CERAMICS

By Adrian Madoya B02/2566/2015

Josephine Washalla B02/45386/2017
 INTRODUCTION
• Ceramic material is a key element in the cultural heritage. We are
surrounded by ceramic elements as part of historic buildings, as well as
archaeological and underwater ensembles, being used widely as both
structural and/or decorative elements.
• In conservation and restoration, brick masonry has always received special
attention due to its strong presence in the built heritage. Many other
ceramic elements are part of this heritage, such as roofing tiles, pavements,
or decorative techniques like wall tiling or the trencadis
Below are key terms associated with ceramics:
• Clay- naturally occuring substance which is a heavy and damp
plastic material that ‘sets‘ upon drying and can be changed by
heat into a hard, generally dense, material.
• Bisque - Unglazed ceramic peice purposely fired to an immature
temperature.
• Glaze - A layer of glass fused into place on a ceramic piece. Glazes can be
both decorative and as a texture.
• Ceramic: clay products made permenant by heat (1112F or greater)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS
1.Extreme hardness and wear resistance. Reduces wear by friction.
2.Corrosion resistance.
3.High heat resistance; low electrical conductivity, law thermal conductivity, low
thermal expansion.
4.Low ductility; very brittle with a high elastic modulus.
5.Low toughness; low fracture toughness. This indicates the ability of a crack or
flaw to produce a catastrophic failure.
6. High strength at elevated temperatures.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

1. Ceramics are poor conductors of electricity and therefore make excellent
insulators. Non-conductivity arises from the lack of “free” electrons such as those
found in metals.
2. They have chemical bonds that are of two types: ionic and Covalent bonds
3. Ceramics are brittle at room temperature; when subjected to tension, they fail
suddenly, with little or no plastic deformation prior to fracture. This is due to
imperfections called dislocations within their crystal lattices.
CHARACTERSISTICS MEASURING SYSTEM FREQUENT VALUES OBSERVATIONS
Color Munsell tables Red to light red; Color depends on iron
yellow to grey percentage ,firing
conditions and
carbonate content in
the clay
Open porosity Water absorption 15-30 Carbonate clays give
highest values of open
Mercury intrusion 25-40 porosity and vice
versa
Modulus of rupture Compression strength 300-450 Mechanical resistance
decreases by
Bending strength 70-110 increasing open
porosity and increases
with firing
• THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
• This consists of four basic stages:
shaping, drying, firing and glazing.
1: Milling & Raw Material Procurement – The raw materials used in the process
are milled materials typically found in mining sites that have been reduced
from a large size to smaller sizes or even in some cases, pulverized depending
upon the end product. The idea is to liberate any impurities in the materials
allowing for better mixing and forming which in essence produces a more
reactive material when firing. All ceramic materials were shaped at plastic
state, by mixing clay with water (approximately 70/30) and eventually up to
30% of additive [6, 8, 9]. Hand making is the older shaping technology; the use
of a mold, initially of wood and more recently gypsum, is also very ancient
• 2: Sizing –During this step in the processing sequence, the materials that have
undergone the milling and procurement process must be sized to separate
desirable material from non-usable. By controlling the particle size, the result
will give you proper bonding and a smooth surface on the finished product.
• After shaping, the water-rich particles undergo the long and difficult drying
phase, during which a big volume of water must be eliminated through slow
evaporation at open air without provoking deformations and cracks
• 3: Batching – This part of the process can also be known as”blending” which
calculates amounts, weighing and initial blended of the raw materials. For
consistent material flow into a pub mill hopper, Vibratory Feeders can be
applied in the process.
• 4: Mixing – To obtain a more chemically and physically homogeneous
material prior to forming, the constituents of the ceramic powder is
combined using the method of mixing or blunging. Most often, pug mills are
the preferred piece of machinery used in this step of the process when
dealing with dry mixes. It is also important to add binders or plasticizers as
well. For wet slurry mixtures, a filter press would remove the water from the
slurry and yield the clay body from the mix. For these wet mixtures,
deflocculants and antifoaming agents are added to improve the processing
of the materials.
• 5: Forming – For this step, the materials such as dry powders, pastes or slurries
are consolidated and molded to produce a cohesive body of whatever end
product is desired. In the particular case of dry forming, vibratory
compaction can be used to achieve the desired shape.
• 6: Drying – The formed materials hold water and binder in its mix that can in
turn cause shrinkage, warping or distortion of the product. Generally
convection drying is the most commonly used method in which heated air is
circulated around the ceramic piece that alleviates the risk of such
imperfections in the final product.
• 7: Glazing – Referring back to traditional ceramics, this step is added to the
process prior to firing. Typically, the glaze consists of oxides that give the
product the desired finish look. The raw materials are ground in a ball mill or
attrition mill. We have provided customers with Vibratory Screeners that
screened the glaze in order to give the mixture a uniform consistency that
when applied to the ceramic, would be smooth and even. The glaze can be
applied using the spraying or dipping methods.
• 8: Firing – Also known as sintering or densification, the ceramics pass through
a controlled heat process where the oxides are consolidated into a dense,
cohesive body made up of uniform grain. Some general points to remember
about different types of firing end products:
Short Firing Time gives you a final product that is porous and low density.
Short – Intermediate Firing Time results in fine-grained, high-strength products.
Long Firing Time produces a coarse-grained product that is creep resistant
which means the material will not distort when under a load for an extended
period of time.
• High-fire: clay and glazes which mature at or above 2192F.
• Low-fire: clay and glazes maturing at or below cone 04 (~1922F)
• Electric kiln - Any kiln heated using electrostatic elements. Because no fuel is
introduced, electric kilns fire in oxidation.
• Gas kiln - A kiln which uses natural gas as its fuel. Gas kilns are commonly
found in contemporary ceramic studios and factories.
DECAY SYMPTOMS OF CERAMICS
i) colour changing (darkening, iridescence phenomena)
ii) soiling and crust formation
iii) formation of microcracks
iv) efflorescence and subflorescence of salts on intersurfaces
v) exfoliation and flaking off of glazing and ceramic body
vi) surface corrosion by external factors
 DAMAGE PROCESSES
Physical/chemical Moisture; salts; frost, pollution, Biological growth,
biological organisms efflorescence,
spalling,exfoliation,powdering,
crust formation
structural Overloading, creep Crack patterns
Physical degradation
• Due to their fragility, damage to ceramics typically comes from mishandling and packing. However, other
factors, such as vandalism, frost, mold and other similar occurrences, can also inflect harm.
Manufacturing defects
i) Also known as inherent vice, the intrinsic instability of the fabric and components of an objects can lead to its
own physical degradation. This is difficult to prevent because it occurs within the fabric of the material and
therefore is a natural occurrence. Deterioration of an object can happen even before the object is used. How the
piece is created can instil manufacturing defects in the piece. This means that ceramics can be damaged even
before they are used. This would include a body that contains inadequate qualities of (filler (materials)).
ii) typical defect is from poor design and construction.
iii) manufacturing defect includes careless firing. A ceramic piece that has been fired too rapidly or allowed to dry
too fast will crack or break.
Impact and abrasions
• With its delicate nature, ceramics that have been used over a period of time will sustain cracks, nicks, and
blemishes. Additionally in a museum environment, damages can occur from packing storing, and handling of
objects.
Frost
• Damage can occur when ceramics are exposed to freezing temperatures
and frost. The problem occurs when ice crystals form inside of the pores of
the ceramic piece. The frost inside of the pores will exert pressure onto the
fabric of the pottery and cause the material to crack and break.
Mold growth
• Opposite of frost is heat and humidity. When the humidity is high molds can
begin to form on ceramic, particularly ones in which there is no glaze. Spores
of molds are found throughout the atmosphere and will attached to any
organic residues nearby, such as ceramics. Earthenware ceramics are
frequently affected due to their porosity and lack of glaze.[
• Chemical degradation
Chemical degradation of objects occurs at the chemical or compound level.
Compounds begin to breakdown into more simpler compounds and is often an
undesired reaction. The degradation of the chemical component of an object will
hinder or weaken the stability of the object when exposed to environmental factors
such as water, air, pollution, heat, humidity, and the like.
• Water
Water can dissolve or deform ceramics that have been low fired, i.e. temperatures
around 600 °C. Ceramic fired in high temperatures may also be susceptible to water if
their mineral particles are soluble in water, for example Gypsum or calcite.
Additionally the different compounds in water can flux and react in different ways to
different ceramics. In naturally occurring water, carbon dioxide is dissolved and can
create a chemical reaction with minerals in clay bodies that may form calcium
bicarbonate which is very soluble. Stagnant water is less damaging because the
carbon dioxide is not exhausted.
• Soluble salts
A common degradation issue in ceramics involves soluble salts. Soluble salts
can either enter the clay body from the environment, for example from being
buried underground for decades, or they are already naturally occurring due
to the components of the materials or clay used. Non-archaeological objects,
such as modern dishware, can acquire salts from normal use such as storing
salt. Soluble salts respond to changes in humidity both high and low. In high
humidity salts become soluble and in low humidity they crystallize. The
changing from soluble to crystallization and back damages the surface of the
ceramic because salt crystals are larger than liquid salt and therefore will
shrink and expand the ceramic body. A white haze on the surface is the first
indication of soluble salts, which is the salt crystallizing. Over time, the physical
component of the body will crumble until it is completely destroyed.
 HISTORICAL BRICK SHOWING INTENSE SOILING

THE VARIATION OF COLOUR AND ROUGHNESS OF

BRICKS IS LINKED TO DECAY PROCESSES
Preventive care of ceramics
• In conservation there are two distinct practices:
i) non-interventive
ii) active conservation.
• Non-interventive types of conservation are used to control the surrounding
environment such as light, humidity, and temperature. Active conservation is
when a conservator practices treatments to alleviate physical problems in
the object such as fading, chipping, or breaks.
• In general ceramics are typically inert and are not sensitive to elevated light
levels. However, extreme changes in temperature and humidity can cause
chemical and physical damage. Typically museums strive to store ceramics,
as well as many other material types, in a stable temperature of 68 °F with ±
3°. Additionally relative humidity should be stabilized at 50% also with a ±5%.
Storing objects near windows, heaters, fireplaces, and exterior walls can
create an unstable environment with temperature and humidity fluctuation
and increase potential for damages.
RESTORATION APPROACHES
Consolidation
• Consolidation is the process in which the fabric of the ceramic is
strengthened by introducing a material into the fabric that will bind together.
A consolidant works in two ways: it either links to the particles in the ceramic
chemically or it may form a support system mechanically without reacting
with the fabric itself. Chemical consolidants that are used in modern
conservation include isocyanates, silanes, siloxnes, and methyl
methacrylates, however the consolidants that create a mechanical support
system are used more frequently.
• Mechanical consolidation is achieved using adhesives such as animal
glue,shellac,epoxy resin,vinyl acetate polymers,rubber glue etc
Dowels and rivets
• Dowels and rivets are physical ways in which ceramics can be reinforced
and strengthened. Dowels are cylindrical rods that consist of wood, metal, or
plastic. They are drilled into the ceramic piece and set in the hole with an
adhesive that is used to repair the ceramic piece. Removing dowels can be
hard because they lie under the surface and are usually hidden. Riveting is a
process in which holes are drilled in the surface of the ceramic, but does not
go completely through the piece. The rivets are angled toward the joint and
provide additional structural support.
• Fillers
• Fillers are used to replace gaps and losses from ceramic materials for either
aesthetic reasons or for support. There are several different filler materials used in
ceramics including plaster of Paris and other commercially available fillers.
• Plaster of Paris is a material that consists of calcium sulphate and is produced by
heating gypsum to 120 °C. Different grades of plasters are available and vary based
on their particle size, setting time, density, expansion, and color.
• A thermoplastic synthetic wax resin mixture can be used to compensate losses in
objects from translucent materials such as alabaster, marble and anhydrite. This wax
resin is a better substitute to wax-resins because wax collects dust and dirt and make
the fill noticeable. Polyester resin and epoxies are toxic. The wax-resin is fast and
easy to use, making it a possible new alternative to fill materials in the conservation
field. The wax-resin works best on losses that allow for large contact with the original,
primed surface.
• Below is an example of a church St. Jakobi church in Perleberg, Brandenburg, Germany; and the
practical restoration approaches used in it.
The St. Jakobi church stands for glazed bricks produced in a single firing, wheras the terracotta
medaillons are the example of a glazed sliped ceramic with double firing (ceramic body and slip
glazing)

New Bricks for replacement

In many cases the damaged architectural ceramic could not be saved and had to be replaced by
new ones. it was not as easy to produce new glazed bricks, which tolerate the often bad
environmental conditions at the place where they are fit. Therefore standards of suitable materials
properties and testing procedures had to be set upto test the replacement ceramics, taking a
special view to the interface glazing/ceramic body and the glazing itself.
Applicable restoration methods and restoration materials
1.The main focus of the research was on materials for structural brick consolidation, a
sacrificial surface layer for consolidation brittle flaking surfaces, for completion of
missing parts and last not least for the consolidation of the glazes and to find the best
alternative ”cold” glazing material. As the result of the research a silica ester shows the
best results as a consolidation material. It hardly changes the physical and
mechanical properties as water vapour permeability, water uptake and E-modulus.
2.To close cracks and fissures, to consolidate exfoliating and flaking parts, a slip was
applied to these surfaces. the formations of cracks and gypsum crystallisation was not
inhibited by the slip. This measure has to be considered as a sacrificial layer, which has
to be renovated from time to time.
3.To complete missing parts of a brick the product Rajasil-Klinker® was used. To
reconstruct formerly glazed surfaces the product ORMOCER®was used, a silica-
organic compound developed by the ”Fraunhofer Institut für Silikatforschung” in
Bronnbach, Germany. It was the first time, that this product was used in the restoration
of glazed ceramics.The final results of the project will be published in2005