Journal - THE INFLUENCE OF GREEN AREAS ON NOCTURNAL

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATOLOGY
Int. J. Climatol. 18: 681–700 (1998)
THE INFLUENCE OF GREEN AREAS ON NOCTURNAL

TEMPERATURES IN A HIGH LATITUDE CITY (GO8 TEBORG,
SWEDEN)
HILLEVI UPMANIS*, INGEGA8 RD ELIASSON and SVEN LINDQVIST
Laboratory of Climatology at Physical Geography, Department of Earth Sciences, Göteborg Uni6ersity, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
Recei6ed 11 October 1996

Re6ised 18 December 1997
Accepted 17 January 1998
ABSTRACT
The air temperature pattern in three urban parks and their surrounding built-up areas was studied over a one and a
half year period in Göteborg, Sweden. The measurements were made at mobile and permanent stations on nights with
clear skies and light winds. The maximum temperature difference found between a park and a built-up area was 5.9°C
(summer), and the extension of the cool park climate into the built-up area was over 1100 m from the park border.
Both the extension and the magnitude of the temperature difference depended on the size of the park and the distance
from the park border. The green area cooled at a faster rate than the built-up area, although there were large
variations within each area. At the rural station, located at an open site, the cooling was less than at the open part
of the green area. Differences in sky obstruction between the sites explained some of the variations in cooling and
temperature. However, the relationship between the urban-park temperature difference and sky view factor was not
statistically significant. © 1998 Royal Meteorological Society.
KEY WORDS: Göteborg (Sweden); urban parks; car traverses; sky view factor; temperature difference; cooling rate; urban climate
1. INTRODUCTION
Earlier studies have shown that an urban park establishes its own climate in situ (Chandler, 1965;
Jauregui, 1975). Especially during clear and calm nights, urban parks appear to be colder than
surrounding built-up areas. It has also been shown that the cold park climate often extends beyond the
park, thus influencing temperatures in surrounding built-up areas (Jauregui, 1975; Oke, 1989; Jauregui
1990–1991; Ahmad, 1992; Spronken-Smith, 1994). Data from various cities throughout the world are
compared in Table I. The reported temperature differences vary between 1 and 6.8°C. A wide variety of
factors may have an influence on the results reported: i.e. size of the park, the sky obstruction in the park
and the built-up areas, the prevailing local weather (wind speed and cloud cover), the time of day and the
climatic zone in which the park is located.
From Table I it is evident that the size of the park has an effect on the magnitude of the temperature
difference between a park and its urban surroundings (DTu − p). Clearly, the largest temperature differ-
ences were found in large parks. However, DTu − p is variable; the difference in size between the parks with
the highest DTu − p is great, and at the other end of the scale, the four parks with areas of up to 2.5 ha
showed DTu − p varying from 1.5 to 4°C.
A comparison of the results of three studies in Mexico, Canada and Japan (Jauregui, 1975, 1990–1991;
Oke, 1989; Saito et al., 1990 – 1991) which consider the extent to which the park climate influences its
surroundings, suggests that the spatial extent of the cooling effect increases with the size of the park. Similar
results are reported from a study of urban parks in North America by Spronken-Smith (1994). She states
* Correspondence to: Laboratory of Climatology at Physical Geography, Department of Earth Sciences, Göteborg University. Tel.:
+46 31 7731962; fax: +46 31 7731986; e-mail: hillevi@gvc.gu.se
CCC 0899–8418/98/060681 – 20$17.50

© 1998 Royal Meteorological Society
682
Table I. Maximum DTu−p and extensions from park surveys at different latitudes and climate regions. The information on latitude and climate was taken
from Liljequist (1970) and Wernstedt (1972). The climate of each city was classified according to the Köppen Climate Classification System (de Blij’ and
Muller, 1993)
City Latitude (°N) Climate Parksize (ha) DTu−p (max) Extension (m) Reference
(°C)
Washington 40 Humid Subtropical — 3–5 Lewis et al. (1971)

DC
H. UPMANIS ET AL.
1
Mexico City 20 Short Grass Prairie, Steppe 525 6 2000 Jauregui (1975, 1990)
Munchen 48 Humid Continental 130 3.5 Bründl et al. (1986)
2.5 2.0
Montreal 45 Humid Continental 38 2 400 Oke (1989)
Kumamoto 33 Humid Continental 2.25 4 20 Saito et al. (1990)
City
0.24 3 15
Kuala Lumpur 3 Tropical Rainforest 153 Max 4.1 Ahmad (1992)
46 3.1
19 1.9
1.6 1.5
Göteborg 57 Marine Westcoast 156 6 1500 Lindqvist (1992)
Int. J. Climatol. 18: 681 – 700 (1998)
Tucson 32 Hot Dry Desert 171 6.8 Spronken-Smith (1994)

GREEN AREAS AND NOCTURNAL TEMPERATURES 683
that ‘the influence of the park is restricted to the neighbourhood within about one park width’ to attain
the maximum cooling benefit. Spronken-Smith (1994) suggests a park width of at least seven and a half
times the height of the park border, and many interspersed neighbourhood parks (pp. 174–175). Similar
results are reported from Japan, where mathematical simulations showed that, for effective cooling of
surrounding areas, several small green areas that are sufficiently separated are preferable to a few large
green areas (Honjo and Takakura, 1990 – 1991).
Clear and calm weather conditions, which favour the largest urban heat islands, give the most
pronounced thermal pattern both during the day and night (Oke, 1989). In a study in München, Bründl
et al. (1986) reported that the temperature difference (DTu − p ) more or less disappeared at a wind speed
of 5 m/s. Similar results were reported from Montreal by Oke (1989), who found that the cooling effect
was negligible at wind speeds greater than 6 m/s. Oke (1989) also noted that with moderate winds (2 m/s),
the park’s cooling effect was displaced downwind of the park.
Most park surveys have been carried out during evenings or nights when nocturnal cooling has started.
These night-time studies show that the park environment cools more rapidly than does the surrounding
built-up area (Lewis et al., 1971; Bründl et al., 1986; Oke, 1989). In a scale model study of nocturnal
surface cooling in urban parks, Spronken-Smith (1994) found that radiative transfer is the dominant
process, although the effect of evaporation (especially at sunset) and thermal admittance are also
significant.
Daytime studies are less numerous and show conflicting results. Bründl et al. (1986) and Saito et al.
(1990) measured lower air temperatures in parks than in surrounding built-up areas. Lower air tempera-
tures in parks during daytime are usually explained by shading due to trees. Evaporative cooling is likely
to have a very small impact on air temperatures at ground level owing to the mixing of air into the urban
boundary layer, but could be important at sunset when the park becomes established as a cool island
(Spronken-Smith, 1994). On the other hand, Jauregui (1990–1991) explained the higher temperatures in
Chapultepec Park, Mexico City, during daytime relative to an urban site, in terms of the effect of the
larger thermal inertia at the urban site, which ‘showed a lag in reaching its maximum temperature’.
From Table I it is evident that two of the three largest differences in DTu − p were found in arid climates
(Tucson and Mexico City). Spronken-Smith (1994) argues that the potential park effect is largely
determined through the macroscale climate and thus ‘the warmer and the drier the climate, the greater the
effect’. However, it is interesting to note that large differences were found also in a temperate climate
(Göteborg).
This paper presents the results of park surveys conducted in Göteborg, Sweden, over a period of about
one and a half years (January 1994 – September 1995). Earlier studies had shown that large differences in
air temperature exist in the transitional zone between urban built-up areas and parks (Lindqvist, 1992;
Eliasson, 1996). The objective of this present study is to extend this work by examining a variety of park
environments in the Göteborg area. The specific objectives are to determine:whether the size of a park
influences the magnitude of the temperature difference between the park and built-up area;whether the
size of the park influences the extension of the park climate into the built-up area;in what way the sky
obstruction in the park and built-up area influences the temperature pattern;the nocturnal cooling rates
in the park and surrounding built-up area.
2. THE STUDY AREA
The study was carried out in the city of Göteborg (57°42%N, 11°58%E), which is situated on the west coast
of Sweden. The Göteborg area has approximately 700000 inhabitants and is located in an area with a
locally maritime climate. The area is geomorphologically classified as a fissure valley landscape, domi-
nated by a few broad and large valleys oriented in north–south and east–west directions. The Göta river
valley divides the area into an eastern and a western part. To the east is a wooded area with elevations
ranging between about 50 – 150 m a.s.l. The western part, where the parks in the study are located, is
dominated by flat and open areas, 0 – 25 m a.s.l., interspersed with higher areas at an average of 60 m a.s.l.
© 1998 Royal Meteorological Society Int. J. Climatol. 18: 681 – 700 (1998)
684 H. UPMANIS ET AL.
The fissure valley landscape is responsible for many natural green spaces. The inner city of Göteborg has
a classical European city structure. It was founded in 1621, and the old city centre was planned by Dutch
engineers. The oldest part of the city is located between the Göta river and a system of old canals. In this
area, the average sky view factor (SVF, determined by fish-eye photographs (Holmer, 1992)) is about 0.35.
South of the canals lies a more heterogeneous part of the city, which was built around 1860. The SVF in
this part varies between 0.45 – 0.9. Several parks are located in the city centre (Figure 1).
Three urban parks were selected for the study: Slottsskogen, Vasaparken and Gubberoparken (Figure
1). They are of different compositions and sizes and the study includes their surrounding built-up areas,
which have few or no green elements. The vegetation in the parks consists of grassy areas, bushes up to
about two meters in height and mainly deciduous trees of about 15 m in height.
2.1. Site 1
Gubberoparken (Figure 2, Table II) is a small (2.4 ha) urban park surrounded by six-storey houses. The
SVF measured in the middle of the streets surrounding the park is 0.61 at the east side, 0.44 at the west
Figure 1. Map of the study area in Göteborg showing the Gubberoparken, Vasaparken, Slottsskogen parks and A8 nggarden
Figure 2. Map of measurement points in Gubberoparken (2.4 ha) (see Table II for description)
side, and 0.83 at the north side. In the built-up area at the north side, the three-storey houses are
interspersed with green yards, and the SVFs are between 0.5 and 0.8. The park consists of a plain grass
surface with scattered trees and bushes, some foot paths (asphalt) and a playground (sand).
2.2. Site 2
Vasaparken (Figure 3, Table II) is located in the middle of the city. The park (3.6 ha) has a varying
topography with an internal altitude variation of 13 m (Figure 4, Table II). On two sides (east and west),
the houses are about 20 m in height and the streets are about 15 m wide; typical SVF values at the
midpoint of the streets are about 0.4 – 0.5. The transition to the built-up area on the north and south sides
of the park is more diffuse, with alleys and varying vegetation. In the park grass-covered open areas with
trees and bushes dominate. There are also foot paths (asphalt) and the main building of the University
with a parking lot in front of it.
2.3. Site 3
Slottsskogen (Figure 5 and Table III) is the largest park in Göteborg (156 ha). The park is a mixture
of different land types, such as wooded hills and two level grassy surfaces with scattered trees and bushes.
There are also areas of open water, roads and asphalt foot paths, buildings and sand covered areas. The
largest difference in altitude within the park is about 50 m (Figure 6, Table III). On the north side of the
park the buildings are about 20 m in height and the street widths are about 20 m, and there are SVFs of
0.4–0.7 at the midpoint of the streets. On the west and south sides are suburban areas with a SVF of
about 0.75 and many small green areas. A traffic route leading into the city runs along the east side of
the park. Southeast of the traffic route lies a built-up area, A8 nggarden (Figures 1 and 5), with detached
houses, alleys and gardens. This villa area is bounded by a forest that covers 584 ha. The border of the
forest area is steeply inclined, reaching a maximum height of 95 m.
3. METHODS
3.1. Mobile measurements

Automobile traverses were used to study the horizontal temperature. The vehicle used was equipped
with instruments that sampled at every ten meters the car moved. The data was automatically recorded
and every five minutes stored in a computer that was running inside the car during the measurement. The
instruments were protected by radiation shields and the traverses were made at a speed not exceeding 40
km/h. Further information about the instruments and measurements is given in Table IV.
3.2. Permanent stations

In addition to the information gathered in the traverses, data were collected from permanent stations.
Fourteen Intab loggers (Tinytalks), of size 10×10× 5 cm, with an external temperature sensor located in
a radiation shield (referred to hereafter as fixed sensors (Table IV)) were mounted at a height of 2.5 m
above the ground. This height was chosen because of problems with vandalism and theft; this height was
somewhat more secure than the usual 2 m. The instruments were protected by chains and padlocks.
A meteorological station at Säve airport, located 9 km north-west of the city centre, was used as a rural
station (Table IV). The area surrounding Säve airport corresponds rather well with the urban stations
with respect to geomorphology and distance from the sea. The area is a relatively open, flat area situated
in a shallow valley with no wooded areas. From visual observation the SVF was determined to be about
0.9. Photos were not allowed to be taken because of military security regulations.
3.3. Measurement sites

The measurement sites were arranged in profiles through the parks and surrounding built-up areas. The
sites were located at different distances from the parks and in areas with different types of vegetation and
Table II. Description of stations in and around Gubberoparken and Vasaparken (see Figures
2 and 3 for location)
Park Station Type of measurement Height (m a.s.l.) SVF
Gubberoparken 1 Car traverse 5 0.61

2 Car traverse and fixed sensor 5 0.52
4 Fixed sensor 5 0.81
8 Car traverse 5 0.54
Vasaparken 1 Fixed sensor 15 0.55
15 Car traverse 19 0.53
Figure 3. Map of measurement points in Vasaparken (3.6 ha) (see Table II for description)
building structure (SVF). Table III gives descriptions of the 14 locations chosen in and around
Slottsskogen (Figure 5). The locations of the fixed sensors differ slightly from the car traverses as it was
difficult to drive in some parts of the parks, and driving off the streets and paths is not permitted. In
addition, the fixed sensors must be mounted on stands, which imposes restrictions on where they can be
placed. The temperature differences in and around Slottsskogen are reported as a maximum and median
DTX − 10, where 10 is the station at the park border and X is the station of interest. The measurement
locations for the fixed sensors in Gubberoparken and Vasaparken are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3,
respectively, and described in Table II.
3.4. Data analysis

This study concentrates on the night-time situation; the daytime situation will be examined in a later
study. Measurements were made continuously at the permanent stations, and the mobile measurements
were made during clear and calm weather conditions. Hourly data from the synoptic weather station at
Säve airport formed the database from which nights with light winds (B 2 m/s) and clear skies (total
cloud amount observed from 19:00 – 07:00 hB23% of the maximum amount possible) were selected.
These criteria follows the selection rules used in meteorological statistics (Taesler, 1972). Examination of
the data showed that the largest DTu − p occured most often at 2–3 h after sunset. Therefore this study
concentrates on this period of the night.
For the car traverses, the temperature at each site is represented by an average of five samples over a
50 m transect in order to avoid the influence of small variations. To avoid spurious data the 50 m average
for each station cover a distance that do not include any stop by the vehicle. The accuracy for the
instrument is 9 0.1°C and the time constant is less than ten seconds. The analysis is based on the
temperature differences inside each park. The transects through each park were made during a short time
period, i.e. three minutes for Gubberoparken, four minutes for Vasaparken and about ten minutes for
Slottsskogen. Due to the short traverse time, no time corrections were considered to be necessary.
To determine if there were any inter-instrument differences between the fixed stations, they have been
run next to each other and the data have been corrected for the inter-instrument differences. The fixed
stations have an accuracy of 90.2°C, and a resolution of 0.16 in the measurement span. The time
constant of the instrument is about 15 mins, i.e. the observed value is averaged over the previous 15 mins.
The purpose of using the two methods, mobile and fixed stations, was to study the temperature both
on a spatial scale and on a time scale. The fixed stations measure continuously over a long period and give
averages over time, while the mobile measurements are case studies during chosen evenings and give
averages over a distance. Thus, the results from these two methods are not directly comparable.
3.5. Period of measurements

The results are based on data collected during calm and clear nights which followed a clear day from
January 1994 to September 1995. Sixteen car traverses were used from the period February 1994 to March
1995. Data from different locations in the three parks was obtained by the fixed sensors during 1994 and
1995. Unfortunately, because of vandalism problems in Gubberoparken the fixed sensor transect there
provided data for only April 1994. In Vasaparken measurements were made from July to October 1994
and in Slottsskogen from May to September 1995.
4. RESULTS
4.1. Magnitude and extension

Several measurements by car traverses and fixed sensors were used to define the thermal character and
nature of the individual parks and their built-up surroundings, i.e. magnitude and spatial extension of
DTu − p.
Figure 4. Map of Vasaparken and vicinity, contours in meters above sea level and median temperatures of the fixed sensors during
the period of measurement
Figure 5. Map of the points of measurements in Slottsskogen (156 ha), including A8 nggarden (17 ha) (Station 16 – 19) (see Table III
for description)
4.2. Characteristic temperature profiles

Two typical examples from the mobile measurements are given in Figures 7 and 8 in order to show the
development of the nocturnal temperature pattern in and around two parks of different sizes. Clear and
calm conditions prevailed throughout the night of 14 February 1994. Figure 7 shows the results of two
traverses that started at Station 1 (Figure 5), 1 km from the border of Slottsskogen, and ended at the southern
border of the park. As a comparison, the results of two traverses through the much smaller park, Vasaparken,
and its adjoining built-up areas are given in Figure 8. The results are summarised in Table V.
The larger park has both a higher DTu − p and a greater influence on its surroundings. At sunset (Figure
7), a distinct temperature difference existed between the park and the built-up area. The temperature changed
rapidly, i.e. 2.0°C over a distance of 500 m, in the border between the park and the built-up area.
3.5 h after sunset (Figure 7), the effect of park cooling reached further into the built-up area, resulting in
a temperature change of 3°C over a distance of 1500 m (1°C/500 m). The temperature change was
relatively smooth but it is also clear that the SVF in the built-up area adjoining Slottsskogen had an
influence on temperature. The temperature actually increased at two sites with high building density
(Stations 7 and 8 in Figure 5, A in Figure 7). In Vasaparken, the smaller park (Figure 8, Table V), there
was a smaller temperature difference and cooling influence from the park on the built-up area. The
gradients of the temperature profile in the border between the park and the built-up area were larger at
the east park border as compared to west of the park. At the first traverse the temperature change was
about 0.5°C/100 m at the east border, and about 1°C/100 m in the second.
4.3. Medians and maximum magnitudes

With the above two examples (Figures 7 and 8) as background, this section presents the results of a
statistical analysis of the medians and maximum DTu − p magnitudes. The analysis is based on data from
car traverses (32 observations) and fixed sensors (202 observations in Slottsskogen, Vasaparken and
Gubberoparken).
The measurements were analysed with emphasis on the temperature difference between each park and
the streets in the adjacent built-up areas. The results are summarised in Table VI together with
information about the stations compared, the SVF of these stations and the number of observations for
each method. The results shown are maximum magnitudes and the medians for the maximum magnitudes
for all the nights, together with maximum extensions from the park border and the extension occurring
most often (most usual extension).
Table III. Description of stations in and around Slottsskogen chosen to represent different distances from the park
border and a variety of SVFs in the park and the built-up area (see Figure 5 for location)
Station Type of measurement Height Distance from SVF Description

(m a.s.l.) park border
(m)
1 Car traverse and fixed sensor 2 −1175 0.91 Square with a few trees
2 Car traverse 3 −1000 0.60 Broad street with alley
3 Fixed sensor 4 −845 074 Broad street with alley
5 Fixed sensor 8 −630 0.69 Broad street with alley
7 Car traverse and fixed sensor 14 −385 0.47 Narrow street
8 Car traverse and fixed sensor 17 −285 0.43 Narrow street
9 Car traverse and fixed sensor 21 −160 0.77 Street located between park
and urban
10 Car traverse and fixed sensor 28 0 0.74 Park border, trees
11 Fixed sensor 24 340 0.62 Trees close to a large open
area
12 Fixed sensor 60 570 0.64 Forest/variated
13 Car traverse and fixed 20 580 0.89 Large open grass area with a
sensor, permanent station few trees
14 Fixed sensor 18 910 0.73 Road lined with bush/trees and
open
15 Car traverse 18 1000 0.82 Road in the park
16 Car traverse and fixed sensor 24 1065 0.76 Wide street with alley, low
houses with gardens
17 Fixed sensor 24 1150 0.76 Wide street with alley, low
houses with gardens
18 Car traverse 28 1240 0.83 Wide street with alley, low
houses with gardens
19 Fixed sensor 50 1485 0.59 Forest
Figure 6. Map of Slottsskogen and vicinity, contours in meters above sea level and median temperatures of the fixed sensors during
the period of measurement
The two small parks, Gubberoparken and Vasaparken, showed similar magnitudes of DTu − p. In the
smallest park, Gubberoparken, the lowest temperature was found in the centre of the park. However for
Vasaparken no clear relationship was shown between the maximum/median DTu − p and the distance from
the park border. The median temperature variation within Vasaparken was at the most 0.7°C, Figure 4.
The lowest temperature in the park was found at Station 15 (Figure 3), located in the south-east corner
of the park (Figure 4 and Table VI). From this station the ground slopes upward towards Station 11,
where the highest temperature inside the park was recorded. This highest park temperature was
comparable to the temperature in a street at a right angle to the park, 40 m from the park border (Station
5). This was about 1.0°C lower (maximum 1.4°C) than at the reference Station 8, a parallel street canyon
80 m from the park (Figures 3 and 4).
692
Table IV. List of instruments, loggers, sensors, measuring height and measuring interval at each location
Type of Method Type of data Location Parameter Sensor Height above Interval
measurement logger measured ground (m)
H. UPMANIS ET AL.
Mobile Car traverses Campbell Gubberoparken Temperature NTC thermistor, type 2 Sample every 10 m
measurements Scientific Vasaparken UUT51J1
CR10 Slottsskogen
Permanent Fixed sensors Intab Vasaparken Temperature Pt100-element 2.5 Sample every 24 min
stations Tinytalks Slottsskogen
Gubberoparken Temperature Pt100-element 2.5 Sample every 12 min
Synoptic Säve airport Wind direction, Vaisala Cup Anemometer 2 Sample every 1 h
weather wind speed and Wind Vane
station
Temperature Thermistor 2 Every 1 h
Cloud cover Visual observation — Every 1 h
Int. J. Climatol. 18: 681 – 700 (1998)
Figure 7. Two traverses by car through Slottsskogen (156 ha) made at sunset and 3.5 h after sunset during the same night (140294).
The y-axis shows the temperature and the x-axis the distance from Järntorget (Station 1) that the car has travelled. During the night,
the sky was totally clear and calm
Figure 8. Two traverses by car through Vasaparken (3.6 ha) made at sunset and 3.5 h after sunset on the same night (140294). The
y-axis shows the temperature and the x-axis the distance that the car has travelled. During the night, the sky was totally clear and
there was no wind at all
Slottsskogen has a greater influence on its surroundings (Table VI). Data from car traverses showed a
maximum DTu − p of 4.4°C and the fixed sensor data showed maximum differences of up to 5.9°C. Figure
9 shows data from 13 car traverses during the period from February 1994 to February 1995. The traverses
were made between sunset and three hours after sunset. Figure 10 shows the temperature differences
Park (area) Time after sunset (h) Maximum DTu−p DT1−10 Extension from park
border (m)
Slottsskogen (156 ha) 0 5 2.2 175

3.5 4 2.6 775
Vasaparken (3.6 ha) 0 0.8 — 20
3.5 0.9 — 30
694
Table VI. Maximum and median maximum magnitudes and extensions for Gubberoparken, Vasaparken and Slottsskogen. Most usual extensions is the
extension occurring most often
Park Station number SVF Number of Maximum Median Max extension Most usual
(Figures 2, 3 observations DTu−p (°C) DTu−p (max) (°C) from park border extension (m)
H. UPMANIS ET AL.
and 5) (m)
Park Built-up Park Built-up Car Fixed Car Fixed Car traverses Fixed Car Fixed Car Fixed sensors
traverses sensors traverses sensors (°C) sensors traverses sensors traverses
Gubberoparken 5 1 0.42 0.61 8 0.5 — — 0.1 — — — — —

4 7 0.81 0.51 — 42 — 1.7 — 0.9 — — —
— — — — 8 42 — — — — 0 0 0 0
Vasaparken 15 8 0.53 0.39 11 47 0.9 2.6 0.2 1.6 — — — —
— — — — 11 47 — — — — 30 40 0 40
Slottsskogen 18 4 0.83 0.75 13 — 4.4 — — — — — — —
18 1 0.83 0.91 13 — — — 2.8 — — — — —
13 1 0.89 0.91 — 113 — 5.9 — 4.4 — — — —
— — — — 13 113 — — — — 1175 1175 1000 845
Int. J. Climatol. 18: 681 – 700 (1998)
Figure 9. DTX − 10 at each location and the distance from the border of Slottsskogen. Positive distances within the park. The values
are calculated from thirteen car traverses made on clear and calm nights following clear days from February 1994 to February 1995.
Every point is an average over 50 m, i.e. five values (Table III). The solid line shows the median temperature
measured by fixed sensors two to three hours after sunset. Data from 22 clear and calm nights following
a clear day during the period from May to September 1995 formed the basis for the diagrams in Figure
10. The solid line in each diagram shows the median temperature.
4.4. Most frequent and maximum extensions

The extension of the cold park climate into the built-up areas is shown in Tables V and VI. As can be
seen, the measurements for Gubberoparken showed no influence on the surroundings. The climate of
Vasaparken influenced the surrounding built-up area at a distance of 30–40 m from the park border.
Slottsskogen had a more significant influence on its surroundings than the other two green areas. Data
from both the fixed sensors and the car traverses indicated that the maximum extension of its influence
reached as far as Station 1, that is 1175 m from the park border, Table VI. The fixed sensor data show
that the influence reached the maximum extension in half of the cases; in the other half, it extended to
Station 3 (845 m). The car traverse measurements showed a somewhat smaller influence, however,
reaching as far as Station 1 in some cases, but most often (\ 50%) to Station 2 (1000 m).
Figure 10. DTX − 10 at each location and the distance from the border of Slottsskogen. Positive distances within the park. The data
are from clear and calm nights following clear days from May to September 1995 and come from 14 fixed sensors located at different
distances from the park and in areas with different types of vegetation and building structure (Table III). The solid line shows the
median temperature
4.5. The temperature pattern

The previous section showed that a temperature difference does exist between an urban park and its
neighbouring built-up area. Another important result was the internal temperature variation observed
both in parks and in the built-up areas around them. Earlier studies have shown a strong relationship
between surface temperature and SVF (Bärring et al., 1985; Eliasson, 1992; Spronken-Smith, 1994). The
relationship between air temperature and SVF, however, is not as clear (Eliasson, 1992, 1996). Thus an
examination of the influence of SVF was of interest in this study.
The influence of high building density and high tree density (i.e. low SVF) on air temperature was
indicated inside and around the parks Slottsskogen and Gubberoparken. Even though the general trend
in Slottsskogen was a decreasing temperature towards the park border, sites with high SVF showed a
higher temperature than those with a low SVF at the same distance from the park border. One example
is shown in Figure 7 (at A), where one street with SVF= 0.74 showed 1°C lower air temperature
compared to another street with SVF = 0.47. The influence of tree cover on the thermal pattern was
indicated in the observations in Slottsskogen. The results show that the higher the sky obstruction the
higher the temperature. For example, Stations 11 and 13 are located in the middle of the park (Figure 5).
The median temperature of Station 13, located on a large open grassy area, was 1.5°C lower than at
Station 11, located under trees that border the open grassy area (Table III).
The SVF in the centre of Gubberoparken is larger than at the borders, and it is also clear that the
temperature was lowest in the centre. However, this can also be attributed to differences in distance from
the park border. There are no differences in elevation that can result in differences in temperature. The
results also showed higher temperature in the street canyon (SVF= 0.61) west of the park compared to
the park, giving DTu − p up to 0.5°C. The built-up area at the north border was however on most clear and
calm nights up to 0.8°C colder than the park. This negative DTu − p might be a result of the more open
(SVF up to 0.84) and greener blocks north of the park.
Despite this pattern a simple regression analysis of all data for Slottsskogen and Gubberoparken,
respectively, did not show a statistical significant relationship between DTu − p and SVF.
4.6. Cooling rates

The observed differences in temperature were caused by differences in heating during the day and in
differences in the cooling rate during the night. In turn, both the heating and the cooling rates were
influenced by the sky obstruction in the parks and the built-up areas. The nocturnal cooling rate in the
parks and their surroundings were analysed with the help of the fixed sensors. Data from the rural station
at Säve airport were also used in the analysis. Below follows a presentation of the results gained in the
analysis of nocturnal cooling.
In Slottsskogen, six fixed sensors were deployed in a variety of locations representing building and park
areas with different SVFs. Figure 11 shows the median cooling rate, from 22 clear and calm nights
following a clear day during the period May – September 1995 in Slottsskogen, at each hour counted from
sunset. The cooling rates were largest from 2 h before until 2 h after sunset, with its maximum at sunset.
From four hours after sunset, the cooling rate remained stable. Table VII shows the cooling rates for each
location at sunset; the differences between the stations were up to 1.9°C/h. In the built-up area the cooling
rates at sunset were equal at the open square and in the canyon (Table VII). A wide range of cooling rates
were found in the park. In fact both the highest and lowest cooling rates occurred in the park. Three of
the four park stations (station 13, 16 and 19 in Figure 11) showed the highest cooling rates at sunset
(2.0–2.9°C/h, Table VII). The cooling at the fourth park station, No. 12, was only 1.0°C/h at sunset. It
is also interesting to note that the rural station, Säve airport, cooled at a rate at sunset which was 1°C
lower than at the park station that shared the greatest cooling (Figure 11 and Table VII). At sunset the
urban cooling does not seem to be influenced by differences in sky obstruction, according to Table VII.
However, Figure 11, reveals that the cooling pattern in the urban area is complex as the relation between
the two urban stations varies both before and after sunset. The relationship between the cooling rates and
SVF is more obvious for the park stations at sunset and the cooling pattern before and after sunset is also
Figure 11. The hourly cooling rate for 22 clear and calm nights following clear days from May – September 1995. Every value is the
median for each hour, counted from sunset. The data come from six fixed sensors located at different distances from Slottsskogen
in areas with different types of vegetation and building structure (Table III). Säve is a rural station located 9 km outside the city
centre
more similar for the park stations (Table VII and Figure 11). The rural cooling pattern resembles the
cooling at the park stations.
Also in Vasaparken and Gubberoparken the cooling rates were largest around sunset. However, both
the cooling rates and the difference in cooling rates between the stations were much smaller than in
Slottsskogen. On the hour of largest cooling, the cooling rates for Vasaparken varied between 0.8°C/h and
1.2°C/h. For Gubberoparken they varied between 0.9°C/h and 1°C/h. No clear relationship between
cooling rate and SVF could be found in these parks.
5. DISCUSSION
5.1. Magnitude
This study showed that the maximum DTu − p differed for the three parks investigated. The maximum
DTu − p found was 5.9°C for the largest park, Slottsskogen, 2°C for Vasaparken and 1.7°C for the smallest
park Gubberoparken. These values correspond with results reported in earlier studies (Jauregui, 1975; Bründl
et al., 1986; Jauregui, 1990 – 1991; Saito et al., 1990–1991; Ahmad, 1992; Spronken-Smith, 1994). The results
thus confirm that park size is important in determining the magnitude of DTu − p The results also show that
the distance to the park border and the sky obstruction (tree cover in the park and building structure
Table VII. Median cooling rates at sunset for six locations in the profile through
Slottsskogen and for the rural station at Säve airport
Station Park/urban/rural SVF Cooling rate (°C/h)
Station 1 Urban 0.91 1.3

Station 8 Urban 0.43 1.2
Station 12 Park 0.64 1.0
Rural Station Rural 0.9 1.8
in the built-up area) is of great importance in establishing the magnitude of DTu − p. This outcome focuses
the discussion on the choice of measurement site and the relevance of point measurements. In Slottssko-
gen, it could clearly be seen that the magnitude of the temperature difference compared with the park
border (DTX − 10) increased proceeding further into the park. The largest temperature difference in the
smaller Gubberoparken was also in the centre of the park. In Vasaparken, however, variations in
elevation influenced the temperature pattern and the lowest temperatures were found in one of the lowest
corners of the park. The weak relationship between of DTu − p and SVF indicate that the distance from the
park border has a strong influence on the magnitude of DTu − p.
5.2. Extension
The results presented in this study support the idea that the size of the park is related to the
extension of the park climate, i.e. larger parks influence their surroundings at larger distances outside
the park. The cooling influence of Slottsskogen reached to a distance of about 1 km from the park
border. These results correspond with earlier studies (Jauregui, 1975, 1990–1991; Spronken-Smith,
1994) stated that the cooling effect reached about one width of the park. The width of Slottsskogen is
on average about 1250 m, which is just above the largest measurable influence of the park on its
surroundings. The influence of Vasaparken was much smaller. The climate of the park influenced the
surroundings to a maximum extent of about 30–40 m. The results from Vasaparken (3.6 ha) are
comparable to a study in Kumamoto City, Japan. There, a park of 2.25 ha influenced its surroundings
at a distance of 20 m from the park (Saito et al., 1990–1991). However, Gubberoparken, of the same
size as the park in the Japanese study, did not have any influence on its surroundings even though the
magnitude of DTu − p in Gubberoparken and in Vasaparken was similar. The built-up area around
Gubberoparken consists almost entirely of streets with buildings that are parallel to the park border,
which prevents the air in the park from intruding into the built-up area. Compared with the built-up
areas neighbouring Vasaparken, the built-up area next to Gubberoparken has wider streets, lower
houses and also includes green yards. This results in a high SVF that minimises the extension of the
park climate into the built-up area.
5.3. The influence of SVF on temperature and cooling rates

In spite of the fact that no statistical relationship was shown between DTu − p and SVF, the influence
of SVF cannot be totally excluded. In Slottsskogen median temperature differences, owing to differ-
ences in tree cover, reached up to 1.5°C. In the built-up area north of Slottsskogen, differences
between streets with different SVFs are obvious. Likewise, the results around Gubberoparken indicate
that the SVF may have an influence on the temperatures, even though the differences are lower. The
results also showed that the cooling around sunset was influenced by the environment at each station.
When the park area and the urban area are studied separately, it is clear that some relation exits
between SVF and cooling rate. In Slottsskogen, sites with a low SVF value showed comparably low
cooling rates of about − 1.0°C/h to− 2.0°C/h at most (sunset), and sites with higher SVF showed a
high cooling rate of up to − 2.9°C/h.
The cooling rates found in this study were somewhat different than those presented by Oke (1989)
in a study in Vancouver, British Columbia. In the Vancouver study the park cooled at a faster rate
than the urban area during the first hour after sunset, but both cooled at similar rates a few hours
after sunset (about 1°C/h). The rural cooling rates were greater than those observed in the city during
the first half of the night ( − 2 to −3°C/h) and equal or less in the second half. In the present study,
the rural cooling rates were less than at the open part of the park, in spite of the fact that the rural
station is located in a relatively open and flat area. It is also clear that large variations in cooling
rates occurred between different parts of the park. In accordance to Oke’s (1989) results, the park in
the present study cooled at a faster rate than the urban area. Evaporative cooling could, as argued by
Spronken-Smith (1994), explain the difference in cooling between the park and urban area.
Figure 12. The height above sea level versus the temperature at each location compared to Station 1. Data from three car traverses
in Slottsskogen, 24 February 1995 and 25 February 1995. Every point is an average of five samples (50 m)
5.4. Local weather, topography and height abo6e sea le6el

The nights analysed in the study were limited to low wind speeds (B 2 m/s), little cloudiness (B 2 octas)
and to a time two to three hours after sunset. These restrictions were used to eliminate the influence of
weather and time-period in order to find the largest DTu − p. A comprehensive analysis of the influence of
meteorological parameters on the park area – built-up area temperature difference will be presented in a
later paper (Upmanis and Chen, 1998).
The variation in topography in Slottsskogen and Vasaparken might influence the cooling rates, DTu − p
and extension of the cooling effect from the park border by inducing cold air flows. However, the areas
that would produce cold air are small in both parks, trees and bushes cover the slopes from high to low
areas, which argues against the possibility of cold air flow.
The height above sea level varies in Slottsskogen and its built-up surroundings. At first glance, this
suggests that height above sea level is an explanation for the lower temperature in the green area.
However, as can be seen by Figure 12 no statistical relationship was found between temperature difference
and elevation in Slottsskogen. Figure 12 shows the temperature difference between Station 1 and several
locations at the y-axis and the elevation above sea level for each location at the x-axis, for three transects
through Slottsskogen on 24 February 1995 and 25 February 1995.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The major findings and conclusions in the study presented above may be summarised as follows:
(i) The magnitude of the DTu − p and the extension of the park climate into the built-up area increased
with increasing park size.
(ii) The temperature difference is related to the distance from the park border.
(iii) Large differences in cooling rates and temperature exist both within the parks and within the built-up
areas. These differences are to some extent attributed to differences in sky obstruction. Thus, the
location of the measuring sites is very important for any comparison with other studies.
(iv) On an average the nocturnal cooling was greater in the Slottsskogen park compared to the urban
area. Also notable is that the cooling in the open part of the park was larger than at the rural station,
located in an open area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project is supported by the Swedish Council for Building Research. Thanks go to Professor Manuel
Nunez for his advice on the text, to Ms Solveig Svensson for drawing the maps and Mr Hans Alter for
technical support with the measuring equipment. We are also grateful for the comments from an
anonymous referee.
REFERENCES
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Tohwa University International Symposium, CUTEST’92, 7 – 10 September 1992, Fukuoka, Japan. Preprints from Tohwa
Institute for Sciences, Tohwa University 1992, 107–108.
Bründl, W., Mayer, H. and Baumgartner, A. 1986. Untersuchung des einflusses 6on bebanung und bewachs auf das klima und die
lufthygienischen 6erhaltnisse in bayerischen grosstadted, Stadtklima Bayern, Abschlussbericht zum Teilprogramm ‘Klimamessungen
Munchen’, Lehrstuhl fur Bioklimatologie und Angewandte Meteorologie der Universitat Munchen (in German).
de Blij’, H.J. and Muller, P.O. 1993. Physical Geography of the Global En6ironment, Wiley, Canada, 576 pp.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATOLOGY

Int. J. Climatol. 18: 681–700 (1998)

THE INFLUENCE OF GREEN AREAS ON NOCTURNAL

Recei6ed 11 October 1996

CCC 0899–8418/98/060681 – 20$17.50

Washington 40 Humid Subtropical — 3–5 Lewis et al. (1971)

Tucson 32 Hot Dry Desert 171 6.8 Spronken-Smith (1994)

2. THE STUDY AREA

3.1. Mobile measurements

3.2. Permanent stations

3.3. Measurement sites

Park Station Type of measurement Height (m a.s.l.) SVF

Gubberoparken 1 Car traverse 5 0.61

3.4. Data analysis

3.5. Period of measurements

4.1. Magnitude and extension

4.2. Characteristic temperature profiles

4.3. Medians and maximum magnitudes

Station Type of measurement Height Distance from SVF Description

Slottsskogen (156 ha) 0 5 2.2 175

Gubberoparken 5 1 0.42 0.61 8 0.5 — — 0.1 — — — — —

4.4. Most frequent and maximum extensions

4.5. The temperature pattern

4.6. Cooling rates

Station Park/urban/rural SVF Cooling rate (°C/h)

Station 1 Urban 0.91 1.3

5.3. The influence of SVF on temperature and cooling rates

5.4. Local weather, topography and height abo6e sea le6el

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