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I. INTRODUCTION Fish kills, algal bloom (red tide), blue algae and inedible shellfish. Is there a common link among them? Yes, the answer is eutrophication. Eutrophication is simply the process of excessive nutrient enrichment of waters that typically results in problems associated with algal or cyanobacterial growth. The word eutrophic originates from the Greek word eutrophos which means well-fed (Department of Water Affairs- South Africa, 2002). It also entails increased productivity in lakes and other bodies of water that are considered eutrophic. From its definition of lakes being well-nourished, is it safe to assume that eutrophication is good? The answer is NO. Too many nutrients in the wrong places may cause problems and result in changes in structure, function and stability of the marine ecosystems. Technically, eutrophication, as an environmental concern, can cause serious problems in the coastal zone through disturbance of ecological balances and fisheries, and through interference with recreational activities and quality of life (Pilkington, n.d). Eutrophication was first recognized as a pollution problem in European and North American lakes and reservoirs in the mid-20th century (Rodhe, 1969). Since then, it has become more widespread. Results from the survey done by the International Lake Environment Committee (ILEC), in cooperation with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), showed that 54% of lakes in Asia are eutrophic; in Europe, 53%; in North America, 48%; in South America, 41%; and in Africa, 28% (ILEC and UNEP, 1993). Thereupon, this term paper intends to give the reader an understanding on the mechanism of eutrophication, the factors which bring about its existence, the adverse effects and impacts it has to the environment and to the society as a whole, and the possible means of effectively reducing its extent and incidence in the water ecosystems.

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II. MECHANISM Eutrophication, which was earlier defined as the enrichment of water as a result of an increase in nutrients, can be classified into two types: (1) natural and (2) cultural eutrophication. Natural eutrophication generally exists in lakes and estuaries, and it usually takes thousands of years to progress. It occurs naturally when for some reason, production and consumption within the lake do not cancel each other out and the lake slowly becomes overfertilized. The slow build-up of nutrients will gradually facilitate the growth of algae. On the other hand, cultural eutrophication is associated with human activities which accelerate the eutrophication process beyond the rate associated with the natural process (Rast and Thornton, 1996). Eutrophication takes place when large quantities of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates enter an aquatic environment. When this happens, the water ecosystem (e.g. lakes) will experience an excessive increase in the growth of algae and phytoplankton and other aquatic plants, as these organisms thrive in the presence of the added nutrients. An algae bloom occurs as the algae accumulate into dense, visible patches near the surface of the water, thus prohibiting sunlight from penetrating the deeper areas of the water. In the process, the plants and algae will also consume greater amounts of oxygen in the water, thereby, preventing oxygen absorption necessary for underwater life (Oracle Education Foundation, 2005).

Eventually, the algae will die, and when they do, oxygen is required by bacteria in order for them to decompose or break down the dead algae. A cycle then begins in which more bacteria decompose more dead algae, and thus, consuming more oxygen in the process. The bacteria will then release more phosphates back into the water, which will feed more algae. As levels of oxygen in the body of water become lower, species such as fish and mollusks literally suffocate to death (figure 1).

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Figure 1. The eutrophication process Source: http://info.triplepointwater.com

In the long run, the lake or pond begins to fill in and starts to be choked with plant growth. And as the plants die and turn to sediment that sinks, the lake bottom starts to rise. The waters grow shallower and finally the body of water is filled completely and disappears (Science Clarified, n.d.).

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III. CAUSES Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are essential to aquatic life. Indeed, these nutrients are required by aquatic plants and other vegetation in producing their own food. Under normal conditions, the usable forms of nitrogen (nitrate) and P (phosphate) are only available in lakes and rivers at low concentrations. However, this balanced state is disrupted by human activities that artificially enrich water bodies with nitrates and phosphates (Cloern, 2007).

Nutrient pollution (eutrophication) released to freshwater and coastal areas comes from many diverse sources including agriculture, aquaculture, septic tanks, urban wastewater, urban stormwater runoff, industry, and fossil fuel combustion (Figure 2). Nutrients enter aquatic ecosystems via the air, surface water, or groundwater (Selman and Diaz, n.d.).

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the different pathways of nutrient deposition into coastal waters Image Source: http://www.wri.org

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Agricultural Sources Agricultural nutrient sources include fertilizer leaching and runoff from agricultural fields, manure from livestock, and aquaculture operations. Chemical fertilizers

Between 1960 and 1990, global use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer increased more than sevenfold, while phosphorus use more than tripled. Studies have shown that fertilizers are often applied in excess of crop needs. The excess nutrients are lost through volatilization (when nitrogen vaporizes in the atmosphere in the form of ammonia), surface runoff, and leaching to groundwater. On the average, about 20 percent of nitrogen fertilizer is lost through surface runoff or leaching into groundwater according to a report from the World Resources Institute (as cited in the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and nitrogen in manure that is spread on fields is also subject to volatilization. Under some conditions, up to 60 percent of the nitrogen applied to crops can be lost to the atmosphere by volatilization; more commonly, volatilization losses are 40 percent or less. A portion of the volatilized ammonia is redeposited in waterways through atmospheric deposition. Phosphorus, which binds to the soil, is generally lost through soil erosion from agricultural lands (University of Delaware Cooperative Extension 2009).

In the Philippines, the use of chemical fertilizers started to increase exponentially in the early 1960s. From 1961 to 2005, fertilizer applications in the agriculture sector increased by 1000% or 10 times. In spite of the massive augmentation in this production input, the yield of rice and maize increased only by 200% and 280%, doubled and tripled respectively (Figure 3). This indicates a tremendous loss of fertilizers into the environment due to their imbalanced use and poor management (FAO, 2004). These excess nutrients that are not used by the plants runs-off, pollutes the groundwater, rivers, and finally coastal areas.

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Manure The rapidly changing nature of raising livestock over the last century has contributed also to a sharp increase in nutrient levels. Animal production is intensifying, and as a result, more production is occurring further away from feedstock supplies, making it harder to spread the manure. The large quantity of manure produced by these operations is applied to land as fertilizer, stacked in the feedlot, or stored in lagoons. Frequently, an oversupply of manure means that it is applied to crops more than is necessary, further exacerbating nutrient runoff and leaching. In China, meat production rose by 127 percent between 1990 and 2002 (FAO, 2009), but fewer than 10 percent of an estimated 14,000 intensive livestock operations have installed pollution controls.

Figure 3. Evolution of fertilizer use and rice and maize yield in the Philippines from 1961 to 2005 Source: http://www.fao.org

Aquaculture

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Aquaculture (fish farming) is another growing source of nutrient pollution. Annual aquaculture production worldwide increased by 600 percent in twenty years, from 8 million tons in 1985 to 48.2 million tons in 2005. Nearly 43 percent of all aquaculture production is within marine or brackish environments, with the remainder in freshwater lakes, streams, and man-made ponds (FAO, 2007). Marine fish and shrimp farming often occur in net pens or cages situated in enclosed bays. These farms generate concentrated amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus from excrement, uneaten food, and other organic waste. If improperly managed, aquaculture operations can have severe impacts on aquatic ecosystems as nutrient wastes are discharged directly into the surrounding waters. For every ton of fish, aquaculture operations produce between 42 and 66 kilograms of nitrogen waste and between 7.2 and 10.5 kilograms of phosphorus waste (Strain and Hargrave, 2005). Urban and Industrial Sources Municipal wastewater treatment plants and industrial wastewater discharges, nitrogen leaching from below-ground septic tanks, and stormwater runoff are some of the urban and industrial sources of nutrient pollution. Municipal and industrial sources are considered point sources of nutrient pollution because they discharge nutrients directly to surface waters or groundwater via a pipe or other discrete conveyance. They are typically the most controllable sources of nutrients and are often regulated in developed countries (Selman and Diaz). The most prevalent urban source of nutrient pollution is human sewage, though its importance varies by region and country. According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), (as cited in the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) sewage is estimated to contribute 12 percent of riverine nitrogen input in the United States, 25 percent in Western Europe, 33 percent in China, and 68 percent in the Republic of Korea. This variation is due, in large part, to differences in sewage treatment levels among countries (Table 1). In developing countries, fewer than 35 percent of cities have any form of sewage treatment (UNEP and WHRC, 2007), and when sewage is treated, it is typically aimed at removing solids, not nutrients.

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Table 1. Percentage of sewage treated in different regions worldwide Source: http://www.wri.org

Households in developed countries often use septic systems when they are not connected to municipal wastewater treatment plants. Septic systems are designed to purify waste by leaching it through soils. Stormwater runoff is another significant source of nutrients from urban areas. Rainfall events flush nutrients from residential lawns and impervious surfaces into nearby rivers and streams. In some cities, combined sewer overflow (CSO) systems worsen stormwater runoff problems. CSOs are designed to collect rainwater, domestic wastewater, and industrial wastewater in the same pipe. During heavy rain or snowmelt, wastewater volume can exceed the capacity of the CSO system, as well as that of the wastewater treatment plant receiving the flow. As a result, the excess wastewater, including raw sewage, is discharged directly into nearby streams and rivers. In the United States, over 772 cities had CSOs in 2007 (EPA, 2007). For industrial sources of nutrient pollution, certain industries are larger sources than others. Pulp and paper mills, food and meat processing, agro-industries, and direct discharge of sewage from maritime vessels are some of the larger sources of industrial nutrient pollution. Considered also as one of the sources of phosphorus pollution in the water bodies are the increasing use of phosphorus-based detergents. The rapid increase in industrial production and in in-house consumption of these products during the 20th century has resulted in greater volumes of nutrient-rich wastewater (European Environment Agency, 1998). Fossil Fuel Sources

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When fossil fuels are burned, they release nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere. NOx contributes to the formation of smog and acid rain. NOx is redeposited to land and water through rain and snow (wet deposition), or can settle out of the air in a process called dry deposition. Coal-fired power plants and exhaust from cars, buses, and trucks are the primary sources of NOx. In the Baltic Sea, atmospheric deposition, primarily from burning fossil fuels, accounts for 25 percent of nitrogen inputs (HELCOM, 2005). Similarly, in the Chesapeake Bay, atmospheric deposition accounts for 30 percent of all nitrogen inputs. In some areas, such as in the U.S. North Atlantic, atmospheric deposition of nitrogen can exceed riverine nitrogen inputs to coastal areas, according to the WRI (as alluded by Spokes and Jickells, 2005).

IV. EFFECTS

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The main effects caused by eutrophication include the following: increased biomass of algae and phytoplankton, loss of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), depletion of dissolved oxygen, reduction of biodiversity, increase of the sedimentation rate and growth of nuisance and toxic algal blooms (Andersen and Pawlack, 2006). Increased biomass of algae, phytoplankton and macrophytes Under normal conditions, the macrophytes at the bottom of the lakes or seas grow normally. More so, the amount of phytoplankton present in the water is enough such that light can still penetrate down to the bottom. In other words, the fishes and other living organisms can live simultaneously with the algae and phytoplankton. However, if the amount of nutrient increases, mainly short-living macrophytes will grow much faster than the rest. Added to this, larger species (even new ones) will develop that will compete with those originally present. Loss of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) As a result of the overgrowth of algae, the turbidity of water will increase. Turbidity is the measure of the degree to which the water loses its transparency due to the presence of suspended particles. The more total suspended solids in the water, the murkier (cloudier) it seems and the higher is its turbidity. The overabundance of algae will prevent the sunlight from reaching into the bottom and thus, causing the submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) to die (NOAA, 1999). Depletion of dissolved oxygen At a point in time, the algae will die. At this point, oxygen-demanding bacteria take over the ecosystem, decomposing the algae and using up dissolved oxygen in the process. These bacteria increase the biological oxygen demand (BOD) - the amount of oxygen required for the decomposition of organic compounds by microorganisms in a given amount of water - of the ecosystem. It is usually measured in milligrams of oxygen consumed per liter of water. Biological oxygen demand is important because it affects the amount of dissolved oxygen available to all species in an aquatic ecosystem.

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Therefore, as more algae will die, a higher level of BOD is required by the decomposers and thus lowering the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water (Oracle Foundation Education, 2005). Reduction of Biodiversity When dissolved oxygen levels decline to hypoxic levels, fish and other marine animals suffocate. As a result, creatures such as fish, shrimp, and especially immobile bottom dwellers die off. Increase of the Sedimentation Rate

Some dead algae will not be entirely decomposed by bacteria. These will settle to the bottom of the water ecosystem and becomes sediment. And because these sediments are not consumed by the bacteria, it will pile up as time goes by and then, the lake bottom (in effect) starts to rise.

Growth of Nuisance and Toxic Algal Blooms

Nuisance and toxic algal blooms are thought to be caused by a change in the natural mixture of nutrients that occurs when nutrient inputs increase over a long period of time. These toxic algal blooms may release toxins that kill fish and shellfish (NOOA, 1999).

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V. MITIGATION

Eutrophication is a serious problem because it has numerous negative impacts not only to the living organisms in the marine and lake ecosystems, but also to us, humans. Therefore, reducing eutrophication should be a key concern when considering future policy.

The basis of mitigating eutrophication is often the limiting nutrient concept. The rate and extent of aquatic plant growth is dependent on the concentration of nutrients in the water. Hence, in order to minimize eutrophication-related impacts, efforts must be focused in reducing nutrient input (Walsmley, 2000).

The elimination of phosphorous as an essential component of detergents could remove about 50% of the total phosphorous entering some lakes. Three treatments could be applied to phosphorous sewage: the tertiary treatment may involve chemical, physical or biological removal. Phosphates may be precipitated using coagulants of lime of compounds of aluminum or iron. The precipitate is then separated in a sedimentation unit and combined with the other sludge generated in the treatment of the sewage. Biological removal uses the ability of some microorganism to take up phosphorous in excess of their immediate nutritional requirements and store it within the cells in the form of polyphosphates. Phosphorous may also be removed by passing water into treatment ponds, where much of it is absorbed on to particulate matter which settle down in the pond.

In eutrophic lakes there is lack of oxygen. This condition results in the release of phosphate which becomes available to algae for photosynthesis and production of

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more organic matter. This cycle can be broken by aeration: the injection of air at the bottom of lakes. An alternative, generally more expensive technique is to remove the sediment entirely, thus both taking away the internal source of phosphorous and deepening the lake (Fabrizi, n.d.).

Meanwhile, the reduction of the amount of fertilizers (which contain N and P) entering into the water bodies could be done by educating the prime users of this nutrient, the farmers. Information dissemination as to the right amount of fertilizer application must be in place so that there will be no more excess nutrients going into the environment.

Another way of alleviating this problem is through the effective disposal of organic matter and removal of algal blooms by dredging. Cleanup measures have been mostly, but not completely, successful. As a matter of fact, the Finnish phosphorus removal measures, which started in the 1970s and which have targeted lakes and rivers polluted by industries, have 90% removal efficiency (Siviglia, et al, 2009).

One of the successful means of prevention is the creation of riparian buffer zones. These zones are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land, and have been created near waterways in attempt to filter pollutants. As a result, sediment and nutrients will be deposited here instead of in water (Cloern, 2007).

Perhaps one of the most effective mitigation measures is through organizing commissions or international bodies that would look into this problem.

Helsinki Commission

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One of the most notable of these is the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission, commonly known as the Helsinki Commission or HELCOM. This governing body works to protect the marine environment of the Baltic Sea from all sources of pollution through intergovernmental cooperation between Denmark, Estonia, the European Union, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Sweden (HELCOM, nd.).

The Helsinki Commission meets annually during which it unanimously adopts recommendations for the protection of the marine environment, which the governments of the Member States must act on in their respective national programmes and legislation. To achieve their goal, HELCOM is guided by the following priorities:
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environmental monitoring and assessment combating eutrophication caused by excessive nutrient loads from municipal wastewater and agricultural run-off

preventing pollution by hazardous substances protecting and conserving marine and coastal biodiversity.

Since the beginning of the 1980s the Helsinki Commission has been working to improve the Baltic marine environment, largely through some 200 HELCOM recommendations. Successes during this period include:

Lower discharges of organic pollutants and nutrients from point-sources. A 20-25% overall reduction in the emissions of oxygen-consuming

substances (BOD) from the 132 originally identified hot spots since the early 1990s, with about 50 hot spots deleted from the list.

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Fewer beaches closed for bathing, due to improvements in the treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater.

Significant reductions in atmospheric nitrogen deposition. Stricter controls on industry (permits are now compulsory for industrial emissions).

The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone On 30 November 1999, the Executive Body of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (otherwise known as Geneva Convention 1979) adopted the Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone in Gothenburg, Sweden. This Protocol sets emission ceilings for 2010 for four pollutants: sulphur, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and ammonia. These ceilings were negotiated on the basis of assessment of pollution effects and reduction options. Parties whose emissions have a more severe environmental or health impact and whose emissions are relatively cheap to reduce will have to make the biggest cuts. The Protocol also sets tight limit values for specific emission sources (e.g. combustion plant, electricity production, dry cleaning and cars) and requires best available techniques to be used to keep emissions down. VOC emissions from such products as paints or aerosols will also have to be cut. Finally, farmers will have to take specific measures to control ammonia emissions. It has been estimated that once the Protocol is implemented, the area in Europe with excessive levels of eutrophication will fall from 165 million hectares in 1990 to 108 million hectares (UN Economic Commission for Europe, n.d.).

National Eutrophication Monitoring Programme

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In March 2002, a Water Research Commission Project in South Africa formulated the National Eutrophication Monitoring Programme (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 2002). The objectives of the NEMP are to measure, assess and report regularly on: (1) the current trophic status of South Africas water resources, (2) the nature of current eutrophication problems, and (3) the potential for future changes in trophic status in South African rivers in a manner that will support strategic decisions in respect of their national management.

Locally, the Philippine government had also made steps in addressing this problem through the creation of relevant laws, to wit: the Clean Water Act of 2004, the Sewage Disposal IRR of (1995) of Sanitation Code and the National Policy on Urban Sewerage and Sanitation of 1994. These regulations serve to provide standards and guidelines on establishing wastewater systems and drainage of buildings and on proper waste disposal.

VI. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Based on the foregoing discussion, certain perceptions on the problem of eutrophication were observed. These include the following.

1. The main culprits in aggravating the supposedly natural phenomenon of eutrophication, as in any other environmental problems, are humans. However, since this is majorly human-caused, we can say, therefore that eutrophication is

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reversible. We can lessen the incidence of this problem, provided that we take preventive and corrective measures like conducting information drive to the farmers on the adequate amount of fertilizer application. 2. One of the major sources of the nutrients entering into the water bodies is the sewage being discharged by factories and households. Therefore, collaboration must exist among the government sector, private sector and the communities in achieving a better wastewater treatment. Notwithstanding, the government must play the lead facilitation role through the strengthening of existing laws pertaining to the disposal of sewage. 3. Solving eutrophication required long term approaches. Thus, extensive research and monitoring activities should be in order before any policy and decision is made. Researches may include identifying other substitute for phosphate as an ingredient of detergents/soaps.

VII.

LIST OF REFERENCES

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http://www.dwa.gov.za/iwqs/eutrophication/NEMP/default.aspx Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2007). Combined Sewer Overflows. Retrieved from: http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about/sources European Environment Agency. (1998). Europes environment: the second assessment. Elsevier Science Ltd. Oxford. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/pdf/eutrophication.pdf Fabrizi, L. (n.d.). Eutrophication of water bodies. Retrieved from: http://www.lenntech.com/eutrophication-water-bodies/introduction.htm Food and Agriculture Organization. (2004). Gateway to land and water informationCountry Reports: The Philippines. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/ag/AGL/swlwpnr/reports/y_ta/z_ph/ph.htm Food and Agriculture Organization. (2007). Aquaculture production. 1950-2005 FISHSTAT Plus- Universal Software for fishery statistical time series. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/fi/statist/FISOFT/FISHPLUS.asp Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2009). FAOSTAT online statistical service. Consumption data for livestock and fish primary equivalents. Retrieved from: http://faostat.fao.org/ Helsinki Commission (HELCOM). (n.d.). About HELCOM. Retrieved from: http://www.helcom.fi/helcom/en_GB/aboutus/ HELCOM. (2005). Airborne nitrogen loads to the Baltic Sea. Helsinki: Helsinki Commission, Baltic Marine Environment Commission, HELCOM Environmental Focal Point Information. Retrieved from: http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about/sources ILEC/Lake Biwa Research Institute [Eds]. (1993) 1988-1993 Survey of the State of the World's Lakes. Volumes I-IV. International Lake Environment Committee, Otsu and United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophication

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). (2005). Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing: Policy Responses. Washington, DC: Island Press. Retrieved from:

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http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about/sources National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (1999). National estuarine eutrophication assessment. Retrieved from: http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/websites/retiredsites/supp_sotc_retired.html Oracle Education Foundation- Think Quest. (2005). Eutrophication. Retrieved from: http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/01590/pollution/eutrophication.html

Pilkington, C. (n.d.). Eutrophication in coastal environments. Retrieved from: http://www.coastalwiki.org/coastalwiki/Eutrophication_in_coastal_environments

Rast, W., Thorton, J.A. (1996). Trends in eutrophication research and control. Hydrological Processes. Retrieved from: http://www.dwa.gov.za/iwqs/eutrophication/NEMP/default.aspx

Rodhe, W. (1969) Crystallization of eutrophication concepts in North Europe. In: Eutrophication, Causes, Consequences, Correctives. Retrieved from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophication

Science Clarified. (n.d.). Eutrophication. Retrieved from: (http://www.scienceclarified.com/El-Ex/Eutrophication.html)

Selman, M., Diaz, R. (n.d.) Eutrophication and hypoxia. World Resources Institute. Retrieved from: http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about/sources Siviglia, A., Stocchino, A., Colombini, M. (2009). Aerating circulation, ASCE. Spokes, L. J., Jickells, T.D. (2005). Is the atmosphere really an important source of reactive nitrogen to coastal waters? Retrieved from: http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about/sources Strain, P. M., Hargrave, B.T. (2005). Salmon aquaculture, nutrient fluxes, and ecosystem processes in southwestern New Brunswick. The Handbook of

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Environmental Chemistry.Volume 5: Water Pollution. Retrieved from: http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about/sources United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Woods Hole Research Center (WHRC). (2007). Reactive Nitrogen in the Environment: Too much or too little of a good thing. Retrieved from: http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about/sources University of Delaware Cooperative Extension. (2009). Urea and nitrogen volatilization. Retrieved from: http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about/sources UN Economic Commission for Europe. The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone. Retrieved from: http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/multi_h1.html Walmsley, R.D. (2000). A Review and discussion document. Perspectives on eutrophication of surface waters. Water Research Commission. Retrieved from: http://www.dwa.gov.za/iwqs/eutrophication/NEMP/default.aspx