation Solutions, suspensions and colloids
n Figure 2.1.4, elements are represented in diagrams D, E and H, compounds
are represented in diagrams B, C and G and mixtures are represented in
diagrams A, F and .  is a mixture and not a compound because t he blue
atoms are not arranged regularly among t he green atoms.
A B C D E F
In the diagrams shown the atoms of different
G H I  Figure 2.1.4 Elements, compounds and mixtures
Summary questions
1 Copper is described as an element. What does this tell us about copper?
2 What is a compound?
3 What are the differences between a pure substance and mixture?
4 What is the difference between a homogeneous mixture and a heterogeneous mixture?
A2.2 Solutions, suspensions and colloids Objectives
Solutions, suspensions and colloids form par t of our ever yday lives. For
be able to:
example, sea water is a solution, muddy water is a suspension and milk and
● explain the terms solvent,
fog are bot h colloids.
solute and solution
● identify different types of
Solutions
solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture. The major component of a solution ● distinguish between a solution,
is known as t he solvent and t he minor component is known as t he solute. a suspension and a colloid
Some solutions may contain more t han one solute, e.g. sea water. The solute ● describe some of the
and solvent can be gases, liquids or solids. When a gas or a solid dissolves in distinguishing properties of a
a liquid, t he liquid is always t he solvent, e.g. in a mixture of salt in water, solution, a suspension and a
salt is t he solute and water is t he solvent. colloid
● give examples of solutions,
Table 2.2.1 gives examples of various types of solutions.
suspensions and colloids.
 Table 2.2.1 Examples of different types of solutions
Solute Solvent Example Components of the solution
solid liquid sea water sodium chloride in water

Key fact
!
gas liquid soda water carbon dioxide in water
A solution is a homogeneous
solid solid brass zinc in copper
mixture consisting of two or more
liquid liquid white rum ethanol in water components, one of which is
usually a liquid.
gas gas air oxygen, water vapour, argon and carbon dioxide in nitrogen
19
Solutions, suspensions and colloids Mixtures and their separation
A saturated solution is one t hat contains as much solute as can be dissolved
at a par ticular temperature in t he presence of undissolved solute. You will
study saturated solutions in more detail in Unit 2.3.
Suspensions
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture
cont aining minute par ticles whic h are
(a) (b)
visible to t he naked eye. f lef t undisturbed,
 Figure 2.2.1 (a) Soda water and
t he par ticles in a suspension eventually
(b) brass are examples of solutions
settle. The components of a suspension
can be separated by ltration.
Key fact
!
Examples of suspensions
A suspension is a heterogeneous
● Dust in air is a suspension of a solid
mixture in which minute, but visible,
in a gas.
particles are dispersed in another
 Figure 2.2.2 Muddy water is an
● Powdered chalk in water is an example

substance, usually a liquid.
example of a suspension
of a suspension of a solid in a liquid.
● Muddy water is anot her example of a solid suspended in a liquid.
Colloids
A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture cont aining par ticles t hat are
inter mediate in size between t hose of a solution and t hose of a suspension.
The par ticles in a colloid cannot be seen even wit h a microscope, and if lef t
undisturbed t hey do not settle. The proper ties of a colloid are inter mediate
Key fact
! between t hose of a solution and t hose of a suspension.
A colloid is a heterogeneous
mixture in which the particles of

Examples of colloids
one substance are dispersed in
● Smoke in air is a colloid of a solid in a gas, also known as a solid aerosol.
another substance, usually a liquid.
● Fog and aerosol sprays in air are colloids of a liquid dispersed in a gas,
The dispersed particles are smaller
also known as liquid aerosols.

than those of a suspension, but
larger than those of a solution. ● Milk and mayonnaise are colloids of a liquid dispersed in a liquid, also
known as emulsions.
● Gelatine and jelly are colloids of a solid dispersed in a liquid, also known
as gels.
Did you know?
? A comparison of t he distinguishing proper ties of solutions, suspensions and
6 colloids is given in Table 2.2.2.

1 nanometre  10 millimetres
1 000 000 nanometres  1 millimetre
 Table 2.2.2 A comparison of the properties of solutions, colloids and suspensions
Property Solution Colloid Suspension
Particle size very small (less than one nanometre greater than that of a solution but they large enough so that they are visible
in diameter) are not visible to the naked eye (between to the naked eye (greater than
1 and 1000 nanometres in diameter) 1000 nanometres in diameter)
Type of mixture homogeneous heterogeneous heterogeneous
Appearance generally transparent usually opaque, some are translucent opaque
Can the components be no no yes
separated by filtration?
Do the components separate no no yes
out after the mixture has been
standing for a while?
Transmission of light transmits light appearing transparent will scatter light does not transmit light; it is opaque
20
Mixtures and their separation Solutions, suspensions and colloids
Comparing the properties of a solution, a suspension and
a colloid
● manipulation and measurement.
You will be supplied with two beakers, a lter funnel held in a retort stand,
(a)
lter paper, distilled water, calcium hydroxide powder, copper( II) sulfate
and gelatine.
Method
1 Half ll the beaker with water.
2 Place a large spatula full of calcium hydroxide powder into the water and
mix vigorously.
3 Hold the mixture up to the light and look through it. Is it transparent or
opaque?
(b)
4 Place the lter paper in the lter funnel and place the second beaker below
 Figure 2.2.3 (a) Milk and
it. Filter half the mixture. Could you separate the components by ltering? (b) mayonnaise are examples of colloids
5 Leave the other half of the mixture for two hours. Does the mixture
settle out?
solution colloid suspension
6 Using your answers from points 3, 4 and 5, decide whether the mixture
is a solution, a suspension or a colloid.
increasing particle size
7 Repeat the experiment with the copper( II) sulfate and gelatine, making
sure that you stir each of the mixtures until there is no longer any solid  Figure 2.2.4 A comparison of the size
of particles in solutions, colloids and
remaining. You may need to heat the gelatine gently.
suspensions
8 Record your ndings in a table.
Summary questions
1 How does the particle size of:
a a solution compare with that of a suspension
b a suspension compare with that of a colloid?
2 Which of the following is true of a solution, a suspension or a colloid?
a does not transmit light
b can be separated by ltration
c will not settle out after standing?
3 Classify each of the following as a solution, a suspension or a colloid:
a mayonnaise
b chalk dust in water
c fog
d white vinegar.
21
Solubility Mixtures and their separation
Objectives A2.3 Solubility
The solubilit y of a solute is an indication of how muc h of t he solute can

be able to:
dissolve in a  xed mass of solvent at a par ticular temperature. For example,
● dene the term solubility
we can  nd t he solubility of sodium c hlor ide in water by deter mining
● explain what a saturated

3
how muc h sodium c hlor ide can dissolve in 10 cm of water at a par ticular
solution is
temperature. When no more solute can be dissolved in t he solvent, t he
● explain the effect of
solution reac hes saturation point and we say t he solution is saturated . f
temperature on solubility
any more solute is added to t he solvent, t he solute will remain in solid for m
● describe the solubility of a
and will be mixed wit h t he saturated solution. The solubility of a solute in
substance from a solubility
water is usually measured as t he mass of solute t hat will saturate 10 0 g of
curve
water. Eac h solute and solvent combination has a speci c solubility at a
● perform calculations using a
given temperature.
solubility curve.
The solubility of a solute in a solvent is determined by t he str ucture of t he
solute and solvent, and t he temperature.
Key fact
The effect of temperature on solubility
Solubility is the mass of solute that
will saturate 100 g of solvent at a

For most solid solutes in water, solubility increases as temperature increases.
given temperature.
This means t hat as t he temperature increases, a greater mass of solute
will saturate a xed mass of water. A solution which is saturated at one
temper ture will not be saturated at a higher temperature, and if a solution
Key fact
which is saturated at one temperature is cooled, cr ystals of t he solute will
!
form since less of t he solute can dissolve at a lower temperature.
A saturated solution is a solution
You learnt earlier in t his unit t hat solubility in water is usually measured as
which contains as much solute
as can be dissolved at a given t he mass of solute which will saturate 100 g of water. The unit for solubility
temperature, in the presence of is g per 100 g water . However, it is not practical to weigh 100 g of water.
undissolved solute.
n determining solubility of a solute in water in t he laborator y, we make
−3
use of t he fact t hat pure water has a density of 1 g cm . n ot her words,
3 3
1 cm of water has a mass of 1 g, or 1 g of water has a volume of 1 cm .

)retaw
70 This means t hat 100 g of water has a volume of 100 cm , and it is easy to
measure 100 cm of water in t he laborator y.

60
g 001
50
When we plot solubility of a solute against temperature, we draw a graph

rep
40
known as a solubility curve . The solubility cur ve for potassium chlorate(V),
g(
30
KClO , is shown in Figure 2.3.1.
ytilibuloS
20
Looking at t he solubility cur ve in Figure 2.3.1, you can see t hat t he solubility
10
of potassium chlorate(V) increases wit h an increase in temperature.
Solubility cur ves such as t his can be used to obtain various useful pieces of
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
information, for example:

Temperature (°C)
 Figure 2.3.1 Graph showing the
● The solubility of a solid at any temperature wit hin t he range of t he
solubility of potassium chlorate( V)
graph.
against temperature
Example
Exam tip
✔
What is t he solubility of potassium chlorate(V) at 78 °C?
Before reading any graph you must
Solubility of KClO at 78 °C  35 g per 100 g water

ensure that you can interpret the 3
scale of each axis. The scales of
● The temperature at which cr ystals would just star t to form if an
the two axes will not necessarily be
unsaturated solution containing a xed mass of solute is cooled to t he
the same.
point where it is just saturated.
22
Mixtures and their separation Solubility
Example
At what temperature would cr ystals just begin to form if an unsaturated
solution of potassium chlorate(V) containing 20 g of potassium chlorate(V)
dissolved in 100 g of water is cooled from 80 °C?
Temperature at which 20 g of KClO saturates 100 g of water  55 °C.

3
∴ temperature at which cr ystals just begin to form  55 °C
● The mass of solute t hat would cr ystallise out of a saturated solution if its
temperature is decreased.
Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(V) would cr ystallise out of a saturated
solution containing 100 g of water when t he temperature of t he solution
is decreased from 64 °C to 22 °C?
At 64 °C, 25 g of KClO saturates 100 g of water.

3

3
∴ mass of KClO cr ystallising out of a saturated solution containing 100 g

3
of water  25 g  7 g  18 g
● The mass of solute to be added to resaturate a solution if its temperature
is increased.
Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(V) must be added to resaturate a solution
containing 250 g of water if t he temperature of t he saturated solution is
increased from 32 °C to 82 °C?

3

3
∴ mass of KClO to be added to resaturate a solution containing 100 g

3
of water  38 g  10 g  28 g
and mass of KClO to be added to resaturate a solution containing

3
28
____
250 g of water   250 g  70 g
100
● The minimum mass of water required to dissolve a xed mass of solute at
a given temperature.
Example
What is t he minimum mass of water required to dissolve 40 g of potassium
chlorate(V) at 74 °C?

3
100
____
∴ 40 g of KClO saturate  40 g of water  125 g of water.

3
32
Minimum mass of water required  125 g
23
Another random document with
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degraded, and that the true prescription to elevate, reform, and
purify the public service is to prevent the clerks from being removed
out of their places in the Departments. This brotherhood has not
been hitherto very largely re-enforced from the Democracy. If there
has been an original civil-service reformer who has deserted from the
ranks of the Democracy, history does not record his name. It has
been left to the party to which I belong to afford conspicuous and
shining illustrations of that class of political thinkers who are never
quite sure that they are supporting a party unless they are reviling
the candidates and denouncing its platform, who are not positive
that they are standing erect unless they are leaning over backward,
and whose idea of reforming the organization in which they profess
to be classified is to combine with its adversaries and vote for
candidates who openly spurn their professions and depreciate the
stock in trade which they denominate their principles. Standing on
the corners of the streets, enlarging the borders of their phylacteries,
they loudly advertise their perfections, thanking God that they are
not as other men, even these Republicans and Democrats; they
traffic with both to ascertain which they can most profitably betray.
Mr. President, the neuter gender is not popular either in nature or
society. “Male and female created He them.” But there is a third sex,
if that can sex be called which sex has none, resulting sometimes
from a cruel caprice of nature, at others from accident or malevolent
design, possessing the vices of both and the virtues of neither;
effeminate without being masculine or feminine; unable either to
beget or to bear; possessing neither fecundity nor virility; endowed
with the contempt of men and the derision of women, and doomed to
sterility, isolation, and extinction. But they have two recognized
functions. They sing falsetto, and they are usually selected as the
guardians of the seraglios of Oriental despots.
And thus to pass from the illustration to the fact, these political
epicenes, without pride of ancestry or hope of posterity, chant in
shrill falsetto their songs of praise of non-partisanship and civil-
service reform, and apparently have been selected as the harmless
custodians of the conscience of the national Executive.
Sir, I am not disposed to impugn the good faith, the patriotism, the
sincerity, the many unusual traits and faculties of the President of
the United States. He is the sphinx of American politics. It is said
that he is a fatalist; that he regards himself as the child of fate—the
man of destiny; and that he places devout and implicit reliance upon
the guiding influence of his star. Certainly, whether he be a very
great man or a very small man, he is a very extraordinary man. His
career forbids any other conclusion.
The Democratic party was not wanting when its convention
assembled at Chicago in many renowned and illustrious characters;
men who had led the forlorn hope in its darkest and most desperate
days; men for whose character and achievements, for whose fame
and history, not only that organization but the country had the
profoundest admiration and respect. There was Thurman, and
Bayard, and Hendricks, and Tilden, and McDonald, and others
perhaps not less worthy and hardly less illustrious, upon whom the
mantle of that great distinction might have fallen; but the man at the
mature age of thirty-five abandoned a liberal and honored profession
to become the sheriff of Erie, without known opinions and destitute
of experience or training in public affairs, outstripped them all in the
race of ambition; and when but little more than a year ago he entered
this Chamber as the President elect of the United States, he
encountered the curious scrutiny of an audience to whom he was a
stranger in feature as in fame; a stranger to the leaders of his own
party as well as to the representatives of all the nations of the earth
who had assembled to witness the gorgeous pageant of his
inauguration.
Sir, the career of Napoleon was sudden, startling, and dramatic.
There have been many soldiers of fortune who have sprung at one
bound from obscurity to fame, but no illustration of the caprices of
destiny so brilliant and bewildering is recorded in history as the
elevation of Grover Cleveland to the Chief Magistracy of sixty
millions of people.
If when he was inaugurated he had determined that the functions
of Government should be exercised by officers selected from his own
party the nation would have been content; but he did not so
determine, and herein and hereon is founded the justification that
the majority of the Senate can satisfactorily use and employ in
demanding that no action shall be had in connection with these
suspensions from office until there has been satisfactory assurances
that injustice has not been done. If it were understood that these
suspensions and removals were made for political reasons the
country would be content, the Republican majority in the Senate
would be content. But what is the attitude? Ever since his
inauguration and for many months before, by many utterances,
official and private, in repeated declarations never challenged, Mr.
Cleveland announced that he would not so administer this
Government. At the very outset, in his letter of acceptance, he
denounced the doctrine of partisan changes in the patronage, and
through all of his political manifestoes down to the present time he
has repeated these assurances with emphatic and unchanging
monotony.
He has declared that there should be no changes in office, where
the incumbents were competent and qualified, for political reasons,
but that they should be permitted to serve their terms. Like those
who were grinding at the mill, one has been taken and another has
been left. Some Republicans have been suspended and others have
been retained. What is the irresistible inference? What is the logic of
the events, except that, in view of what the President has declared,
every man who is suspended is suspended for cause, and not for
political reasons? It is not possible to suspect the President of
duplicity and treacherous deception.
For the purpose of illustration, let me call the attention of the
Senate and through the Senate the attention of the country, which is
to judge of this matter, to the basis on which this inquiry proceeds. I
read from the letter of Grover Cleveland, dated Albany, August 19,
1884, accepting the nomination for the Presidency of the United
States. He says:
The people pay the wages of the public employés, and they are entitled to the fair
and honest work which the money thus paid should command. It is the duty of
those intrusted with the management of their affairs to see that such public service
is forthcoming. The selection and retention of subordinates in Government
employment should depend upon their ascertained fitness and the value of their
work, and they should be neither expected nor allowed to do questionable party
service.
There is another utterance in this document to which I might
properly allude further on, but which appears to me to be so
significant that I will read it now. It has a singular fitness in
connection with this subject that we have been discussing. Speaking
of honest administration, he says,
I believe that the public temper is such that the voters of the land are prepared to
support the party which gives the best promise of administering the Government
in the honest, simple, and plain manner which is consistent with its character and
purposes.
And now:
They have learned that mystery and concealment in the management of their
affairs cover tricks and betrayal.
Yes, they have learned that mystery in the administration of the
patronage of the Government, by the concealment from the people of
the documents and papers that bear upon the character and conduct
of officials suspended and those that are appointed, cover tricks and
betrayal. “I thank thee for that word.” A “Daniel” has “come to
judgment.” No more pertinent and pungent commentary upon the
facts of the present situation could be formulated than that which
Grover Cleveland uttered before his foot was upon the threshold, that
mystery and concealment in the management of the affairs of the
people covered tricks and betrayal. There are tricks and somebody
has been betrayed.
Again, on the 20th day of December, 1884, after the election, some
of the contingent of Republican deserters who elected Mr. Cleveland
to the Presidency, becoming apprehensive that there might be
trouble about their thirty pieces of silver, formulated their
uneasiness in words and addressed him a letter calling his attention
to the professions upon which he had been elected and demanding
further guarantee. To that letter, on the 25th day of December, 1884,
Mr. Cleveland replied, and from that reply I select certain
paragraphs, not being willing to tax the patience of the Senate or
waste my own strength in reading what is not strictly material.
I regard myself pledged to this—
That is, to this practical reform in the civil service, this refusal to
turn out competent and qualified officials and put in Democrats—
because my conception of true Democratic faith and public duty requires that
this and all other statutes should be in good faith and without evasion enforced,
and because, in many utterances made prior to my election as President, approved
by the party to which I belong and which I have no disposition to disclaim, I have
in effect promised the people that this should be done.
Not his party, but the people, Republican as well as Democrats.
Then he proceeds to castigate the Democratic party:
I am not unmindful of the fact to which you refer that many of our citizens fear
that the recent party change in the national Executive may demonstrate that the
abuses which have grown up in the civil service are ineradicable. I know that they
are deeply rooted, and that the spoils system has been supposed to be intimately
related to success in the maintenance of party organization, and I am not sure that
all those who profess to be the friends of this reform will stand firmly among its
advocates when they find it obstructing their way to patronage and place.
He goes on thus, and this is a most significant promise and pledge:
There is a class of Government positions which are not within the letter of the
civil-service statute but which are so disconnected with the policy of an
administration that the removal therefrom of present incumbents, in my opinion,
should not be made during the terms for which they were appointed solely on
partisan grounds, and for the purpose of putting in their places those who are in
political accord with the appointing power—
And then follows that celebrated definition which lifted the lid
from the box of Pandora—
but many men holding such positions have forfeited all just claim to retention
because they have used their places for party purposes in disregard of their duty to
the people, and because, instead of being decent public servants, they have proved
themselves offensive partisans and unscrupulous manipulators of local party
management.
The letter closes with this somewhat frigid assurance of
consolation to the Democratic party.
If I were addressing none but party friends, I should deem it entirely proper to
remind them—
That is, party friends—
that though the coming administration is to be Democratic—
Strictly Democratic—
a due regard for the people’s interest does not permit faithful party work to be
always rewarded by appointment to office, and to say to them that while
Democrats may expect a proper consideration, selections for office not embraced
within the civil-service rules will be based upon sufficient inquiry as to fitness,
instituted by those charged with that duty, rather than upon persistent importunity
or self-solicited recommendations on behalf of candidates for appointment.
“Here endeth the first lesson!” This was in the year 1884. I now
come to the declaration of 1885. Just as the Democratic State
convention which nominated the present governor of New York for
the position that he now holds, was about to assemble at Saratoga on
the 24th, I think, of September, the President gave out for
publication the letter of resignation of Dorman B. Eaton, a civil-
service commissioner, which was dated July 28, 1885, and
accompanied it with a letter of his own accepting that resignation
which was dated September 11, 1885. It was alleged in Democratic
newspapers that the President held back these letters in order to give
publicity to his reply at that time for effect upon the convention, and
it was remarked that it had caused a panic among the Democracy.
His letter is dated, as I said, September 11, 1885, and I will read a few
paragraphs showing his opinion of the Democratic party and the
course that they had pursued in attempting to force him off the civil-
service reform platform. After some rather glittering platitudes in
regard to the work accomplished by Mr. Eaton, he proceeds:
A reasonable toleration for old prejudices, a graceful recognition of every aid, a
sensible utilization of every instrumentality that promises assistance and a
constant effort to demonstrate the advantages of the new order of things, are the
means by which this reform movement will in the future be further advanced, the
opposition.
Now, this is an epithet to which I desire to call particular attention
—
The opposition of incorrigible spoilsmen rendered ineffectual and the cause
placed upon a sure foundation.
But not content with applying his scourge to the “incorrigible
spoilsmen” of the Democratic party, the President took occasion to
express his opinion in rather picturesque language of another class of
politicians that had somewhat afflicted him, and to whom he was
under bonds:
It is a source of congratulation that there are so many friends of civil-service
reform marshaled on the practical side of the question; and that the number is not
greater of those who profess friendliness for the cause, and yet, mischievously and
with supercilious self-righteousness, discredit every effort not in exact accord with
their attenuated ideas, decry with carping criticism the labor of those actually in
the field of reform, and ignoring the conditions which bound and qualify every
struggle for a radical improvement in the affairs of government, demand complete
and immediate perfection.
“Supercilious self-righteousness, attenuated ideas, and carping
criticism,” can not be regarded as complimentary phrases when
applied to the apostles of this new evangel of political reformation.
He continues—
I believe in civil-service reform and its application in the most practicable form
attainable, among other reasons, because it opens the door for the rich and the
poor alike to a participation in public place-holding. And I hope the time is at hand
when all our people will see the advantage of a reliance for such an opportunity
upon merit and fitness, instead of a dependence upon the caprice or selfish interest
of those who impudently—
To whom does he refer?—
who impudently stand between the people and the machinery of the
Government.
You will agree with me, I think, that the support which has been given to the
present administration in its efforts to preserve and advance this reform by a party
restored to power after an exclusion for many years from participation in the
places attached to the public service, confronted with a new system precluding the
redistribution of such places in its interest, called upon to surrender advantages
which a perverted partisanship had taught the American people belonged to
success, and perturbed with the suspicion, always raised in such an emergency,
that their rights in the conduct of this reform had not been scrupulously regarded,
should receive due acknowledgment and should confirm our belief that there is a
sentiment among the people better than a desire to hold office, and a patriotic
impulse upon which may safely rest the integrity of our institutions and the
strength and perpetuity of our Government.
The first official utterances of President Cleveland upon the 4th of
March, 1885, renewed the assurance that had been given. He
declared:
The people demand reform in the administration of the Government and the
application of business principles to business affairs. As a means to this end civil-
service reform should be in good faith enforced. Our citizens have the right to
protection from the incompetency of public employés who hold their places solely
as the reward of partisan service, and from the corrupting influences of those who
promise and the vicious who expect such rewards. And those who worthily seek
public employment have the right to insist that merit and competency shall be
recognized instead of party subserviency or the surrender of honest political belief.
How this system, thus inaugurated, this amphibious plan of
distributing the patronage of the country among his own partisans
and at the same time insisting upon the enforcement of civil-service
reform doctrines practically resulted finds its first illustration in the
celebrated circular of the Postmaster-General that was issued on the
29th of April, 1885. I do not propose to defile my observations by
reading that document. I allude to it for the purpose of saying that a
more thoroughly degraded, loathsome, execrable and detestable
utterance never was made by any public official of any political
persuasion in any country, or in any age. It was an invitation to every
libeller, every anonymous slanderer, every scurrilous defamer, to
sluice the feculent sewage of communities through the Post-Office
Department, with the assurance that, without any intimation or
information to the person aspersed, incumbents should be removed
and Democratic partisans appointed. I offered a resolution on the
4th of this month calling on the Postmaster-General for information
as to the number of removals of fourth-class postmasters, not
requiring confirmation by the Senate, between the 4th day of March,
1885, and that date. It was a simple proposition. It required nothing
but an inspection of the official register and a computation of
numbers. No names were required and no dates. There was a simple
question of arithmetic to ascertain the number of removals of fourth-
class postmasters not included in the list sent to the Senate by the
President, the salary being less than $1,000. Eighteen days elapsed.
There seemed to be some reluctance on the part of the Department
to comply with that request, and I thereupon offered a supplemental
resolution, which was adopted by the Senate, asking the Postmaster-
General to advise us whether that first resolution had been received,
and, if so, why it was not answered, and when a reply might be
expected.
On the second day following an answer came down. It does not
include the number of places that were filled where there had been
resignations. It does not include the list of those appointed where
there had been vacancies from death or any other cause; but simply
those who had been removed without cause and without hearing in
the space of the first twelve months of this administration pledged to
non-partisanship and civil-service reform. The number foots up
8,635. Eighty-six hundred and thirty-five removals of fourth-class
postmasters under an administration pledged by repeated utterances
not to remove except for cause, making an average, counting three
hundred and thirteen working days in that year, of twenty-eight
every day; and, counting seven hours as a day’s work, four removals
every hour, or at the rate of one for every fifteen minutes of time
from the 4th day of March, 1885, until the 4th of March, 1886. And
that is civil-service reform! That is non-partisanship in the
administration of this Government! That is exercising public office as
a public trust!
Mr. Cockrell. How many of these fourth-class postmasters are
there?
Mr. Ingalls. I do not know.
Mr. Cockrell. About fifty-one thousand, are there not?
Mr. Ingalls. It makes no difference how many; they did the best
they could, and angels could do more. I see that the Senator from
Missouri is impatient; he is anxious that the axe should fall more
rapidly.
The President pro tempore. The Senator from Kansas will pause
a moment. It is the duty of the Chair to inform the occupants of the
galleries that the rules of the Senate forbid any expression of
approbation or disapprobation. It will be the painful duty of the
Chair to enforce that rule, if it is insisted upon.
Mr. Ingalls. I hope the Senator from Missouri will curb his
impatience and restrain his impetuosity. The Postmaster-General
will get through if you only give him time.
Mr. Cockrell. He will get through in four years at this rate.
Mr. Ingalls. One every fifteen minutes!
Mr. Cockrell. Fifty-one thousand is the number of fourth-class
postmasters, I believe, and only eight thousand in a year have been
removed.
Mr. Ingalls. Only one every fifteen minutes! How often do you
expect them to be removed? He has done the best he could. And this
does not include the number of those who resigned; this does not
include any except those who have been removed. To the Senator
from Missouri rising in his seat, impatient at the dilatory
procrastination of the Post-Office Department in not casting out
more Republican postmasters, I say this does not include all.
Undoubtedly many more than eighty-six hundred and thirty-five
have fallen beneath the axe of the Department or have been filled by
partisans of the party in power as a reward for efficient and faithful
party service in consequence of the retirement of thousands of
patriotic Republicans: and when the Senator from Missouri attempts
to convey the impression here that out of fifty-one thousand fourth-
class postmasters only eighty-six hundred and thirty-five have been
changed during this past year he is entirely outside the record. It is to
be observed that this is but a single Department. How many have
gone out of the State department, how many have gone out of the
Interior department, how many out of the Army and Navy
departments, and out of that illuminated Department of Justice, and
out of the Treasury, of course is entirely unknown, and probably will
always remain unknown till the secrets of earth are revealed at the
last day. They are carefully concealed; there are no lists furnished to
the press for publication. Therefore I trust that the friends of the
administration will be consoled, that the complaints which have been
so frequent hitherto of the want of activity on the part of the
administration in finding places for their friends will be tempered by
the consideration that they have done the best they could in the time
at their disposal.
Mr. President, the list of official utterances is not yet complete. On
the first day of this session President Cleveland again repeated his
declaration that the civil service was to be divorced from
partisanship, and he took occasion to inflict some more castigation
upon those who were endeavoring to force him off the civil-service
platform which he had declared he intended to occupy. This was his
language:
Lay siege to the patronage of Government, engrossing the time of public officers
with their importunities, spreading abroad the contagion of their disappointment,
and filling the air with the tumult of their discontent.
Rather florid, rather oriental phrase, but in its exactness
mathematical; a demonstration in geometry could not be more
explicit and satisfactory than that description by President Cleveland
of the occupation and the lamentations of the Democratic party. It
will bear repetition.
Lay siege to the patronage of Government, engrossing the time of public officers
with their importunities, spreading abroad the contagion of their disappointment,
and filling the air with the tumult of their discontent.
A besieging, importunate, contagious, tumultuous, discontented
organization.
There is more to the same effect in this document that I should like
to read, but time does not serve, nor is it material, because there are
other independent utterances to which I must pass; and I do this for
the purpose of showing the consistent and persistent adhesion of the
President of the United States to the declarations with which he
started out when he commenced to administer the Government.
On the 30th day of January, 1886, the ordinary avenues of
communication with the public being inaccessible, President
Cleveland availed himself of the interviewer, and in the Boston
Herald was printed a long letter detailing in quotations a
conversation with President Cleveland, the many points of which will
be found below. This was after this controversy, if you call it so,
between the President and Senate, had begun to develop and there
were some indications of approaching misunderstanding or
disagreement:
He next spoke of his position toward the Senate in the matter of confirmations to
office. He said it gave him some anxiety, for the Senate had been a good while in
disclosing what it meant to do. “They seem”—
He says plaintively—
“to distrust me,” said he, “if I am to accept what I hear from others. But I hear
nothing from them. They have not called upon me for information or for
documents.”
That complaint no longer exists.
“I have tried”—
He says—
“to deal honorably and favorably by them. My purpose was announced at the
beginning of my administration. I meant then to adhere to it. I have never changed
it. I do not mean to change it in the future. It seems to me unjust and ungenerous
in them”—
That is, in the Senate—
“unjust and ungenerous in them to suspect that I do. If I had not meant to
adhere to my policy it would have been foolish in me to begin it. I should have
escaped much in refusing to begin it. It is not at all pleasant for me to disappoint,
and I fear sometimes to offend, my party friends. Nothing but a sense of duty has
brought me to this step. Why run all this risk and incur this hard feeling only in the
end to retreat? It seems to me it would have been as impolitic as it is wrong. No; I
have tried to be true to my own pledges and the pledges of my party. We both
promised to divorce the offices of the country from being used for party service. I
have held to my promise, and I mean to hold to it.”
Then there was an answer to a question propounded by the
interviewer, in which he defines his relation toward offensive
partisanship in the Democratic party:
“I did not propose to hold party service in the past in the Democratic ranks as
against a man. On the contrary, it gave him a strong, equitable claim to office. He
had been excluded for twenty-four years because he was a Democrat. He should be
remembered for the same reason when a Democratic administration came into
power, provided he was a competent man for the position to be filled. What I
understand by civil-service reform, as I am carrying it out, is that the office-holders
shall be divorced from politics while they fill their positions under this
government. That rule I have meant to stand by.” I asked him if he was aware of
any deviation from it among his appointees. “If there has been any,” said he, “it has
not been called to my attention.” I suggested that some such charge had been made
in New York. He said he did not believe that there was any foundation for it, and
that it was well known there that his wishes were that the office-holders should
attend to the duties of their positions, and interfere neither with candidates nor
election contests.
And here comes in the significant statement bearing upon the duty
of Republicans in connection with these suspensions and removals
from office:
“My removals from office, such as are made,” said he, “are made for cause. It
would be absurd for me to undertake to give the country my reasons in all cases,
because it would be impracticable. When I have removed a Republican for political
reasons or for any other reasons, I would apply the same rule to my own party. I
think the Republican Senators should be just enough to believe this of me. They
ought to appreciate that I am trying to do my duty. Why they should continue to
distrust me I do not see. They do not come to me either personally or by committee
to get an understanding of my attitude, or to obtain explanations on points of
action to which they object. They stand off and question the sincerity of my
purposes.”
The eight thousand six hundred and thirty-five fourth-class
postmasters and the six hundred and forty-three suspensions before
the Senate and the thousands of changes in other departments “are
made for cause,” not for political reasons merely; but to give those
who have been so removed the opportunity to explain or defend
themselves would be “absurd” and “impracticable.”
But this is not all. Later in the winter the Civil Service Commission
was reorganized, and in a newspaper printed in this city appeared a
statement alleged to be “personal” and included in quotation marks,
and which it is commonly reported was in the handwriting of the
President.
I cannot rid myself—
He said, after speaking about the personnel of the Civil Service
Commission—
I cannot rid myself of the idea that this civil-service reform is something
intended to do practical good and not a mere sentiment invented for the purpose of
affording opportunity to ventilate high-sounding notions and fine phrases.
He alludes to the action of the Civil-Service Commission about a
weigher in the city of Brooklyn, and says:
When the Civil Service Commission consulted with me as to the status of Mr.
Sterling and the true construction of the rule bearing upon that subject, I agreed
with them in their second opinion that the position of weigher was subject to an
examination, and that it should be filled by one who by means of a proper
examination under the law proved himself competent and eligible. But it seemed to
me that the good of the service required that the person to be appointed should be
possessed of certain traits and qualifications which no theoretical examination
would develop. One having in charge two or three hundred men of the class with
which a weigher has to deal should possess personal courage, energy, decision and
firmness of character. It is entirely certain that the possession of such
qualifications could not in the least be determined by the result of an examination
organized for the purpose of testing an applicant’s knowledge and education.
And he closes:
No cause can gain by injustice or by a twisting of its purposes to suit particular
tastes. And when a result is fairly reached through the proper operation of methods
adopted to further a reform, it should be accepted—especially by the friends of the
movement. They should not permit those of whom they require submission to say,
with any semblance of truth, that they themselves submit only when the result
accords with their views.
This closes the public declarations of the President of the United
States upon the views which he entertains as to the method and
plans and system upon which the public service is to be conducted
under his administration. There are some interesting details as to the
practical effects and results of the effort of the administration to
purify the public service, which I would be glad if I had time to refer
to, but I believe I will forbear. I can only say that it seems from an
inspection of the record as if the cry “put the rascals out” had been
changed in effect to “put the rascals in.” Of course Mr. President, no
party is exempt from accidents, no organization has a monopoly
either of good men or of bad men, and in calling attention to the
results of civil-service reform as applied to this administration, I
should be insincere if I were to assume that such results had followed
from any predetermined purpose to put bad men into office.
We heard a great deal during the campaign about the corruptions,
profligacy, misdeeds, and maladministration of Republican officials.
I can only say that in view of what has occurred under this
administration, if I were inclined to be uncharitable I could with
entire propriety say that while the Republican party was in power it
endeavored whenever it detected crime anywhere to punish it; but
one of the practical results of Democratic administration has been
the reverse, and that is to place in office a very large number of
admitted and convicted felons. I have before me a selection from
which I will, I believe, in support of this view of the case, give a law
extract, stating in advance that these compilations are made from
Democratic newspapers which, of course, is a mitigation of the
slander, though it does not necessarily destroy its credibility.
Mr. ——, of Baltimore, who was made an Indian inspector in 1885,
had been involved in notorious election frauds and was condemned
by the civil-service reform Independents of Maryland as a
companion of Higgins, as a ballot-box stuffer, and a professional
gambler.
The postmaster at Sioux City, Iowa, was convicted and sentenced
in Dakota for violation of the pension laws. The man who was
removed to make a place for this eminent civil-service reformer had
eight months yet to serve, and there was no complaint against him
even to the extent that he was an offensive partisan.
Mr. Holmes, a postmaster in Mississippi, had been involved in
notorious election-fraud scandals.
Mr. Shannon, appointed postmaster at Meriden, Miss., was the
editor of the Mercury newspaper, which after President Grant’s
death contained a rabid editorial attacking the General’s character;
and he had been indicted in the United States court for “unlawfully
and criminally conspiring with many others for the evasion of the
civil rights law.”
In Rhode Island a Democratic postmaster was appointed who had
been in the preceding three months arrested nine times for violation
of the liquor law.
In Pennsylvania a man was appointed in the Philadelphia Mint
who openly confessed to writing a forged letter from Neal Dow to be
used in influencing the German vote in the State of Ohio the
preceding year.
There have been some strange things done in Maine. I almost
hesitate to quote this, but if I am wrong the Senators from that State
will undoubtedly correct me. It is alleged that the postmaster in the
town of Lincolnville was at the time of his appointment actually in
the Portland jail, where he was serving a term for a misdemeanor.
An agent by the name of Judd, who was appointed in the Bureau of
Labor Statistics, was, upon inquiry as to the fact whether he had
been a horse-thief and served in the penitentiary, suspended from
office. The writer states that the only ground for supposing that he
was not a horse thief arose from the fact that they do not put men in
the penitentiary for stealing horses out West: that if he was alive it
was a reasonable, natural conclusion that he had not stolen any
horses. Nobody denied the penitentiary.
A gentleman named Richard Board, of Kentucky, was appointed in
July, on the recommendation of Comptroller Durham, clerk in the
railway mail service and assigned to duty in New Mexico. This is
under the Postmaster-General, who found leisure between removing
postmasters every fifteen minutes to appoint this man in another
branch of the service where he incautiously mentioned to his friends
something about his previous history, and it appeared that he had
been three times arrested in Cincinnati for obtaining money under
false pretenses, that he had been twice arrested for stealing in
Kentucky, and once in Texas—a variegated and diversified career.
“No pent up Utica” contracted his powers. He had stolen in three
states. His father was a very wealthy man in high standing who had
spent a great deal of money to protect his son, and through him he
secured the endorsement of Comptroller Durham, and after he had
been in service for a few weeks he committed a number of robberies,
stole $163 from the money order service, and at the date of this
communication was lying in jail at Santa Fé awaiting trial.
The Senator from Indiana [Mr. Voorhees] yesterday took
occasion to advert with somewhat of animated hilarity to the
suggestion of the Senator from Iowa about the evolutionary
condition of the Democratic party, and dwelt with considerable
unction upon a term that the Senator from Iowa had applied to the
Democracy in his very able and interesting speech: “a protoplasmic”
cell, and the Senator then proceeded to give us the definition of the
term as it appears in the dictionaries, and suggested that if those
facts had been known at the time when the canvass was pending Mr.
Cleveland would undoubtedly have been counted out in New York.
The Senator from Iowa might have gone further in his application
of the doctrine of evolution with much propriety. Geology teaches us
that in the process of being upward from the protoplasmic cell,
through one form of existence to another there are intermediary and
connecting stages, in which the creature bears some resemblance to
the state from which it has emerged and some to the state to which it
is proceeding. History is stratified politics; every stratum is
fossiliferous; and I am inclined to think that the political geologist of
the future in his antiquarian researches between the triassic series of
1880 and the cretaceous series of 1888 as he inspects the jurassic
Democratic strata of 1884 will find some curious illustrations of the
doctrine of political evolution.
In the transition from the fish to the bird there is an anomalous
animal, long since extinct, named by the geologists the pterodactyl,
or the winged reptile, a lizard with feathers upon its paws and
plumes upon its tail. A political system which illustrates in its
practical operations the appointment by the same administration of
Eugene Higgins and Dorman B. Eaton can properly be regarded as in
the transition epoch and characterized as the pterodactyl of politics.
It is, like that animal, equally adapted to waddling and dabbling in
the slime and mud of partisan politics and soaring aloft with
discordant cries into the glittering and opalescent empyrean of civil-
service reform.
The President closes his recent message to the Senate in this
language:
The pledges I have made were made to the people, and to them I am responsible
for the manner in which they have been redeemed. I am not responsible to the
Senate and I am unwilling to submit my actions and official conduct to them for
judgment.
There are no grounds for an allegation that the fear of being found false to my
professions influences me in declining to submit to the demands of the Senate. I
have not constantly refused to suspend officials, and thus incurred the displeasure
of political friends, and yet willfully broken faith with the people for the sake of
being false to them.
Neither the discontent of party friends nor the allurements constantly offered of
confirmation of appointees conditioned upon the avowal that suspensions have
been made on party grounds alone, nor the threat proposed in the resolution now
before the Senate that no confirmations will be made unless the demands of that
body be complied with, are sufficient to discourage or deter me from following in
the way which I am convinced leads to better government for the people.
He is not responsible to the Senate, nor is the Senate responsible
to him; both are alike responsible to the people. But in the cases at
bar we are compelled to inquire, in justice to the people, whether
those pledges have been redeemed, or whether they have been
broken, violated, and disregarded. Had the patronage of the
Government, within proper limits, been turned over for its exercise
to the party intrusted with power by a majority of the people there
could have been no complaint, but upon the assurances that I have
read, the declaration was made that in every case where an
incumbent was competent and qualified he should remain in office
till the expiration of his term.
When, therefore, some were suspended and others were left, what
is the irresistible inference, after the declarations of the President,
except that these persons were suspended for cause either affecting
their personal integrity or their official administration? Upon the
ground, then, of personal justice, if no other, we are entitled to know
whether wrong has been done by the accusations that have been filed
in the Departments, so that we may protect those who are unable to
defend themselves from injustice and defamation.
But there is another reason, and to me a still more convincing
reason, why we should be advised in the case of these suspensions
what are the papers, the official documents, and the reports on the
files of the departments affecting the administration of these offices,
and that is this: under the tenure-of-office act, every official
suspended is reinstated by the provisions of section 1768 of the
Revised Statutes, if the Senate adjourns without confirming the
designated person, and continues to exercise and discharge the
duties of that office, until he is again suspended by the President.
Therefore, in acting upon these cases we have a double duty to
perform; in the first place, to decide whether the person suspended
was properly suspended, and in the next place, whether he is a
competent person to be restored to office under and by virtue of the
operation of the statute under which he was suspended. If he is not a
competent person then he ought not to be restored, and we cannot
determine whether he is competent and qualified and fit to discharge
the duties of that office until we have the official declarations and
statements upon which the action of the President was based.
Since this debate began, there are indications that the President
has become convinced that his position is untenable, and that he has
concluded to yield to the reasonable requests of the Senate and
relieve suspended officials from the otherwise inevitable imputations
upon their conduct and character. I find the following
correspondence in one of the metropolitan journals, which if
authentic relieves the relation between the President and the Senate
of the principal restraint:
Committee on Finance, United States Senate, March 17, 1886.
Dear Sir: Will you please advise the Committee on Finance whether or not there
are any papers or charges on file reflecting against the official or moral character of
——, late collector of internal revenue for the first district of ——, suspended?
If there are any such papers or charges will you please communicate their nature
and character to the committee?
Very truly, yours,

JUSTIN S. MORRILL.
Hon. Daniel Manning,

Secretary of the Treasury.
March 19, 1886.
Sir: Your communication on behalf of the Finance Committee of the Senate,

dated March 17, 1886, asking whether or not there are any papers or charges on file
reflecting against the official or moral character of ——, late collector of internal
revenue for the first district of ——, suspended, is received.
In reply thereto I have the honor to state that, so far as this inquiry relates to a
suspension from office, I feel bound by the rules laid down in the President’s recent
message to the Senate upon the general subject of such suspensions.
But in order that I may surely act within the requirements of the statute relating
to the furnishing by this Department of information to the Senate, I beg leave to
remind the committee that the office referred to has no fixed term attached to it,
and to further state that the President is satisfied that a change in the incumbency
of said office will result in an improvement of the public service, and that the policy
of the present administration will be better carried out by such change.
Except as the same may be involved in these considerations, no papers
containing charges reflecting upon the official or moral character of the suspended
officer mentioned in your communication are in the custody of this Department.
Respectfully, yours,
D. MANNING, Secretary.
Hon. Justin S. Morrill,

Chairm’n of the Senate Com. on Finance.
But whether this be true or not, this is not the forum in which this
controversy is to be ultimately decided. The Executive is not on trial
before the Senate; the Senate is not on trial before the Executive; but
both, as to the sincerity of their professions and the consistency of
their actions, are on trial before that greater, wiser, and more
powerful tribunal—the enlightened conscience of the people, from
whose verdict there is neither exculpation nor appeal.
THE GREAT TARIFF CAMPAIGN OF 1888.
The views which point to the tendency of the Democratic party in

the direction of Free Trade, at least to their antagonism to the theory
of Protection for protection’s sake, are well given in the special
message of President Cleveland, given elsewhere in this work. A wing
of the Democratic party, headed by Samuel J. Randall, of
Pennsylvania, dissented from this view, and opposed both the
Morrison and the Mills bills. For the purpose of illustrating the views
of this class of Democrats, as well as because of the distinction of the
speaker, we append

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Introduction 1 A5.5 Str ucture and proper ties of solids 80

Section A Principles of chemistry 2

A6 Chemical equations and reactions 89

A1.1 The par ticulate nature of matter 2

A6.1 Writing and balancing chemical

A1.2 Evidence for t he par ticulate

A6.2 Types of chemical reactions 96

A1.3 The t hree states of matter 9

Practice exam-style questions 100

Practice exam-style questions 15

A7 The mole concept 101

A2 Mixtures and their separation 16

A7.1 The mole and mass 101

A2.1 Elements, compounds and mixtures 16

A7.2 The mole and gas volumes 106

A2.2 Solutions, suspensions and colloids 19

A7.3 The mole and concentration of

A2.4 Separating mixtures 25

A7.4 The mole and chemical formulae 111

A2.5 Extraction of sucrose from

A7.5 The mole and chemical reactions 113