Pedagogy for Physiotherapy

Rajiv Gandhi University of RGUHS Academic &

Health Sciences, Karnataka Administrative Institute (RAATI)

Course Name Foundation Course in Educational Methodology – for PG Scholars

Course Code FCEM – PG
Course Level RGU.RAA.L1a
Course Duration 30 Hours
Course Credits 2
Mode of Delivery Blended Mode
Prerequisite Nil
After completing the course, the participants will be able to –
1. Recognise the adult learners as self-directed and having unique
experience.
Course Level Goals 2. Organise a teaching session on the basis of principles of educational
methodology.
3. Practice micro-teaching to improve the effectiveness of their
teaching encounters.
Portfolio-based Blended Assessment.
• Activity completion – open ended, close ended.
Assessment
• Checklist for observation of micro-teaching.
• Term-end theory-based assessment
1. Competency-based education in Physiotherapy.
2. Basics of adult learning theories, including learning styles and
motivation.
3. Identification of ILOs including, Tyler’s principles for curriculum
design, Bloom’s Taxonomy, Miller’s Pyramid, Clinical Competence,
Syllabus and Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition.
4. Instructional design and individual assessment such as MCQ writing,
skill assessment, oral presentation, Rubrics, and standardization.
5. Instructional techniques: knowledge transfer, skill development,
attitude, teaching with technology, and Academic planning and
organization
1. Fundamentals of competency-based education. – 1 & 2 of Syllabus.
Modules
2. Curriculum management. – 3, 4 & 5 of Syllabus.
 1
Competency-based education in Physiotherapy.
1.1 Define competency with reference to health professional performance.
Competency is the attribute that a professional acquired through focused learning, and it indicates that
the person has the ability to carry out the specified professional expectations.
Competency is defined as the capability to apply or use a set of related knowledge, skills, and values
that are essential to successfully perform the "core professional tasks" in a defined professional
context.
1.2 Differentiate between ‘competence’, ‘competency’, and ‘entrustment’.
Competence refers to an individual's capacity to perform job responsibilities, whereas Competency
focuses on an individual's actual performance in a particular situation. The main difference between
Competence and Competency is that the former is based on the skill while the latter refers to the
behaviour of an individual.
Now-a-days, there is a lot of rhetoric about competency-based education. This essentially means that
we are training our students to develop the mastery to be independently performing their professional
tasks. To ensure that such is confidence is well placed; the academic scholars have devised another
concept – the Entrustable Professional Activities or EPAs, which means we can trust the person who
qualifies can be trusted to perform the professional expectations without being supervised.
1.3 Classify the areas of competency in physiotherapy practice.
The core competences for physiotherapy professional can be classified under six domains or areas –
1 Patient assessment and clinical reasoning Competence,
2 Therapeutic Competence,
3 Teaching and counselling competence,
4 Technological competence,
5 Ethical competence,
6 Social competence.

1.4 Outline learning models for competency and entrustment of physiotherapy professionals.
Developing a standard model for physiotherapy academics is the first step in the direction of
embedding competency and entrustment of professional tasks. The competency-based education
model drastically differs from the traditional teaching model.
In the traditional model, teacher is the focus of activities, whereas in the competency-based model,
learner is the focus of all educational activities. Therefore, the planning, implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of competency-based education have a standard and uniform model.
To begin with, the purpose of the course stating what the learners will be able to perform as
professionals or a big picture of the roles and responsibilities is identified. Basing on this image, the
relevant competencies are described. These competencies are then spread over the different elements
of knowledge, skills, values, communication, etc, and are stated as specific learning objectives. For
each of these objectives, or group of homogenous objectives, the expected level of performance is
indicated, and the tools for assessment are implied.
After this, the appropriate instructional strategies are identified and, the level of learning the students
already have is checked. The existing position of knowledge, skills or attitude is used as the
foundation and launch pad to implement the teaching – learning program.
As the learning is going on, their quality of learning and performance are continuously verified to give
feedback for maintaining the condition of learning. Another unique feature of competency-based
academics is that each student is tracked for individual progress, and personal feedback is given to
enable each student to achieve the stated competencies.
 2
Basics of adult learning theories, including learning styles and motivation.
2.1 Discuss the principles of adult learning according to Knowles.
Malcolm Knowles was among the first proponents to approach adult learners as a distinct group. His
contentions were based on four assumptions. As the adults mature, they tend to prefer self-direction,
rather than being always led by others; as a result of the experiences that they have gathered over a
period of time, adults have a rich foundation, and background to build their learning; adults prioritise
their learning for the needs of authentic requirements of their personal and professional needs; and
that adults strive to achieve competency for whatever they intend to learn.
Constructivist psychology of learning provides a clear picture of the approach and process of adult
learning. The core idea of constructivist psychology is that the stimulus and response equation in the
human interaction is not always predictable, and that adults tend to bank on their personal beliefs and
experiences when they respond to any learning event. Thus, adults are autonomous and self-directed
learners, who wish to hold the balance of power for their learning.
2.2 Relate adult learning features with lifelong learning.
Lifelong learning is a dynamic process that is influenced by the emerging challenges of professional
achievement or personal satisfaction. These challenges call for developing the skills and attitudes,
apart from the understanding and critical thinking that prepare us to face such challenges.
In this context, I would like to draw your attention to a concept called 70:20:10 ratios in the field of
learning and development. This concept propounds that 10% of our learning happens because of
formal learning in a course, for example, by the end any course, if you only listened passively to the
lectures, you would have learned only 10% of the required professional competences.
If on the other hand, you also discussed informally with the teacher, with your peer group, another
20% of learning would be added. The remaining 70% learning would happen with your personal
efforts, when you reflect, practice, improvise, personalise, and evolve your own style and flair as a
person or a professional. This is the sheet anchor for lifelong learning, and is based on the concept of
self-directed learning that is a hallmark of adult learning feature. Such an attribute will empower
people to manage their own learning in a variety of contexts throughout their lifetimes
2.3 Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Motivation is the invisible and intangible force that drives people and urges them to act. It makes
people to get into an action mode, invests eagerness, and sustains them to accomplish their
aspirations. Motivation can be categorised as intrinsic, or extrinsic.
Intrinsic motivation is the one which influences us to accomplish certain things for the satisfaction
that we feel at the end of it. It is seen that intrinsic motivation is seen when we seek out to overcome a
challenge, so that we prove that ‘I can do it’; where there is a curiosity about something and we want
to assuage it; when we find a satisfaction in controlling things around us; and , when any learning is
essential for our success.
Extrinsic motivation on the other hand, is driven by the tangible attraction of rewards or punishments.
It could be to win someone’s appreciation, avoid a punishment, escape from a social embarrassment,
etc. Once the external influence wanes off, the motivation also might disappear.
2.4 Discuss the role of motivation for learning on the basis of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Abraham Maslow introduced the concept of a hierarchy of needs which suggests that people are
motivated to fulfil basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs. He wanted to explore
what makes people happy and the things that they do to achieve that happiness. He believed that
ultimately everyone wants to reach a stage where they are at peace with themselves and accept their
surroundings, and others for who they are. Maslow called this state as ‘self-actualisation’ stage.
To achieve this ultimate goal, we need to pass through many stages, and Maslow organised these in
the form of a pyramid of needs that lead from bottom up. This hierarchy or level of travel starts with
meeting the physiological needs such as food, water, etc, which are vital for survival. Once a person
has stabilised with survival, he or she seeks out security and safety, such as health, financial stability,
social protection, etc.
In the third layer of this pyramid, we pursue the social needs such as love, acceptance, belonging,
which satisfy our need for emotional bonding in the form of family, friendship, social networks, etc.
At the fourth layer of Maslow’s hierarchy, we crave for appreciation, recognition, and respect to
satisfy our sense of esteem, and this modifies our behaviour. At the summit of the pyramid, there are
the self-actualization needs. Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth,
less concerned with the opinions of others, and interested in fulfilling their potential.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs therefore, is directly related to learning through motivation, moving from
the most basic survival needs to the highest of being at peace with self and others.
In order for us to succeed in our academic pursuits, we must be motivated to learn. Maslow's
hierarchy provides a model for how we are motivated to learn. Without the bottom layer of the
hierarchy met, we cannot reach the next level. Each level, once met, allows us the ability and
motivation to learn.
2.5 Recall features of VARK Style of Learning.
Fleming and Mills proposed that learners can be categorised broadly under four groups on the basis of
their primary preference for learning. They called these preferences of learning as Visual, Auditory,
Reading / Writing, and Kinaesthetic. According to this model, the Visual learning preference includes
pictures, movies, diagrams, Auditory learning preference includes music, discussion, lectures, Read /
Write Learning Preference includes making lists, reading textbooks, taking notes, and the Kinaesthetic
Learning Preference includes movement, experiments, hands-on activities.
2.6 Justify the need for Universal Design of Learning for improving learning experiences.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is the facility of teaching – learning that gives an equitable
opportunity for all the students to learn, irrespective of any limitations. Universal Design for Learning
incorporates a variety of teaching methods and learning approaches so that there is the flexibility and
resilience in the system to respond to the uniqueness of each learner. Such a broad based design
removes any barriers to learning and gives all the students, equitable opportunities to succeed.
UDL believes that barriers to success exist in the system, not in the students; learner
variability is the norm, so that a one-size-fits-all approach doesn’t work; and continual
self-reflection leads to lifelong, expert learners
The UDL framework is based on three major principles – engagement, representation, and action &
expression. The principle of Engagement expects the teachers to look for multiple ways to motivate
and encourage their students by way of giving assignments that relate to the students’ unique
situations, so that students’ interest is sustained.
The principle of Representation recommends providing information in multiple formats such as text,
audio, video, hands-on learning, so that all the strengths of VARK style of learning are represented.
The principle of Action and Expression suggests facilitating more than one way of interacting with the
learning resources, so that the students have the option to choose either a written assignment as test,
making an oral presentation, making an animated slide, doing a group project, etc.
 3
Formulating ILOs including Tyler’s principles, Bloom’s Taxonomy,
Miller’s Pyramid, Clinical Competence, and Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition.
3.1 State Tyler’s Principles of Curriculum Development.
Curriculum development is the foundation for all the academic activities. A properly structured
curriculum with clarity of purpose and clearly defined roadmap ensures better implementation. The
most universally accepted definition of curriculum is by Ralph Taylor.
Tyler defines curriculum as all the learning experiences, planned and directed by the school, to attain
its educational goals. Curriculum is a deliberate, systematic, and planned document. His postulates
for curriculum, which are famous as Tyler Rationale, assert that curriculum stands for –
− What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
− What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
− How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
− How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
This definition can be converted as the map for curriculum to include –
1. Defining appropriate learning objectives
2. Establishing useful learning experiences
3. Organising learning experiences to have a maximum cumulative effect
4. Evaluating the curriculum and revising the aspects that did not prove to be effective
3.2 List the three elements of Curriculum Spiral.
Curriculum is the framework for implementing the course, which gives clarity and uniformity in all
matters relating to course delivery. To ensure that curriculum is objective and transparent, it is
classified as three components – stating the learning objectives; indicating the teaching–learning
methods/media to realise the objectives; and choosing the assessment practices to check the extent
and depth of attainment of the stated objectives. These three components of curriculum are arranged
in a spiral manner, so as to create an incremental progress in learning.
Central to the curriculum is the statements of objectives, which is in three domains – knowledge,
skills, and attitudes / communication as per Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Objectives. These are
further expanded at three varying levels of complexity and intensity, as per Guilbert’s Levels.
The purpose of stating objectives in each domain is to identify the most appropriate vehicle to realise
it, that is, the teaching – learning method(s) / media, and the most authentic way of assessing their
attainment. The curriculum spiral therefore, acts as a professional compass to guide the teachers and
learners for their academic pursuits.
3.3 Illustrate Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model.
All the teaching activity follows a pattern that is system based. As in a system, there is input,
processing and output. The preparation that a teacher does to organise and deliver in a class is the
input. The events that happen in the classroom or clinic or any teaching – learning context is the
process and the performance that the students are able to do represents the output.
The entire process of teaching as a system can be represented in the form of a graph to illustrate a
basic teaching model. As can be seen here, the purpose of teaching is initially listed as learning
objectives. Once the purpose is established, we need to assess what is the extent to which the learners
are already aware of the basics of the subject, so as to facilitate their learning at advanced level. This
is also called as ‘entry behaviour’. This means the knowledge or skill capacity of the learners at the
entry point of this class.
Once the basics are in place, the next step is the implementing of teaching. This can be classified into
teaching methods and teaching media. To make it simple, teaching method is what the teacher ‘does’,
like giving a lecture, conducting a demonstration, etc. Teaching medium is what the teacher ‘uses’
i.e., a blackboard, specimen, etc.
The outcome of this entire procedure is seen in assessment, which is the extent to which the teaching
has been successful. Assessment also gives feedback as to whether the selection of ‘objectives’ was
relevant, whether the assessment of ‘entry behaviour’ was appropriate and whether the ‘teaching–
learning methods/media’ were suitable for the objectives and the context.
3.4 Classify learning according to Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Bloom and associates categorised learning under three distinct, but fairly overlapping areas, which
they termed as ‘Domains’. They classified learning into – knowledge area, which they called
Cognitive Domain; skill area, which they called Psychomotor Domain; and a behavioural area that
encompasses values, attitudes, communication, among others, which they called Affective Domain.
What they envisaged was that the categorisation of learning into these distinct zones would help in
identifying the facilitation of learning, and assessment on an objective manner. Such categorisation
also embraced some other features such as the differentiating of broadly stated purpose of learning as
‘aim’, and the specifically stated activities as ‘objectives’. To be more precise, the objectives are
generally expressed as Specific Learning Objectives or Intended Learning Objectives.
3.5 Stratify levels of learning according to Guilbert.
Guilbert’s Hierarchy is a tool that describes the various levels of learning that can be mapped and
managed in the three domains of learning – cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. There are also
other tools of education that demonstrate the progression of learning, such as Bloom’s Taxonomy, and
Miller’s Pyramid. All these tools have their strengths for discerning the different levels.
The purpose of adapting Guilbert’s over others is because of its simplicity. Without being negatively
biased about the detailed scope that the levels of Bloom / Harrow / Krathwohl provide for cognitive,
psychomotor, and affective domain respectively, they seem to be a tad heavy for the healthcare
professionals to comply for writing objectives in each of their levels. Miller’s on the whole provides a
progressively aligned approach and is very useful as an application tool for developing the assessment
strategies.
The strength of Guilbert lies in its simplicity, along with its relevance for health professions’
education. In the ‘knowledge’ domain Guilbert’s approach to learning proceeds from recall of facts to
understanding / interpreting the different sets of data, and finally to the ability to make decisions and
solve problems on the basis of the understanding / interpretation. This simple three-step process builds
a sequential order of learning; it clearly brings out that decisions shall be made NOT on the basis of
facts alone, but through a process of understanding and interpretation.
The ‘skill’ domain builds the learning from the stage of observing and imitation to gaining control
over the skills and culminating in automatism of the skill. In simple terms, any skill will be learnt
initially by observing its performance, and imitating the same in the sequential order. In the next
phase, the learner tries to gain control over the skill: meaning of control has to be read in the context
of planning. The repeated performances to gain control will result in that skill becoming an automatic
activity.
Learning in the affective domain proceeds from the stage where the learner is open and receptive to
the stimulus or a trigger situation, responding to it in a desirable manner, and finally internalising the
responses.
The initial trigger is a learning event such as being gentle with the patient during history taking. To be
gentle, the student has to be open to the fact that his / her gentle behaviour is an expected professional
behaviour. There has to be an admission that patients would be anxious and therefore need the
healthcare professional to be sensitive to their situation. Being aware of this issue is the state of
‘receiving’. Once the message is received, there has to be a relevant and appropriate response, which
is defined by the professional roles and responsibilities. As the receiving and responding cycle
circulates, it results in the internalisation of learning, which is manifest by the spontaneous and
professionally authentic response.
Thus Guilbert’s hierarchy ensures that the learning documents either in the form of curriculum, or in
the form of lesson plans are prepared with an incremental level of difficulty and complexity, and both
the learners and the facilitators of learning are objectively aware of these facilities.
3.6 Prioritise learning as ‘Must Know’, ‘Desirable to Know’, and ‘Nice to Know’.
Educational objectives determine learning contents. Because educational objectives determine what
has to be learnt, it becomes necessary to know how much has to be taught / learnt, and is classified as
– ‘must know’, ‘desirable-to-know’, and ‘nice-to-know’.
This classification is equally applicable to each of the three domains of learning. The ‘must know’
segment consists of educational objectives that represent the core competences of the discipline. The
learner of that particular discipline must acquire the knowledge, skill and attitude listed in this
category, if he / she has to be certified as competent / successful. These comprise of 70% of the total
statements of educational objectives in the discipline.
The other category is ‘desirable-to-know’, which constitutes 20% of educational objectives. This
includes statements, which are not core competences, but something beyond it. These objectives
complement the core competences and may become core objectives in higher levels of learning. The
category of ‘nice-to-know’, which is 10% of the learning content, consists of objectives that may be
beyond the basic or value added requirements of professional requirement.
3.7 List the functions of educational objectives.
Educational objectives serve multiples purposes. They give direction for teachers as to why, how, and
what of the teaching. These also give an understanding to learners as to why and what should be
learnt. Objectives also clarify for the learners as to what they can expect in the exams. These also
provide reasons to the teachers and learners, why that particular course content has to be taught /
learnt, what is the importance of the topics listed for the course and how these topics fit into the larger
context of the course.
Objectives make the process of teaching easy because the complex concepts can be made into easily
understandable chunks of information. These chunks of information not only spread the content into
simple statements, but also into easy steps so that teaching and learning are made easy.
Objectives therefore provide –
• framework for planning education. The learners can be clear about the extent and depth of
their expected learning. They also can make a self-evaluation of their achievement by
comparing their performance to the stated objectives.
• framework and foundation for the teacher to assess the learners, design appropriate
assessment strategies, analyse the outcomes of assessment, etc.
• the basis for evaluating the quality and effectiveness of the program.
• information on selection on appropriate teaching – learning methods and media
• uniform clarity among teachers so that there is no communication gap while teaching and
assessment learners. It also means that there is less of subjectivity while assessing learners.
3.8 Recall the features of a Specific Learning Objective.
Specific learning objectives are variously described as Intended Learning Objectives, Educational
Objectives, Learning Objectives, etc. They serve multiple purposes to make academic practices
objectives, clear, transparent and authentic. To achieve such an aspirational goal, the objectives ought
to have some inherent features. Six such features are identified to add credibility to the objectives –
relevance, validity, clarity, feasibility, observability, and measurability.
 3.9 State components of a Specific Learning Objective.
Specific Learning Objective is the unit of teaching – learning. These are derived from the ‘aim’ for
the topic / lesson. These have to conform to the departmental goals, and ultimately the overall course
goals. The objectives are written exclusive for the three domains of Bloom’s Taxonomy, and further
on, as per the three different levels in the Guilbert’s hierarchy for each of Bloom’s domain.
An ideal SLO consists of four components – act, content, condition and criterion. However, ‘act’ and
‘content’ are the core of SLO and must be present. A beginner might try writing the ‘act’, and
‘content’ components and later improve the skills for stating the ‘condition’ and ‘criterion’.
− Act states what the learner will be able ‘to do’ at the end of a learning session. This could
be stated in any of the three domains. Depending on the domain, the appropriate verb has
to be identified to state the act.
− Content is the performance that learner is expected to demonstrate.
− Condition is the context or situation under which the performance is done. It includes the
enabling and restraining factors. It also denotes the range of flexibility.
Act, Content and Condition together constitute the Task.
− Criterion is the quality of performance, or the precision of performance.
3.10 Relate Miller’s Pyramid as a tool for aligning educational domains to converge learning.
Miller has suggested a scheme for assessment which is designed as a pyramid, with a progressive
increasing of learning, and complexity of tasks from bottom-up. The three domains of Bloom pyramid
converge as they reach the summit of this pyramid.
At the base is the knowledge component referred to as ‘knows’, which corresponds to the lower
cognitive level in Guilbert’s hierarchy. The next level is ‘knows how’, which corresponds to the
intermediate cognitive level in Guilbert’s hierarchy, and positions the learner at the ‘understanding or
interpretation’ level. It might also include the basic levels of Guilbert for psychomotor, that is to
‘observe-and-imitate’, and the ‘receive-level’ in affective domain.
The third level of pyramid is ‘shows how’, which aligns the elements of cognitive and psychomotor
domains, and the learner is expected to develop understanding of performance, control over
psychomotor skills, and respond-level-of-learning in the affective domain. The summit of the pyramid
represents the culmination of the highest level of learning in all three domains in the form of ‘does’.
All the three levels of Guilbert in Cognitive domain can be tested on a written medium of assessment.
The intermediate, and higher cognitive levels of Guilbert can also be tested on the oral medium. The
psychomotor domain can be assessed through the medium of learner performance and demonstration.
Affective domain can be tested on oral and performance medium, with the examiners observing on-
site.
3.11 Illustrate Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition.
Dreyfus model of skill acquisition describes how skills are acquired by way of formal instruction and
practicing. This model was proposed by Stuart and Hubert Dreyfus in a report for the United States
Air Force. The model proposes that a leaner passes through five distinct stages: novice, competence,
proficiency, expertise, and mastery.
In the novice stage, a person follows rules as given, without context, with no sense of responsibility
beyond following the rules exactly. Competence develops when the individual develops organizing
principles to quickly access the particular rules that are relevant to the specific task at hand; hence,
competence is characterised by active decision making in choosing a course of action. Proficiency is
shown by individuals who develop intuition to guide their decisions and devise their own rules to
formulate plans. The progression in this model travels from rigid adherence to rules to an intuitive
mode of reasoning based on tacit knowledge.
In the ‘novice’ phase, the learner follows the rules that are set and the plans that are laid. Novices
have little or no previous experience and are often very concerned about their ability to succeed.
The ‘advanced beginner’ demonstrates a limited ‘situational perception’. They may start to formulate
overall principles, but lack a holistic understanding. They try tasks on their own, but still have
difficultly troubleshooting.
The ‘competent practitioners’ can develop conceptual models of a problem domain and work with
those models effectively. They start to demonstrate ‘coping with crowdedness’ where multiple
activities are converged amid an accumulation of information. They can troubleshoot problems on
their own, begin to solve novel problems, and seek out and apply expert advice effectively.
The ‘proficient’ take a holistic view of situation. They reflect on past performance and revise their
approach to perform better next time – a major leap from the previous skill level that makes proficient
practitioners more similar to expert than to competent. They learn from the experience of others, and
understand and apply the fundamental truths to the situation at hand. They also perceive deviations
from the normal pattern.
The ‘expert’ is a primary source of knowledge and information. They continually look for better
methods and ways of doing things. They can distinguish irrelevant from very important details. They
have intuitive grasp of situations based on deep, tacit understanding. They use analytical approaches
in new situations or in case of problems.
For exercise
3.1 Frame objectives at Course, Subject, Module, and Topic Levels.
3.2 Compose Specific Learning Objectives in Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Affective Domains.
3.14 Delineate the progression of clinical competence using Guilbert’s Stratification, Miller’s
Pyramid, and Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition as the tools.
 4
Instructional design and individual assessment such as MCQ writing,
skill assessment, oral presentation, Rubrics, and standardization.
2.1 Define assessment.
2.2 State the purpose of assessment.
Assessment is a critical component of any learning program. It is said that assessment influences the
quality and relevance of learning to such an extent that it is also said to have something called as
‘washback effect’.
Guilbert has defined assessment as a continuous process, which is based upon criteria, which are co-
operatively developed, and is concerned with measurement of the performance of learners, the
effectiveness of teachers and quality of the program.
Assessment serves multiple functions in a learning system. Assessment can decide who gets into the
course, as in the entrance tests. Before starting to teach, we conduct an assessment called the pre-test
or entry behaviour assessment to check what is the level of preparedness of the learners.
As teaching – learning is being implemented; there is a need to check the learning progress
continuously or periodically, so as to give feedback for performance improvement, which can
motivate the students to learn. Assessment can also identify the problem areas of learning, and
possible solutions can be found at the right time.
The most visible examples of assessment are the various university examinations that declare pass or
fail, and indicate ranks and awards. Assessment can also be an indicator for the eligibility of
candidates for higher level courses. Interestingly, assessment can also ensure protection to society in
the form of ensuring quality check of those who pass to indicate their fitness for purpose. The
outcomes of assessment can be used for conducting program evaluation.
2.3 Discuss the types of assessment.
Assessments can be broadly classified as formative, and summative. Formative assessments are those
that are continuous. The content for these assessments would be small; in fact, even at the level of
individual Specific Learning Objective, and can be conducted frequently. The purpose of formative
assessment is to give feedback to the learners and teachers, so that performance can be improves on-
the-go.
Summative assessments are the classic university or term-end examinations that test a large area of
content. These are obviously not conducted frequently, and are the indicators of performance that
compiles a large body of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and communication into a combined
performance. These assessments are used to pronounce the selection of students for a course, or for
promoting to the next level, or certifying for a qualification.
The major difference between formative and summative assessment is that, formative is not
judgemental and supportive for improving performance, while summative is judgemental for the
performance.
2.4 Classify assessment methods
Assessment methods can be classified as direct and indirect. Direct methods are those, where the
candidate and the performance is observable, such as the clinical performance, laboratory
performance, knowledge testing in viva, portfolio, etc.
Indirect methods are those which provide indirect or circumstantial evidence for the candidates’
performance. These include self-assessment, and peer-assessment. In fact, the written tests also can be
an example for indirect assessment, as only the evidence of candidates’ performance is available for
assessment.
 2.5 Discuss the nature of a test.
Assessment is conducted by way of using different test tools. The relevance and validity determine
the quality and authenticity of assessment to a significant extent. Therefore, the test tools have to be
directly related to educational objectives, so that the students are tested for what they learn. The test
has to be realistic and practical for implementation. It must be concerned with important and useful
matters, which can be ensured by anchoring assessment to the ‘must-know’ and ‘desirable-to-know’
components from the syllabus. Another important quality is that the questions, which are test tools,
must be precise and clear.
2.6 Classify assessment tools based on Miller’s Pyramid.
Assessment tools are selected for their precision, validity, and relevance on multiple factors. The
simplest benchmark for the selection is the Miller’s Pyramid.
For the recall level in cognitive domain, which is at the ‘Knows’ level, the most appropriate testing
methods would be Theory exam, and Viva. For the intermediate cognitive level, and also for the
application level of psychomotor domain, which is at the ‘knows how’ level, the germane methods
include Assignments, Portfolio, and Viva. For the higher cognitive level and the higher psychomotor
level, along with shades of affective domain, it would be ‘shows how’ level on the Miller’s pyramid,
and the assessment methods would include Checklists, Direct Observation of Procedural Skills, and
Viva. For the highest level of real and authentic performance, which is the summit of Miller’s
Pyramid, the performance is ‘Does’ and the assessment methods include Real situation, Checklists,
Direct Observation of Procedural Skills, and Viva.
2.7 Discuss the role of Rubrics as authentic tools for teaching and assessment.
Ideally conducting teaching and assessment must be complementary to one another. This would be
possible if there was to be a single and transparent template would be appropriate for both teaching
and assessment. Rubric is one such facility that used very explicit and obvious benchmarks that guide
teaching and the conduct of assessment.
Rubrics are more refined form of rating scale; if fact, rubric is a multi-dimensional rating scale, which
provides than a single grade or mark, and are useful for grading more objectively. This facility is
gaining more awareness and acceptance in the competency-based education.
 5
Instructional techniques: knowledge transfer, skill development, attitude,
teaching with technology, and Academic planning and organization
5.1 Justify the statement – ‘learner is the focus of all educational activity’.
Learning is an individual progression by way of behaviour change. Therefore, only the learner can be
the locus of learning. Learning is facilitated by the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and values, and
communication. At the end of the day, it is the learner who has to perform as per the expected
professional tasks. In this context, we have to admit that learner is the focus of all educational activity.
5.2 State the contexts of learning.
The predominant image that one usually gets about ‘teaching’ is that a teacher standing in the
classroom with rows of students in front of him / her and making a didactic presentation of facts and
figures.
However, the development of educational science and its adapting the principles from as varied
disciplines as psychology and management has unleashed a variety of teaching learning methods that
can facilitate better realisation of educational objectives
On the basis of context, learning in health professionals’ education can be pursued in classroom,
clinical or community. Health professionals’ education is a combination of theoretical and practical
learning experiences that enable them to acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes for providing
healthcare. Healthcare education has two complementing parts – theoretical teaching and practical
training, and each of these are better learned in different contexts. Therefore, understanding the
appropriate context for learning each of the component is necessary.
5.3 Classify teaching – learning methods on the basis of group size, domain, and balance of
control.
On the basis of group size, teaching -learning methods can be classified as large group, small group,
and individual or paired. The instructional activities can also be categorised on the basis of Bloom’s
domains, each of the three domains – the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective – having specific
approaches for teaching–learning.
On the basis of balance of control, that is whether the teacher is directing and controlling the
academic proceedings, or whether the student has autonomy and independence of learning,
instructional methods could be either teacher controlled, or learner controlled. It is seen that all the
large group methods such as lecture, team teaching, symposium, are teacher controlled, whereas in the
small and individual / paired methods learners have a greater control.
It is also possible to classify learning on the basis of two variables – learner autonomy, and size of the
group. This classification will be useful to also map the online teaching–learning approaches.
As you can see, the horizontal axis represents learner autonomy, and the vertical axis represents the
group size. When the learner autonomy is minimal, and the group size is large, we can select the large
group methods such as lecture, team teaching, and panel discussion among others. With the learner
autonomy remaining minimal, if the group size is relatively smaller, there could be the small group
methods that are teacher-directed such as demonstration.
As the learner autonomy shifts in favour of the learner, and the group size is relatively small, there
can be small group methods that are learner-oriented, such as group discussion, and journal club,
among others. With the autonomy still in favour of the students, if the size shrinks further, the
methods could be individual or in pairs, such as self-directed learning, individual practice,
conference, etc.
5.4 Select appropriate digital tools for synchronous and asynchronous online instruction.
The model that we used for the classifying conventional instructional methods on the two variables of
learner autonomy and group size can also be used to categorise the online instructional methods. In
the same model, we can further categorise as synchronous and asynchronous approaches.
As you can see, the horizontal axis represents learner autonomy, and the vertical axis represents the
group size. When the learner autonomy is minimal, and the group size is large, we can select the large
group approaches for synchronous mode such as web-streaming, and podcasts; for the asynchronous
mode it could be recorded videos.
With the learner autonomy remaining minimal, if the group size is relatively smaller, the synchronous
examples could be live chat, or WhatsApp Group Messaging or video call, and asynchronous method
could be recorded video also.
As the learner autonomy shifts in favour of the learner, and the group size is relatively small, the
synchronous methods could be Group Mail, Web Conferencing, Discussion Boards, and Blogs /
Wikis / Tweets; and the asynchronous methods could be Group mail, and Blogs / Wikis / Tweets.
With the autonomy still in favour of the students, if the size shrinks further, the synchronous method
could be telephone talk, and the asynchronous methods are quite abundant with blogs, emails,
WhatsApp, text documents, and in more technologically evolved situations Simulated Lab, and
immersive learning with Artificial Intelligence, Virtual Reality.
5.5 Discuss need for media in teaching – learning (T – L) activity.
Education is all about communication and a good teacher who can effectively communicate facts,
ideas and theories will turn out to be a better teacher. Studies have shown that one of the techniques
for improving the students’ learning is by adapting multimedia for teaching – learning. Media are the
means for transmitting or delivering messages and in teaching-learning perspective delivering content
to the learners, to achieve effective instruction. Instructional media provide the tools to engage
learners powerfully in the learning process, by increasing interest, holding attention, clarifying ideas,
reinforcing concepts, etc.
5.6 Explain the principles of media selection on the basis of Dale’s Cone of Experience.
Selection of media has to be appropriate for the learning needs. It must also match the appropriateness
of the TL Method that is being used. Therefore, to ensure that the media are logically selected, Dale
proposed a model that described the retention potential of various media, which is variously called as
‘Cone of Experience’ or ‘Learning Pyramid’. This model informs how much people remember based
on how they encounter the information, and also that the progression of experiences flows from the
most concrete that is at the bottom of the cone, to the most abstract, which is at the top of the cone.
Dale’s model describes the retention potential of various media. This model informs how
much people can remember based on how they encounter the information. It also asserts that the
progression of experiences flow from the most concrete, which is at the bottom of the cone, to the
most abstract, which is at the top of the cone.
As per the proposition in Dale’s Cone, we tend to remember 10% of what we read, 20% of
what we hear, 30% of what we see, 50% of what we hear and see, 70% of what we say and write, and
90% of what we do. This gives an empiric measure of how to select the effective medium for the
content and context of learning.
5.7 Classify educational media as projected and non-projected
Teaching-learning media are effective anchors to retain learner attention. It is estimated that the
average attention span of humans is around 20 minutes. The audio-visual aids help to improve the
attention span by appealing to the multiple channels of information receiving.
Teaching-learning media can be broadly classified as projected, and non-projected. The media used
for online context are from the projection category. Projected media include LCD Projector, Over
Head Projector, Slide Projector, Films, Television, Interactive White Board, Wearable devices, etc.
The non-projected media include different types of boards, charts, posters, handouts, models,
specimen, etc. Social media are rich sources of learning, and are dynamic to stay current and evolve
as the information is updated. However, these have to be used with complete awareness of ethical
issues.
The most appropriate media for online environment include simulators, exemplars of virtual /
augmented reality, which are computer assisted and interactive. Communication in online contexts
happens through the medium of web-casting or video-conferencing platforms.
5.8 Outline the ‘Span of Curriculum Delivery’
Implementing curriculum requires proper planning at both macro, and micro levels. Macro planning
gives an overview and big picture to visualise the ultimate outcome, while the micro planning clarifies
the units for building the big picture. Lesson Plans are the units of instruction in curriculum
implementation.
For effective curriculum implementation, the continuity of assessment and immediate feedback are
very vital. This helps to build mastery by problem-solving at every stage of learning. This can be
achieved by designing a Continuous Assessment Plan, which along with Curriculum Implementation
is a comprehensive model for quality education.
The Curriculum Implementation and Continuous Assessment Plan have the components of learning
objectives, entry behaviour or the assessment of previous learning, teacher activity, and the matching
learner activity, media and tools for assessment, projected learner performance, actual learner
performance, and remediation for improving the gaps of learning or performance.
Planning for lessons, for whichever context, or domain, or group-size has three basic elements –
expected learning outcomes, learning strategies and learning resources, and the tools for assessment
and feedback. The format of lesson planning may vary depending on the customisation required for
the specific learning needs.
5.9 Describe importance of lesson planning.
5.10 List the components of lesson plan.
Implementation of curriculum at the micro-level is facilitated by lesson plans. Lesson plans are the
units of curriculum implementation. A lesson which is properly planned must have five features – (a)
clearly stated aim, which gives the direction for teaching-learning, and assessment; (b) variety of
learning experiences, so that all the senses of learning are engaged for a comprehensive learning
experience; (c) linkages for the previous, future, and parallel learning; (d) learnability in the sense that
the selected learning strategies ensure that the attainment of stated learning objectives can happen
with a quick increment of knowledge / skill / value; and (e) flexibility or adaptability in a range of
situations and conditions.
5.11 Present a micro teaching session.
Teachers of healthcare professionals in India – except for the nursing stream – do not have a formal
training to qualify as a teacher. The informal and rule-of-the-thumb approaches that they adapt after
getting into teaching are largely self-driven and self-managed, without any formal authority
supervising or validating those practices.
In this context, Allen had proposed a facility to improve the teachers’ skills in a controlled and
supportive environment, which is a micro level representation of the teachers’ expected roles. This
has evolved as micro-teaching, and has been a significant component for improving the quality and
excellence of teacher training programs.
Microteaching is a teacher training technique that has got a wide acceptance, and provides the
teachers with an opportunity to sharpen their teaching skills by improving the various simple tasks
called as ‘teaching skills’. With the proven success among the novice and seniors, microteaching
helps to promote real-time teaching experiences. The core skills of microteaching such as presentation
and reinforcement skills help the novice teachers to learn the art of teaching at ease and to the
maximum extent.
For Exercise
• Conduct a large group teaching activity; Organise a small group learning activity; Facilitate
individual learning activity; Prepare a lesson plan.