Hóa Đ I Cương - Total

Chng 1 Gii thieu chung 1
Hoa ai cng
Chng 1
Gii thieu chung

1.1 Gii thieu
1.1.1 Hoa hoc
1. Hoa hoc la nganh khoa hoc nghien cu cac chat va cac qua trnh chuyen hoa cua cac
chat theo quan iem hoa hoc.
2. ieu o co ngha la:
a. Hoa hoc nghien cu cau tao cua nguyen t bao gom hat nhan, ien t va van ao.
b. Hoa hoc nghien cu cau tao cua chat bao gom:
- Thanh phan cac loai nguyen to trong chat
- So lng va t le cua cac nguyen to trong chat
- Cach sap xep cua cac nguyen t trong cha t
V du: Hydro peroxid H
2
O
2
co:
Thanh phan nguyen to H va O
T le nguyen t cua cac nguyen to H:O = 1:1
So lng nguyen t 2H va 2O
Cach sap xep cua cac nguyen t nh hnh ben
c. Hoa hoc nghien cu cac qua trnh hoa hoc:
- Cat t cac lien ket cu e phan huy cac tac chat
- Tao ra cac lien ket mi e hnh thanh cac san pham
- Bien oi nang lng cua he phan ng khi xay ra qua trnh hoa hoc
V du: HH + FF 2HF AH = 536kJ
d. Hoa hoc con nghien cu cac qua trnh va cac lanh vc lien quan en hoa hoc:
- Cac qua trnh ly hoa: nong chay, bay hi, hoa tan, ket tinh, hap phu, phan bo,
xuc tac, phong xa,
- Cac qua trnh sinh hoa: sinh tong hp, hoat tnh dc hoc,
- Cac qua trnh a hoa: tram tch, phong hoa,
lien quan en cac lanh vc vat ly, sinh hoc, a chat , y hoc, vat lieu,
3. Cac chuyen nganh cua hoa hoc
a. Hoa Vo c e. Hoa Ky thuat i. Hoa Sinh
b. Hoa Hu c f. Hoa Phong xa j. Hoa Y
c. Hoa Phan tch g. Hoa Moi trng. k. Hoa Nong hoc
d. Hoa Ly h. Hoa Thc pham. l. Hoa Vat lieu,

1.1.2 Lch s hoa hoc
1. Lch s phat trien cua hoa hoc co the phan thanh 5 giai oan chnh la:
a. Giai oan Mo ta tho s va Minh triet thi Co ai
b. Giai oan Gia kim thuat thi Trung co
c. Giai oan Hoa y hoc va ky thuat thi Phuc hng
Hoa ai cng
d. Giai oan Khoa hoc hoa thi Can hien ai
e. Giai oan Hien ai hoa thi Hien ai.
2. ac trng cua cac giai oan phat trien cua hoa hoc c tom tat trong Bang 1.1.

Bang 1.1 ac trng cua cac giai oan phat trien cua hoa hoc
Giai oan Thi ai ac trng
1. Mo ta tho s va
Minh triet
Co ai
en het the ky (tk) 3
Thuyet nguyen to co ai:
- Nc, khong kh, at, la
- Kim, moc, thuy, hoa, tho
2. Gia kim thuat Trung co
au tk 4 au tk 16
- Hon a triet hoc, va
- Thuoc trng sinh bat t
3. Hoa y hoc va
ky thuat
Phuc hng
au tk 16 gia tk 17
- Thuoc cha benh, va
- Cac hoa chat ky thuat
4. Khoa hoc hoa Can hien ai
Gia tk 17 cuoi tk 18
- Cac quan iem khoa hoc
- Thuyet nguyen to hien ai
5. Hien ai hoa Hien ai
The ky 19
- Cac nh luat ly thuyet khoa
hoc
- Nguyen to hoa hoc
au tk 20 en nay - Cac nh luat ly thuyet hien
ai

1.1.3 Xu hng hien ai
1. Ke t nhng nam 70 cua the ky 20, nganh hoa hoc noi rieng va cac nganh khoa hoc
noi chung chuyen manh sang nghien cu ng dung va cong nghe.
2. Hai bien phap chnh e phat trien hoa hoc cung nh khoa hoc trong cuoc song la:
a. Tang nang suat bang cach thay oi quy trnh va thiet b tren c s cac hieu biet ve
khoa hoc va cong nghe.
b. Tang gia tr san pham bang cach tang chat lng va m rong muc tieu s dung cua
cac san pham.

Bang 1.2 Gia tr san pham theo chat lng va muc tieu s dung
Cong nghe Thap Trung bnh Cao Rat cao
Gia san pham USD/kg 0,11 110 10100 1001000
V du Muoi an Bot mau Xuc tac Ban dan
1.1.4 Hoa hoc va i song
1. Hoa hoc la mot nganh khoa hoc ln co muc tieu tm hieu ve:
a. Thanh phan, so lng va t le nguyen to va cau tao cua cac chat
b. Cac tnh chat hoa hoc va vat ly cua cac chat va hon hp chat
c. Cac phng phap va quy trnh e ieu che va tinh che cac chat
d. Cac ieu kien can thiet e s dung tot nhat chat va hon hp cac chat
Hoa ai cng
2. Hoa hoc co lien quan mat thiet vi hau het cac nganh khoa hoc va cong nghiep khac.
Mot so moi quan he cua hoa hoc vi cac nganh khac c trnh bay trong Bang 1.3.

Bang 1.3 Mot so moi quan he gia hoa hoc va cac nganh khac
Nganh Moi quan he ien hnh
1. Vat ly - Tiep nhan cac ly thuyet giai thch ve cau tao va tnh chat cua chat
- Cung cap cac nguyen vat lieu co o tinh khiet cao en rat cao
2. Sinh hoc - Cung cap cac kien thc giai thch qua trnh chuyen hoa sinh hoc
3. a chat - Cung cap cac kien thc giai thch qua trnh chuyen hoa a chat
4. Vat lieu - Tiep nhan cac ly thuyet giai thch ve tnh chat cua chat
- Cung cap cac nguyen vat lieu co ac tnh ky thuat
5. Y hoc - Cung cap cac kien thc ve cau tao va phng phap ieu che cac
hoat chat dc hoc (thuoc) nhat la t nguon hp chat t nhien.
6. C kh - Tiep nhan cac thiet b phan ng va o lng
- Cung cap cac kien thc hoa hoc va vat lieu ky thuat
7. Nong nghiep - Cung cap cac chat dinh dng a lng va vi lng (phan bon),
cac chat kch thch sinh trng,

1.1.5 Cac khai niem khoa hoc tong quat
1. Co 6 khai niem khoa hoc tong quat la cac khai niem s kien, nh lua t, gia thuyet, ly
thuyet, tien e va nguyen ly.
2. S kien la cac thuoc tnh cua vat chat (vat) va ket qua cua cac hien tng (s),
co ac tnh la khong bien oi theo thi gian cung nh khong gian.
3. nh luat la mot ket luan tong quat thu c t mot he thong cac s kien va c
a so cong nhan.
4. Gia thuyet la mot ly luan nham giai thch mot he thong cac s kien.
5. Ly thuyet la mot gia thuyet a c kiem tra ky lng bang thc nghiem va c
a so cong nhan.
6. Tien e la menh e ban au cua mot gia thuyet hay ly thuyet, c chap nhan
ma khong chng minh.
7. Nguyen ly la menh e c ban ban au cua mot hay nhieu nganh khoa hoc, c
chap nhan ma khong the chng minh.
1.1.6 Phng phap nghien cu khoa hoc
Phng phap nghien cu hoa hoc mot cach khoa hoc cung giong nh phng phap
nghien cu khoa hoc noi chung bao gom cac bc c ban sau:
1. Thu thap cac d lieu a co t ca c tai lieu va thc te. Cac tai lieu bao gom bach khoa
toan th, sach giao khoa, sach chuyen nganh, bai bao chuyen nganh,
2. Phan tch cac d lieu thu thap c e xac nh ban chat van e, muc tieu nghien cu,
noi dung nghien cu, cac yeu to khao sat, pham vi khao sat,
3. Lap ke hoach tien hanh thc nghiem.
4. Tien hanh thc nghiem va thu thap ket qua thc nghiem.
5. Phan tch cac ket qua thu c va so sanh vi cac ket qua do cac tai lieu cung cap.
Hoa ai cng
6. Giai thch mot cach he thong cac ket qua thu c d tren cac nh luat gia thuyet
ly thuyet a biet va a ra cac nhan xet cu the.
7. Ket luan la cac nhan xet mang tnh khai quat cuoi cung va co the dan en cac nh
luat, gia thuyet hay ly thuyet mi.

1.2 Vat chat
1. Vat chat ton tai di hai hnh thc c ban nhat la chat va trng.
2. Chat la hnh thc ton tai cua vat chat di dang cac hat rieng biet co khoi lng rieng,
c goi la khoi lng ngh. V du: Hat cat, cai cay, con ngi, mat tri,
3. Trng la hnh thc ton tai cua vat chat di dang cac dong lng t khong co khoi
lng ngh. V du: Trng hap dan, trng ien t,
4. Chat co the bien oi thanh trng va ngc lai.
5. V du nh khi cho hat electron va cham vi hat positron th hai hat nay b huy diet tao
thanh hai lng t . Ngc lai, cac lng t tng tac vi nhau hnh thanh cac hat
electron va positron.
e
+ e
+
2
6. Tng tac gia cac hat cua chat c thc hien thong qua trng.
7. Vay, vat chat co ban chat nh nguyen chattrng.

1.2.1 Chat
1. Chat la hnh thc ton tai cua vat chat di dang tap hp cac hat co khoi lng ngh.
2. Moi dang chat cu the c tao thanh t cac hat co:
- Thanh phan xac nh cua cac nguyen to trong chat
- So lng va t le xac nh gia cac loai nguyen to trong chat
- Cach sap xep xac nh cua cac nguyen t trong chat
Ba yeu to nay khien cho moi chat co cac tnh chat vat ly va hoa hoc xac nh.
3. Ngoai ra, hnh dang, kch thc va cach sap xep cac hat chat ran cung anh hng en
cac tnh chat vat ly va hoa hoc cua chat.
1.2.1.1 Trang thai ton tai cua chat
2. Trang thai ton tai pho bien nhat cua vat chat trong vu tru la trang thai plasma.
3. Tren trai at, 3 trang thai ton tai pho bien nhat lai la ran, long va kh.
4. Cac hat tao thanh chat ran sap xep va lien ket chat che vi nhau nen cac hat nay ch
dao ong ma hau nh khong di chuyen t do vi nhau. V vay, vat the trang thai ran
co the tch va hnh dang xac nh. Chat ran khong chay c va khong chu nen.
5. Khi cac hat trong chat ran sap xep mot cach trat t th ta co chat ran tinh the. Trng
hp cac hat trong chat ran sap xep mot cach hon on th ta co chat ran vo nh hnh.
6. Cac hat tao thanh chat long sap xep va lien ket t chat che vi nhau nen cac hat nay
khong ch dao ong ma con di chuyen phan nao t do vi nhau. V vay, vat the trang
thai long co the tch xac nh nhng hnh dang bien oi theo bnh cha. Chat long chay
c va t chu nen.
7. Cac hat tao thanh chat kh sap xep hon on va lien ket long leo vi nhau nen cac hat
nay di chuyen hoan toan t do vi nhau. V vay, vat the trang thai kh khong co the
tch va hnh dang xac nh ma bien oi theo bnh cha. Chat kh chay c va chu nen.
8. Do co cung tnh chat chay c nen chat long va chat kh c goi la cac lu chat. Ch
co chat kh la chu nen.
Hoa ai cng
9. Khi tang nhiet o cua mot vat trang thai ran en mot nhiet o xac nh goi la nhiet o
nong chay th vat chuyen sang trang thai long. Lng nhiet c cung cap cho vat
c s dung e lam tang ong nang cho cac cau t chuyen t trang thai ran sang
trang thai long nen vat gi nguyen nhiet o nong chay cho en khi toan bo vat chuyen
het sang trang thai long.
10. Tiep tuc tang nhiet o len th vat se chuyen sang trang thai kh tai nhiet o soi. Lng
nhiet c cung cap cho vat c s dung e lam tang ong nang cho cac cau t
chuyen t trang thai long sang trang thai kh nen vat gi nguyen nhiet o soi cho en
khi toan bo vat chuyen het sang trang thai kh.
11. Qua trnh xay ra ngc lai khi ha nhiet o song ngi ta thng goi la nhiet o ong
ac va hoa long thay v nong chay va soi.
Nhiet o nong chay T
nc
Nhiet o soi T
s

Trang thai ran Trang thai long Trang thai kh
Nhiet o ong ac Nhiet o hoa long

1.2.1.2 Tnh chat vat ly va hoa hoc cua chat
1. Mot chat co cac tnh chat vat ly va hoa hoc xac nh phu thuoc vao thanh phan, t le
cua cac nguyen to va cach sap xep cua cac nguyen to nay.
2. Cac tnh chat vat ly quan trong la:
- Trang thai ran (tinh thevo nh hnh) long kh
- Mau sac - o cng
- T trong - T
nc
; T
s
; T
phh

3. Cac tnh chat hoa hoc quan trong la:
- Tnh acid-baz - Tnh oxi hoa-kh
4. Cac tnh chat khuyech o la cac tnh chat co gia tr o c t le tuyen tnh vi khoi
lng em o. V du nh khoi lng, the tch, so mol,
Thong so khuech o co tnh cong tnh. V du nh khoi lng m cua he bang tong cac
khoi lng m
1
, m
2
, m
3
, cua cac hp phan.
5. Cac tnh chat cng o la cac tnh chat co gia tr o c khong t le tuyen tnh vi khoi
lng em o. V du nh t trong, nhiet o, nong o,
Thong so cng o khong co tnh cong tnh. Th du nh hon hp 1kg H
2
O 30
0
C va
1kg H
2
O 50
0
C tron eu vi nhau co nhiet o la 40
0
C ch khong phai la 80
0
C.

1.2.1.3 Phan loai chat
1. Phu thuoc vao muc tieu can xem xet ma ngi ta s dung cac tieu chuan khac nhau e
phan loai cac chat.
2. Nhng tieu chuan phan loai thong thng nh sau:
a. Theo trang thai: Ran Long Kh
b. Theo pha: ong the D the
c. Theo thanh phan: n chat (kim loai, khong kim loai) va Hp chat
d. Theo o tinh khiet: Tinh chat Hon hp
e. Theo loai chat: Vo c Hu c
f. Theo phng phap ieu che: T nhien Tong hp

Hoa ai cng
1.2.1.4 nh luat bao toan khoi lng
1. Lavoisier (1777) nung Hg trong bnh kn vi khong kh tao thanh thuy ngan oxid ma khoi
lng cua bnh khong thay oi.
2. Th nghiem nay dan en nh luat bao toan khoi lng: Chat bao toan khoi lng
trong qua trnh phan ng hoa hoc.
3. Th nghiem nay con dan en nh luat bao toan nguyen to: Chat bao toan nguyen to
trong qua trnh phan ng hoa hoc.

1.2.2 Nang lng
1.2.2.1 ong nang, the nang va noi nang cua he
2. Nang lng cua he gom ba phan:
- ong nang do chuyen ong nh hng cua toan he: E
= mv
2

- The nang cua he do he nam trong trong trng: E
t
= mgh
- Noi nang U cua he
3. Hoa hoc thng khao sat mot he khong chuyen ong va chu tac dung cua trong
trng khong oi nen ta ch quan tam en noi nang cua he.
4. Noi nang U cua he gom:
- ong nang do chuyen ong nhiet hon loan bao gom cac chuyen ong tnh tien, dao
ong, quay,cua cac tieu phan nh phan t, nguyen t, hat nhan va ien t.
- The nang tng tac hut va ay gia cac tieu phan.
5. Noi nang cua mot he bat ky phu thuoc vao ban chat, thanh phan, lng chat, ap suat,
nhiet o va the tch cua he.

1.2.2.2 nh luat bao toan nang lng
2. Joule (1840) chng minh nh luat bao toan nang lng: Nang lng khong t sinh ra
hoac mat i ma ch chuyen t dang nay sang dang khac.

1.2.3 Trng
1. Trng la hnh thc ton tai cua vat chat di dang khong co khoi lng ngh.
2. Cac qua trnh hoa hoc chu yeu lien quan en trng ien t.
3. Mot bc xa ien t co tan so v va bc song se co nang lng c tnh bang cong
thc Planck:
c = hv = hc/ (1.1)
trong o: h hang so Planck, h = 6,626.10
-27
ec.s = 6,626.10
-34
J.s
v tan so cua bc xa, cm
1
= 10
2
m
1

bc song cua bc xa, cm = 10
2
m
c van toc anh sang, c = 310
10
cm/s = 310
8
m/s
4. Bc xa ien t va co ban chat song va co ban chat hat (photon).
5. Nang lng cua mot photon c tnh bang cong thc Einstein:
c = mc
2
(1.2)
6. Moi quan he gia khoi lng cua photon vi tan so v cua bc xa la:
c = hv = hc/ = mc
2
(1.3)
7. Broglie (1924) a khai quat hoa: Mot hat vat chat bat ky co khoi lng m di chuyen vi
van toc v se gan lien vi mot bc xa co bc song cho bi he thc:
Ngoai nang
cua he
Hoa ai cng
= h/mv (1.4)

1.3 o lng
1.3.1 ai lng vat ly - n v o lng va Th nguyen
1. Khi ta noi mot can nha co chieu dai la 20m ngha la chieu dai cua can nha o bang 20
lan chieu dai cua cay thc a c chon lam chuan 1m.
2. ai lng chieu dai co th nguyen la L (Length) va n v o ay c chon la met.
3. Ta co the o chieu dai bang foot, thc ta, nhng th nguyen cua chieu dai khong oi.
4. Vay, mot hien tng (s) hay mot vat the (vat) mang trong no mot so thuoc tnh vat
chat co the o c th cac thuoc tnh o c goi la cac ai lng vat ly.
V du nh mot khoi hop (vat) ang di chuyen (s) voi van toc eu v se co cac thuoc tnh
la o dai canh, the tch, khoi lng va ong nang cua khoi hop o.

Chung ta nhan thay khoi hop tren co:
- o dai cua canh ngang la l = 0,5m
- Dien tch cua mat ay la S = lb = 0,5m0,1m = 0,05m
2

- The tch cua khoi la V = lbh = 0,5m0,1m0,2m = 0,01m
3

- Khoi lng cua khoi la m = 10kg
- Van toc cua khoi la v = d/t = 1m/s
- ong nang cua khoi la q = mv
2
= 10kg(1m/s)
2
= 5kg.m
2
/s
2
= 5N.m
5. n v o lng cua mot ai lng vat ly co so o c chon la 1. So o cua mot s
vat khac la t so gia so o cua chnh s vat o vi so o n v.
6. Co 7 ai lng vat ly c ban ma t o ta co the suy ra tat ca cac ai lng khac.

Bang 1.4 7 ai lng vat ly c ban
Stt ai lng c ban n v SI Th nguyen Ten tieng Anh
1 o dai m L Length
2 Khoi lng kg M Mass
3 Thi gian s T Time
4 Nhiet o K
u
Temperature
5 Cng o dong ien A I (Ampere)
6 Cng o anh sang cd C (Candela)
7 n v chat mol mol (Mol)

7. n v o cua ai lng c ban hoan toan do ap at chu quan cua con ngi. Cac ai
lng c ban khong the suy ra t bat ky ai lng vat ly nao khac.
v = 1m/s
l = 0,5m
m = 10kg
b = 0,1m
h = 0,2m
Hoa ai cng
V du nh n v o khoi lng kilogram c chon mot cach oc oan la khoi lng
cua mot qua can hnh tru c lam bang platin-iridi hien c lu gi tai Paris.
8. Cac ai lng c ban nh vay c goi la co th nguyen o c lap. Ve hnh thc, phng
trnh th nguyen cua ai lng c ban ch bao gom mot yeu to th nguyen.
9. Cac ai lng khong c ban la cac ai lng dan xuat t 7 ai lng c ban neu tren.
10. Nh vay, cac ai lng khong c ban co the suy ra bang phng trnh th nguyen cua
cac ai lng c ban. V du: S = L
2
; V = L
3
; v = LT
1
; q = ML
2
T
2
,
11. V du nh khoi hop a neu tren co cac thuoc tnh la o dai canh, dien tch, the tch, van
toc va ong nang c trnh bay trong Bang 1.5.
Bang 1.5 Cac thuoc tnh cua khoi hop a neu
Stt ai lng c ban n v SI Th nguyen Ten tieng Anh
1 o dai l m L Length
2 Dien tch S = l
2
m
2
L
2
Suface
3 The tch V = l
3
m
3
L
3
Volume
4 Van toc v = d/t m/s LT
1
Velocity
5 ong nang q = mv
2
kg.m
2
/s
2
= N.m ML
2
T
2

1.3.2 Mot so n v s dung trong he n v SI
STT AI LNG TEN KY HIEU GHI CHU
1 Chieu dai met m (n v c ban)
2 Angstrom A
o
1 A
o
= 0,1 nm = 10
-10
m
3 Khoi lng Kilogam kg (n v c ban)
4 n v khoi
lng
nguyen t
u 1 u = 1.660 540 2(10) 10
-27
kg
5 Thi gian Giay s (n v c ban)
6 Nhiet o Kelvin K (n v c ban)
7 So hat Mol mol (n v c ban)
8 Cng o dong
ien
Ampe A (n v c ban)
9 Tan so Hec Hz s
-1
10 Lc Niutn N kg.m.s
-2
11 Cong Jun J N.m = kg.m
2
.s
-2

12 Cong suat oat W J/s = kg.m
2
.s
-3
13 Ap suat Pascal Pa N/m
2
= kg.m
-1
.s
-2
14 Tnh ien Culong C A.s
15 Hieu ien the von V J/C = kg.m
2
.A
-1
.s
-3
16 ien tr ohm
O
V/A = kg.m
2
.A
-2
.s
-3

17 Nang lng electronvon eV 1 eV = 1.602 177 33(49) 10
-19
J
Hoa ai cng

Chng 2
Nguyen t va chat hoa hoc

2.1 Cac nh luat c ban cua hoa hoc
1. T the ky th 5 trc Cong nguyen, nha triet hoc Hy Lap Democritus a gia nh la:
a. Vat chat khong lien tuc ma c hnh thanh t cac hat vo cung nho.
b. Cac hat nho nay khong the phan nho hn na va c goi la nguyen t.
2. Gia nh nay cha c kiem chng bang bat c mot thc nghiem nao vao thi o.

2.1.1 nh luat bao toan khoi lng
1. Vao cuoi the ky 18, Lavoisier nung Hg trong bnh kn vi khong kh tao thanh thuy ngan
oxid ma khoi lng cua bnh khong thay oi.
2. Cac ket qua thc nghiem tng t dan en nh luat bao toan khoi lng:
Chat bao toan khoi lng trong qua trnh phan ng hoa hoc.

2.1.2 nh luat thanh phan khong oi
1. Vao au the ky 19, Proust nhan thay ong carbonat tinh khiet t cac nguon khac nhau
luon luon cha 5,3 phan ong, 4 phan oxigen va 1 phan carbon theo khoi lng,
2. Cac ket qua thc nghiem tng t dan en nh luat thanh phan khong oi:
Mot hp chat du c ieu che bang cach nao cung luon luon co thanh phan khong
oi tnh theo khoi lng.

2.1.3 nh luat t le boi
1. Cung vao au the ky 19, Dalton nhan thay carbon va oxigen tao thanh hai hp chat co
cha khoi lng carbon va oxigen vi t le khac nhau.

Hp chat 1 2
Khoi lng cua oxigen / 1g carbon 1,33 2,55

2. Cac ket qua thc nghiem tng t dan en nh luat t le boi:
Khi hai nguyen to tao thanh mot day cac hp chat th khoi lng cua nguyen to th
hai ket hp vi 1g cua nguyen to th nhat se tao thanh mot t le boi cua cac so
nguyen n gian.
3. Bai tap: Hay xac nh khoi lng va t le ket hp n gian cua oxigen vi 7g nitrogen
trong cac hp chat N
2
O, NO, N
2
O
3
, NO
2
va N
2
O
5
.

Hp chat N
2
O NO N
2
O
3
NO
2
N
2
O
5

Khoi lng cua oxigen ket hp vi 7g nitrogen 4 8 12 16 20
Hoa ai cng
T le cua oxigen 4 8 12 16 20
T le ket hp n gian cua oxigen 1 2 3 4 5

2.1.4 Ly thuyet nguyen t cua Dalton
1. Dalton da tren cac nh luat neu tren a a ra ly thuyet ve nguyen t:
a. Moi nguyen to c tao thanh t cac hat rat nho c goi la nguyen t.
b. Cac nguyen t cua mot nguyen to xac nh co khoi lng, kch thc va cac tnh
chat hoa hoc xac nh khong giong vi cac nguyen t tao thanh nguyen to khac.
c. Cac hp chat c tao thanh t cac nguyen t cua nhieu hn mot nguyen to. Moi
hp chat cha mot so loai nguyen t cua cac nguyen to vi t le khoi lng xac nh
va n gian.
d. Phan ng hoa hoc ch bao gom qua trnh ket hp, phan tach va sap xep lai cac
nguyen t ma khong lam bien oi cac nguyen t nay.
2. Ly thuyet nguyen t cua Dalton cho thay nguyen t la hat c ban tao thanh nguyen to.
Cac nguyen t tham gia vao qua trnh phan ng hoa hoc.
3. Vi cac d lieu thc nghiem luc o, Dalton cha xac nh c cau truc cua nguyen t.

2.2 Cau truc cua nguyen t
1. Cac nghien cu thc nghiem t gia the ky 19 keo dai sang the ky 20 cho thay nguyen
t c hnh thanh t 3 vi hat c ban la electron, proton va ntron.
2. S khac biet ve hoa hoc gia cac nguyen to trc het la do s khac biet ve so lng
cac hat proton ma cung chnh la so lng cac hat electron.

2.2.1 Electron
1. Vao au the ky 20, Thomson nhan thay khi ap ien the cao vao ong am cc th xuat
hien tia am cc mang ien tch am.

Hnh 2.1 Mo hnh en am cc va anh hng cua ien trng en tia am cc

2. Ong gia nh la tia am cc bao gom cac hat mang ien tch am c goi la electron.
3. Do nguyen t trung hoa ien nen nguyen t phai cha mot lng ien tch dng va
ien tch am bang nhau.
4. Thomson a ra mo hnh nguyen t bao gom cac electron nam ngau nhien trong qua
cau mang ien tch dng.
5. Ket qua thc nghiem xac nh electron co:
- Khoi lng la 9,109510
28
g
- ien tch la 1.602210
19
C

Nguon cao the

Dong electron

() (+)
Catod Anod
Nguon cao the

ien trng (+)

() (+)
Catod () Anod
Hoa ai cng
2.2.2 Phong xa
1. Vao au the ky 20, Becquerel nhan thay hien tng phong xa cua uranium.
2. Hien tng phong xa nay tao ra cac bc xa co nang lng cao bao gom:
- Bc xa nhe co nang lng cao
- Hat | la electron co van toc cao
- Hat o co ien tch dng ln gap 2 lan ien tch cua electron (+2) va khoi lng ln
gap 7300 lan khoi lng cua electron

2.2.3 Proton
1. Khi ban pha la kim loai rat mong bang dong hat o, Rutherford nhan thay phan ln cac
hat o xuyen qua la kim loai va co mot lng nho hat o b oi hng.
2. ieu nay chng to ien tch dng khong the phan tan khap qua cau nguyen t theo
mo hnh Thomson ma phai tap trung vao hat nhan nguyen t co kch thc rat nho.
3. Mot lng nho hat o va cham vao hat nhan tch ien dng nen b oi hng.
4. Cac hat mang ien tch dng c goi la proton co:
- Khoi lng la 1,6725210
24
g (gap 1836 lan khoi lng cua electron)
- ien tch la +1.602210
19
C
5. Khoi lng cua nguyen t co the xem nh la khoi lng cua cac proton v electron co
khoi lng rat nho so vi proton.

2.2.4 Ntron
1. Mot van e con ton tai la ngoai tr hydro, cac nguyen to con lai co khoi lng hat nhan
ln hn khoi lng cua cac proton trong nguyen t.
2. V du: Hydro va heli co ien tch hat nhan lan lt la 1 va 2 nhng t so khoi lng cua
nguyen t khong phai la 1:2 ma lai la 1:4.
3. Nh vay, phai co them loai hat khac trong thanh phan cua hat nhan.
4. Khi ban pha la berili mong bang dong hat o, Chadwick thu c mot bc xa co nang
lng rat cao c xac nh la dong hat trung hoa ien co khoi lng hi ln hn proton
va c goi la ntron co:
- Khoi lng la 1,6749510
24
g (gap 1839 lan khoi lng cua electron)
5. Cac nguyen t cua mot nguyen to co so proton giong nhau nhng so ntron khac nhau
c goi la cac ong v cua nguyen to o.
2.2.5 Mo hnh nguyen t
1. Nguyen t bao gom hat nhan mang ien tch cha cac proton va ntron dng chiem
hau het khoi lng cua nguyen t va cac electron mang ien tch am quay chung quanh
hat nhan.
2. Ban knh cua hat nhan ch vao khoang 510
5
ban knh cua nguyen t.

2.3 Nguyen t
1. Nguyen t trung hoa ien la hat c s e tao thanh cac chat hoa hoc.
2. Trong cac phan ng hoa hoc, hat nhan nguyen t vi ac trng quan trong nhat la ien
tch dng cua no luon luon c bao toan.
3. V vay, nguyen t luon luon co kha nang hoi phuc tr lai trang thai trung hoa ien ban
au.
Hoa ai cng

2.3.1 Ky hieu nguyen t
1. Nguyen t cua mot nguyen to c ky hieu bang mot bo gom 3 d lieu sau:
to nguyen hieu Ky X
A khoi So
Z so t Nguyen

- X la ky hieu nguyen to cua nguyen t theo danh phap IUPAC
- Nguyen t so la so lng proton so lng electron cua nguyen t
- So khoi la so lng proton + so lng ntron cua nguyen t
2. V du:
- Nguyen to hydrogen co 3 ong v protium H
1
1
, deuterium H
2
1
va tritium H
3
1

- Nguyen to uranium co 2 ong v U
235
92
va U
238
92

3. Ngoai tr cac ong v cua hydrogen co ten rieng, cac ong v cua cac nguyen to khac
c goi ten theo khoi lng nguyen t cua ong v o. V du: Uranium-235 va
uranium-238.
4. Bai tap: Hay xac nh so lng proton, ntron va electron cua cac nguyen t sau ay:
(a) B
11
5
, (b) , (c) Hg
200
80
va (d) Au
197
79
.

Nguyen t X
A
Z
B
11
5
Hg
199
80
Hg
200
80
Au
197
79

So lng proton = Z 5 80 80 79
So lng ntron = A Z 6 119 120 118
So lng electron = Z 5 80 80 79

2.3.2 Khoi lng nguyen t va n v khoi lng nguyen t
1. Khoi lng cua mot nguyen t bao gom khoi lng cua cac proton, ntron va electron
cua nguyen t o.
2. Tuy nhien, do khoi lng cua mot nguyen t qua nho nen thc te khong the can c
khoi lng nay.
3. V du: Khoi lng cua mot nguyen t hydrogen la 0,1673.10
23
g, khoi lng cua mot
nguyen t oxigen la 2,6561.10
23
g.
4. V vay, ngi ta tien hanh so sanh khoi lng cua mot nguyen t nay vi mot nguyen t
khac.
5. Quy c quoc te chon mot nguyen t carbon-12 cha 6 proton va 6 ntron lam 12 n
v khoi lng nguyen t (atomic mass unit amu).
6. Khoi lng nguyen t cua mot nguyen to la khoi lng tnh bang n v nguyen t cua
mot nguyen t cua nguyen to o. V du:

Nguyen to Hydrogen Oxigen Sat
Khoi lng nguyen t amu 1,008 16,00 55,85

7. Do cac nguyen to c hnh thanh t cac ong v nen khoi lng nguyen t trung bnh
cua cac nguyen to la trung bnh khoi lng nguyen t cua cac ong v theo ham lng
cua ong v o trong t nhien.
Hoa ai cng
8. V du: Nguyen to carbon trong t nhien cha 98,89% carbon-12 va 11,11% carbon-13
vi khoi lng nguyen t lan lt la 12,00000 va 13,00335 amu. V vay. khoi lng
nguyen t trung bnh cua carbon la:
(0,988912,00000) + (0,111113,00335) = 12,01 amu
9. Bai tap: ong co 2 ong v ben vi cac so lieu nh sau:

ong v Cu
63
29
Cu
65
29

Khoi lng nguyen t amu 62,9300 64,9278
Ham lng nguyen t % 69,09 30,91

Hay xac nh khoi lng nguyen t trung bnh cua ong.
Khoi lng nguyen t trung bnh cua ong la:
(0,690962,9300) + (0,309164,9278) = 63,55 amu

2.3.3 Mol va so Avogadro
1. Chuc la mot n v so lng bang 10 ca the. Ta la mot n v so lng bang 12 ca the.
Tng t,
2. Mol la mot n v so lng hat t bang vi so lng nguyen t co trong 12g carbon-12.
1 mol = 6,02204510
23
hat t ~ 6,02210
23
hat t
3. Hat t la cac vi hat nh electron, proton, ntron, nguyen t, phan t, ion,
4. Con so 6,02204510
23
nay c goi la so Avogadro.
2.3.4 Nguyen t gam
1. Nguyen t gam cua mot nguyen to la mot khoi lng tnh bang gam cua nguyen to o
co so o bang vi khoi lng nguyen t trung bnh cua no.
2. Nh vay, 1 nguyen t gam cha 1 mol hay 6,02210
23
nguyen t cua nguyen to o.
3. V du: 1 nguyen t gam cua carbon la 12,01g cha 1 mol nguyen t carbon.

2.4 Chat hoa hoc
1. Moi chat hoa hoc c hnh thanh t cac nguyen t cua mot nguyen to hoac cua nhieu
nguyen to khac nhau.
2. Cac nguyen t trong chat lien ket vi nhau bang lien ket hoa hoc mang ban chat ien.
3. Cac nguyen t trong cac chat hoa hoc co the ton tai di nhieu hnh thc khac nhau:
a. Cac nguyen t ton tai di dang nguyen t oc lap va tng tac vi nhau bang lien
ket Van der Waals co cng o lien ket yeu nh cac kh tr heli, neon, argon,
b. Cac nguyen t lien ket vi nhau tao thanh mot tap hp hu han c goi la phan t
vi thanh phan va cau truc xac nh. Lien ket gia cac nguyen t trong phan t co
cng o manh. V du: Cac phan t O
2
, N
2
, H
2
O, CH
4
, CH
3
CH
2
OH,
c. Cac nguyen t lien ket manh vi nhau tao thanh mot tap hp vo han.
Xet ve cau truc cua chat:
- Cac nguyen t trong tap hp vo han nay co the c sap xep theo mot trat t
chat che tao thanh tinh the nh sat, kim cng, graphit, ng, NaCl,
Hoa ai cng
- Cac nguyen t trong tap hp vo han nay co the c sap xep khong theo mot
trat t chat che tao thanh chat vo nh hnh nh thuy tinh, PVC, PE,
Xet ve thanh phan cua chat:
- T le gia nguyen t trong tap hp vo han nay co the hoan toan co nh tao
thanh cac hp chat Dantonit nh NaCl, CaO, Cu
6
Sn,
- T le gia nguyen t trong tap hp vo han nay co the thay oi trong mot pham vi
rong tao thanh cac hp chat Bectholit nh TiO
2x
, hp kim CuSn,

2.4.1 n chat Hp chat
1. Chat hoa hoc c goi la n chat khi no c hnh thanh t cac nguyen t cua cung
mot nguyen to. V du: O
2
, N
2
, kim cng, graphit, sat, ong,
2. Chat hoa hoc c goi la hp chat khi no c hnh thanh t cac nguyen t cua nhieu
hn mot nguyen to co lien ket hoa hoc vi nhau. V du: CO
2
, H
2
O, NaCl,
3. Hon hp c hoc la mot tap hp gom nhieu chat hoa hoc tron lan vi nhau ma khong co
lien ket hoa hoc gia cac chat nay. V du: Hon hp muoi vi ng,

2.4.2 Hp chat phan t
1. Phan t la mot tap hp hu han cac nguyen t lien ket vi nhau vi thanh phan va cau
truc xac nh.
2. Nh vay, phan t co the la n chat hay hp chat.
3. Cong thc phan t bieu th chnh xac so lng nguyen t cua moi nguyen to tham gia
hnh thanh phan t. V du: O
2
, N
2
, H
2
O, CH
4
, CH
3
CH
2
OH,
4. Khoi lng phan t la tong khoi lng tnh bang n v nguyen t cua tat ca cac nguyen
t trong mot phan t.
5. V du: H
2
O co khoi lng phan t la:
(21.008) + (116,00) = 18,02 amu
6. Bai tap: Hay tnh khoi lng phan t cua (a) lu huynh dioxid (SO
2
) va (b) acid ascorbic
hay vitamin C (C
6
H
8
O
6
).
a. Khoi lng phan t cua lu huynh dioxid (SO
2
):
(132,07) + (216,00) = 64,07 amu
b. Khoi lng phan t cua acid ascorbic hay vitamin C (C
6
H
8
O
6
):
(612,01) + (81,008) + (616,00) = 176,12amu
7. Phan t gam cua mot chat la mot khoi lng tnh bang gam cua chat o co so o bang
vi khoi lng phan t cua no.
8. Nh vay, 1 phan t gam cha 1 mol hay 6,02210
23
phan t cua chat o.
9. V du: 1 phan t gam cua nc la 18,02g cha 1 mol phan t nc.

2.4.3 Hp chat ion
1. Khi mot nguyen t hay phan t trung hoa:
a. Mat bt electron, nh nguyen t Na mat bt 1 electron,
b. Mat bt nhom mang ien tch am, nh H
2
O mat bt 1 nhom OH
,
c. Nhan them nhom mang ien tch dng, nh NH
3
nhan them 1 nhom H
+
,
th se tao thanh hat t tch ien dng c goi la ion dng hay cation. Nh trong cac
v du tren se tao thanh cac cation Na
+
, H
+
, NH
4
+
,
Hoa ai cng
2. Khi mot nguyen t hay phan t trung hoa:
a. Nhan them electron, nh nguyen t Cl nhan them 1 electron,
b. Nhan them nhom mang ien tch am, nh BCl
3
nhan them 1 nhom Cl
,
c. Mat bt nhom mang ien tch dng, nh H
2
SO
4
mat bt 1 nhom H
+
,
th se tao thanh hat t tch ien am c goi la ion am hay anion. Nh trong cac v du
tren se tao thanh cac anion Cl
, BCl
4
, HSO
4
,
3. Cac ion ch cha 1 nguyen t nh Na
+
, H
+
, Cl
, Br
, S
2
, c goi la ion n gian. Cac
ion cha nhieu nguyen t nh NH
4
+
, BCl
4
, HSO
4
, c goi la ion phc tap.

4. Hp chat trung hoa c tao thanh t cac cation va cac anion c goi la hp chat ion.
5. Cac hp chat ion thng ton tai trang thai tap hp vo han cac cation va cac anion
trong mot tinh the. Mot tinh the co the cha en hang t t ion.
6. V vay, cong thc phan t cua hp chat ion ch la cong thc phan t hnh thc bieu th t
so cua cac ion tham gia hnh thanh hp chat ion.
7. V du: Cac cong thc NaCl, K
2
SO
4
, FeCl
3
, cho biet c 1 cation Na
+
ket hp vi 1 anion
Cl
, 2 cation K
+
ket hp vi 1 anion SO
4
2
,1 cation Fe
3+
ket hp vi 3 anion Cl
,
8. Khoi lng phan t cua hp chat ion la tong khoi lng tnh bang n v nguyen t cua
tat ca cac cation va anion trong mot phan t hnh thc.
9. V du: NaCl co khoi lng phan t la:
(122,99) + (135,45) = 58,44 amu
10. Do khoi lng cua electron rat nho nen ngi ta bo qua khi tnh khoi lng cua cac ion.

Chng 3
Cau truc ien t cua nguyen t

3.1 Bc xa ien t
Mot trong nhng cach nang lng truyen i trong khong gian la bi bc xa ien t.
3.1.1 Ban chat song cua bc xa ien t
1. Ban chat song cua bc xa ien t c the hien trong cac hien tng giao thoa va
nhieu xa.
2. Theo ly thuyet song, bc xa ien t la mot song ieu hoa gom hai thanh phan la ien
trng va t trng cung pha va vuong goc vi nhau.

Hnh 3.1 Dao ong ien va dao ong t cua song ien t
3. Bc xa ien t bao gom cac bc xa vo tuyen, vi song (MW), hong ngoai (IR), kha kien
(VIS), t ngoai (UV), tia X va tia .
Hoa ai cng

Hinh 3.2 Phan loai bc xa ien t
4. Cac bc xa ien t khac nhau co tng tac khac nhau oi vi vat chat nhng eu co
toc o di chuyen trong chan khong la c ~ 310
10
cm/s (van toc anh sang).
3.1.2 Cac ai lng ac trng cho ban chat song cua bc xa ien t
1. Bc song () la chieu dai cua mot dao ong hoan chnh cua mot bc xa. n v cua
bc song thng c tnh thay oi theo loai bc xa:
m, cm cho bc xa vi song
m cho bc xa hong ngoai
nm cho bc xa kha kien, t ngoai
cho bc xa tia X
1m = 10
2
cm = 10
6
m = 10
9
m = 10
10

2. Tan so (v) la so dao ong trong mot n v thi gian.

8
3.10 / )
,
-1
(
s
(m)
c m s
Hz v

= =
So song v la so dao ong trong mot n v chieu dai.

1 -
m ,
c
1 v
=
= v

Hnh 3.3 Hnh minh hoa ban chat song cua song ien t

Nang lng tang
Bc song tang
Tia Gamma
Tia X
Tia
cc
tm
Tia hng ngoi
Song radio
Anh sang thay c
Hoa ai cng
3. Bai tap: Hay tnh tan so va so song cua cac bc xa co bc song la 1m va 1m.
Giai:
Bc song Tan so So song
= 1m 3.10
8
s
1
1 m
1

= 1m = 10
6
m 3.10
14
s
1
10
6
m
1

3.1.3 Ban chat hat cua bc xa ien t
- Ban chat hat cua bc xa ien t c the hien trong cac hieu ng quang ien (phat xa
ien t xay ra khi ban bc xa ien t len be mat kim loai) va hieu ng Compton.
- Theo ly thuyet hat, bc xa bao gom cac hat nang lng c goi la photon.
- Mot bc xa ien t co tan so v tng ng vi bc song se co nang lng c c
tnh bang cong thc Planck:
v =
= v = c hc
c
h h (3.4)
-27
ec.s = 6,626.10
-34
J.s
v tan so cua bc xa, cm
1
= 10
2
m
1

c van toc anh sang, c = 300.000.000m/s
1ec = 10
-7
J = 2,3884.10
-8
cal = 0,6241 eV
- V du 1: Mot photon bc xa hong ngoai co so song v = 1 cm
-1
co nang lng:
c
1cm
-1 = hc v = 6,626.10
-27
ec.s 3.10
10
cm.s
-1
1 cm
-1

c
1cm
-1 = 1,988.10
-16
ec = 1,988.10
-23
J
- V du 2: Mot mol chat hap thu 1 mol photon bc xa hong ngoai co so song v = 1
cm
-1
se tang them mot so lng nang lng la:
AE
1cm
-1 = c N
A
= 1,988.10
-16
ec 6,023.10
23
mol
-1
= 1,197.10
8
ec.mol
-1

AE
1cm
-1 = 1,197.10
8
ec.mol
-1
= 11,97 J.mol
-1
= 2,859 cal.mol
-1

- V du 3: Mot photon bc xa t ngoai co bc song = 1 nm co nang lng la:
c
1nm
= hc/ = [6,626.10
-27
ec.s 3.10
10
cm.s
-1
] / 10
-7
cm
c
1nm
= 1,988.10
-10
ec = 1,988.10
-17
J
- V du 4: Mot mol chat hap thu 1 mol photon bc xa t ngoai co bc song = 1 nm
se tang them mot so lng nang lng la:
AE
1nm
= c N
A
= 1,988.10
-10
ec 6,023.10
23
mol
-1
= 1,197.10
14
ec.mol
-1

AE
1nm
= 1,197.10
14
ec.mol
-1
= 1,197.10
5
kJ.mol
-1
= 2,859.10
4
kcal.mol
-1

- Nh vay, nang lng cua bc xa a c lng t hoa thanh tng lng t nang lng
vo cung nho.
- S to hp cac photon khong dan en s triet tieu hay cong hng nang lng cua cac
photon ma ch la s cong tong nang lng cua cac photon.

3.1.4 Ban chat nh nguyen song hat cua bc xa ien t
1. Ch co the giai thch ay u cac hien tng xay ra khi tha nhan ban chat nh nguyen
song-hat cua bc xa ien t.
2. Nang lng cua mot photon c tnh bang cong thc Einstein:
c = mc
2
(3.5)
Hoa ai cng
3. S thong nhat ban chat song va ban chat hat the hien qua moi quan he gia khoi lng
cua photon vi tan so v va bc song cua bc xa la:

2
mc
c
h h =
= v = c (3.6)

3.1.5 Nguyen ly bat nh
1. Louis de Broglie m rong quan iem ve ban chat nh nguyen song hat cho toan bo cac
hat vat chat vi gia thuyet:
Chuyen ong cua mot hat vat chat bat ky eu co the xem nh mot qua trnh song c ac
trng bang bc song va tan so v c tnh theo he thc Broglie:

mv
h
= (3.7)
2. Ngi ta quan sat c hien tng nhieu xa ac trng cho ban chat song cua chum
ien t, phan t hydro, phan t heli, chng to gia thuyet Broglie ung.
3. T tnh chat song trong chuyen ong cua hat vi mo, Heisenberg chng minh nguyen ly
bat nh:
Khong the xac nh hoan toan chnh xac toa o va van toc cua hat vi mo mot cach ong
thi.
4. Neu goi Ax la sai so cua phep o toa o theo truc x va Av
x
la sai so cua phep o van
toc theo truc x th theo nguyen ly bat nh, ta co:

m
h
v . x
x
> A A (3.8)
-27
ec.s = 6,626.10
-34
J.s
5. Nh vay, neu phep o toa o cang chnh xac th phep o van toc cang kem chnh xac.
Ngc lai, neu phep o van toc cang chnh xac th phep o toa o cang kem chnh xac.

3.2 Mo hnh nguyen t Bohr
3.2.1 Lng t nang lng va quang pho vach
1. Quan iem co ien cho rang nang lng co tnh chat lien tuc, ngha la qua trnh hap thu
va bc xa nang lng co tnh chat lien tuc.
2. Song qua trnh hap thu va bc xa cua chat b ot nong cho thay pho thu c co dang
vach, ngha la nang lng co tnh chat gian oan ch khong lien tuc.
3. M. Plank a ra gia thuyet: Nang lng c hap thu hoac bc xa tng l ng nc vi n la so
nguyen va c la mot lng nang lng c ban c goi la l ng t nang lng.
v = c h

Hnh 3.3 Quang pho vach cua heli va thuy ngan

Hoa ai cng
3.2.2 Thuyet cau tao nguyen t cua Bohr
1. Quan iem c hoc co ien khong the giai thch mo hnh hanh tinh cua nguyen t theo
Rutherford v ien t mang ien tch am quay quanh hat nhan mang ien tch dng
theo nhng quy ao tron th se:
a. Phat xa nang lng lien tuc, va
b. Cuoi cung phai ri vao hat nhan
2. Niels Bohr s dung phoi hp mo hnh hanh tinh va quan niem lng t nang lng e
giai thch cac vach quang pho cua nguyen t hydro bang mo hnh nguyen t vi cac
quan iem sau:
a. ien t quay quanh hat nhan tren cac quy ao tron, ong tam va co ban knh xac
nh va c goi la quy ao ben.
b. Khi quay tren cac quy ao ben nay, nang lng cua ien t c bao toan, ngha la
cac ien t khong hap thu hoac bc xa ien t.
c. Moi quy ao co mot mc nang lng xac nh. Mc nang lng cang cao khi ban
knh cua quy ao cang ln.

Hnh 3.4 Quy ao Bohr

d. ien t ch co the hap thu mot lng t nang lng bang ung hieu nang lng
gia quy ao ln va quy ao nho e di chuyen t quy ao nho sang quy ao ln va
bc xa tr lai ung lng t nang lng o khi di chuyen ngc lai.
3. Da vao cac tien e tren, Bohr tnh c bieu thc cua cac ai lng ac trng.
4. Moment ong lng mvr cua ien t:

t
=
2
h
n mvr (3.9)
5. Van toc v cua ien t: Do khi quay tren quy ao th lc hut cua hat nhan len ien t va
lc ly tam cua ien t phai bang nhau, ta co:

2
2 2
r
e
r
mv
= (3.10)
nen ta co:
h
e 2
n
1
v
2
t
= (3.11)
6. Ban knh r cua quy ao:

2
e
2
2
2
e m 4
h
n r
t
= (3.12)
7. Nang lng E cua ien t: Bang tong ong nang va the nang:

r
e
r
mv
E
2 2
+ =
thay the cac gia tr, ta co:
2
4
e
2
2
h
e m 2
n
1
E
t
= (3.13)
Hoa ai cng
8. oi vi nguyen t hydrogen:
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
H n
n
1
R E (3.14)
vi R
h
la hang so Rydberg, R
h
= 2,1810
18
J
9. Nh vay, khi chuyen t quy ao n
b
ln hn ve quy ao n
a
nho hn, nguyen t hydrogen
se phat xa mot nang lng co so song la:

|
|
.
|
\
|
= v
2
b
2
a
H
n
1
n
1
R (3.15)
10. Cac cong thc tren cho thay (1) moment ong lng mvr, (2) van toc v, (3) ban knh r
va (4) nang lng E cua ien t ch phu thuoc vao so nguyen dng n. n c goi la so
lng t chnh.
11. Mo hnh nguyen t cua Bohr cho phep giai thch c ban chat cua quang pho vach va
tnh toan v tr cua cac vach cua nguyen t hydro va cac hat co mot ien t ben ngoai.
12. Nhng no khong giai thch c:
a. Quang pho cua cac nguyen t phc tap co nhieu hn 1 ien t
b. S tach cac vach quang pho di tac dung cua ien t trng
c. Ve nguyen tac th mo hnh nay phu nhan cac nh luat cua c hoc va ien t hoc
nhng lai s dung chnh cac nh luat nay e tnh toan
13. Bai tap: Hay tnh nang lng cua cac quy ao co n la 1 va 2 cua nguyen t hydrogen
theo cong thc (3.16). T o, suy ra tan so v va bc song cua bc xa can thiet e
kch thch ien t t quy ao co n = 1 len quy ao co n = 2.
Giai: J 10 . 64 , 1
2
1
1
1
J 10 . 18 , 2
n
1
n
1
R h E
18
2 2
18
2
a
2
b
H

= |
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= v = A

1 15
34 -
18
s 10 . 48 , 2
J.s 6,626.10
J 10 . 64 , 1
h
= =
c
= v
m 1 , 12 m 10 . 21 , 1
s 10 . 48 , 2
) s / m ( 10 . 3 c
5
1 15
10
= = =
v
=

3.2.3 C hoc co ien va C hoc lng t
1. C hoc co ien thch hp cho he v mo, con c hoc lng t thch hp cho he vi mo.
2. Tieu ch e s dung c hoc co ien hay c hoc lng t da tren hang so Planck h.
3. h = 6,626.10
-34
J.s chnh la mot tac dung tng ng tch nang lng thi gian.
4. Neu mot he co tac dung cung c vi h th bat buoc phai s dung c hoc lng t.
5. Neu mot he co tac dung rat ln so vi h th s dung c hoc co ien.

3.3 Ham song va phng trnh Schrdinger
3.3.1 Ham song
1. Theo c hoc co ien, trang thai chuyen ong cua mot vat tai thi iem t c xac nh
khi biet toa o khong gian va van toc cua vat.
2. Moi vi hat chuyen ong gan lien vi mot song co bien o phu thuoc vao toa o khong
gian va thi gian q(x,y,z,t) cua hat, ngha la ta co ham (q).
3. Ham co the la ham thc hay ham phc va c goi la ham song cua vi hat.
Hoa ai cng
4. Ham khong co y ngha vat ly nhng cha tat ca cac thong tin lien quan en vi hat.
5. Tien e: Bnh phng tr so tuyet oi cua ham song (q)
2
tai mot iem co toa o q la mat
o tm thay hat iem q.
6. (q)
2
dq bieu th xac suat tm thay hat trong vi the tch dq bao quanh iem q.

3.3.2 Phng trnh Schrdinger
1. Phng trnh Schrdinger la phng trnh c ban cua c hoc lng t c viet dii
dang tng trng la:
= E (3.16)
trong o: ham song cua vi hat
E nang lng toan phan cua he bao gom ong nang va the nang
toan t Hamilton
2. Phng trnh Schrdinger oi vi vi hat trang thai dng, ngha la trang thai co nang
lng xac nh, co dang nh sau:
= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c t c
E V
z y x
h
m
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
(3.17)
3.3.3 Van ao
1. Phng trnh Schrdinger cho phep xac nh ham t gia tr nang lng E cua vi hat
thu c bang thc nghiem.
2. T ham tren, xac nh c xac suat tm thay hat trong vi the tch dq bao quanh iem
q cua he la (q)
2
dq.
3. Cac xac suat tm thay nay cho biet khu vc ma hat thng xuyen co mat.
4. Mat gii han bao phu khong gian ma ien t co mat trong o at 90% thi gian c
goi la van ao cua ien t ang xet.

Hnh 3.5 Cac van ao 1s, 2s va 3s cua nguyen t hydrogen
(a) ng bieu dien (q)
2
dq (b) Mat o ien t (c) Van ao

Hoa ai cng

Hnh 3.6 Mat o ien t xuyen tam cua cac van ao 1s, 2s, 3s, 2p, 3p va 3d cua nguyen t
hydrogen

3.4 Cac so lng t Bo ay u cac ai lng vat ly
1. Viec giai phng trnh Schrodinger co s dung cac gia tr thc nghiem e tm cac
nghiem thoa man cac ieu kien lien tuc, n tr va hu han dan en s xuat hien ba
thong so nguyen c goi la cac so lng t:
a. So lng t chnh n: n = 1 2 3
b. So lng t phu l: l = 0 1 2 (n-1)
c. So lng t t m: m = 0 1 2 l
2. So lng t chnh n xac nh nang lng E
n
cua ien t trong nguyen t.
3. Ve mat trc quan, n c goi la lp ien t, n cang ln th so lp ien t cang nhieu va
kch thc nguyen t cang ln. Ta co:

n 1 2 3 4 5 6
Lp ien t K L M N O P

4. So lng t phu l xac nh dang thc cua ham so song .
5. Ve mat trc quan, l c goi la phan lp ien t, no cho biet hnh dang cua van ao.
6. Ta nhan thay lp th n co n phan lp. Ta co:

l
0 1 2 3
Phan lp ien t s p d f

Hoa ai cng

Hnh 3.7 Hnh dang va nh hng cua cac van ao

7. So lng t t m xac nh hnh chieu cua moment ong lng tren mot phng.
8. Ve mat trc quan, m cho biet hng cua van ao. Ta co:

m (l = 1)
1 0 +1
Hng van ao x z y

9. So lng t spin m
s
c a them vao e giai thch s phan tach cua pho phat xa
nguyen t di tac dung cua t trng.
10. Mot cach n gian, ngi ta cho rang ien t t quay chung quanh no theo thuan chieu
hoac nghch chieu kim ong ho nen so lng t nay ch co 2 gia tr la va .

3.4.1 Bo ay u cac ai lng vat ly
1. Nh vay, mot van ao c bieu th bang mot bo gom 3 so lng t la n, l va m.
2. Con mot ien t c bieu th bang mot bo gom 4 so lng t la n, l, m va m
s
.
3.4.2 So van ao trong mot lp
1. Lp th n co n phan lp.
2. Phan lp th l co (2 l + 1) van ao.
3. V vay, lp th n co n
2
van ao:

=
=
= +
1 n
0
2
n ) 1 2 (
van ao (3.18)

3.5 Nguyen t nhieu ien t
1. Khong the giai ung phng trnh Schrodinger cho nguyen t nhieu ien t do s tng
tac lan nhau gia cac ien t la qua phc tap.
2. Ngi ta phai dung phng phap gan ung e xac nh cac quy luat sap xep oi vi
cac ien t trong nguyen t thong qua cac nguyen ly va quy tac.

3.5.1 Nguyen ly ben vng
1. ien t se chiem lan lt cac van ao nguyen t co nang lng t thap en cao.
2. Nguyen ly nay cho phep sap xep cac ien t vao cac van ao thch hp.

Hoa ai cng
3.5.2 Nguyen ly loai tr Pauli
1. Trong mot nguyen t a ien t, khong co cap ien t nao co lan lt ca 4 so lng t
giong nhau.
2. Da vao nguyen ly nay, ta thay:
a. Moi van ao cha toi a 2 ien t co spin oi nhau
b. Moi phan lp cha toi a 2(2l + 1) ien t
c. Moi lp cha toi a 2n
2
ien t

3.5.3 Quy tac Klechkowski
1. Trong mot nguyen t a ien t, cac ien t c sap xep vao cac van ao sao cho:
a. Tong (n + l) tang dan
b. oi vi cac van ao co tong (n + l) bang nhau th theo hng co n tang dan.
2. Quy tac nay c cu the hoa bang gian o Klechkowski.

3.5.4 Quy tac Hund
1. Trong cung mot phan lp, cac ien t se c sap xep sao cho tong spin cua chung la
cc ai, co ngha la so ien t oc than la cc ai.
2. Nh vay, moi van ao trong mot phan lp trc het phai cha mot ien t oc than roi i
mi co s cap oi ien t.
3. Quy tac Hund va Klechkowski cho phep sap xep ien t cho cac nguyen to khac nhau,
hoac t cach sap xep ien t hay so lng t cua ien t cuoi cung suy ra nguyen to.
V du:
20
Ca se co cau hnh ien t la 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
hay [Ar] 4s
2
, va ngc lai.
4. Trong qua trnh sap xep, ien t co xu hng chuyen sang trang thai bao hoa hay ban
bao hoa co nang lng thap hn.
V du:
24
Cr co cau hnh ien t [Ar] 4s
1
3d
5
thay v [Ar] 4s
2
3d
4
.

3.6 Hieu ng man va ien tch hieu dung
3.6.1 Hieu ng man
1. Cac ien t lp vo ben trong se ngan can lc hut gia hat nhan vi ien t ben ngoai
giong nh a tao thanh mot man chan gia hat nhan va ien t.
2. Do xac suat hien dien cua cac ien t cac van ao s, p, d va f vung quanh hat
nhan la khac nhau, cac van ao co hnh dang va nh hng khac nhau nen s ngan
can lc hut cua cac ien t ben trong cac van ao khac nhau se khac nhau.

3.6.2 ien tch hieu dung
1. Do tac dung cua hieu ng man, hat nhan co ien tch Z se ch hut ien t vi mot ien
tch hieu dung Z
hd
< Z.

Hoa ai cng
3.7 Quy tac Slater
3.7.1 ai cng
1. e giai phng trnh song Schroedinger mot cach de dang, ngi ta chuyen t he truc
toa o vuong goc Descartes vi cac thong so x, y va z sang he toa o cau vi cac
thong so r, u va .
2. Ta a biet la ham khong gian bang tch cua ham ban knh va ham cau tng ng:

nlm
(r,u,) = R
nl
(r).Y
lm
(u,)
3. Ket qua giai phng trnh Schroedinger a xac nh c ham cau nen muon xac nh
ham song th ch can xac nh ham ban knh R
nl
.
4. Sau khi nghien cu nhieu tai lieu thc nghiem va tnh toan theo ly thuyet, nam 1930,
Slater a a ra he thc gan ung xac nh ham ban knh R va ham nang lng E cua
mot ien t c n gian hoa theo bieu thc sau:

-
- -

=
n / r 1
) Z ( n
e . r . c ) r ( R ,

2
2
) n (
) Z (
6 , 13 E
-
-
= , eV (3.19)
trong o: Z* ien tch hieu dung
n* So lng t chnh hieu dung
5. Cac gia tr so lng t chnh hieu dung n* va ien tch hat nhan hieu dung Z* c xac
nh theo cac quy tac Slater.
3.7.2 Quy tac Slater ve so lng t chnh hieu dung n*
1. So lng t chnh hieu dung n* c xac nh t so lng t chnh n theo cac gia tr
n gian sau:

n 1 2 3 4 5 6
n* 1 2 3 3,7 4,0 4,2

3.7.3 Quy tac Slater ve ien tch hat nhan hieu dung Z*
1. Cac van ao c sap thanh cac hang sau:

Hang 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Van ao 1s 2s ,2p 3s, 3p 3d 4s, 4p 4d 4f 5s, 5p

2. ien tch dng hieu dung cua hat nhan tac ong len mot ien t x ang xet c xac
nh t ien tch hat nhan Z va tong hang so chan Eb cua cac ien t con lai:
Z
hd
= Z Eb (3.20)
3. Tong hang so chan Eb c xac nh nh sau:
a. Cac ien t co hang ln hn hang cua ien t x co hang so chan b = 0 v nam ben
ngoai ien t x nen khong co tac dung chan.
b. Moi ien t tren cac van ao cung hang vi ie n t x co hang so chan b = 0,35.
Rieng trng hp ien t x thuoc hang 1 (1s) th b = 0,30.
c. Moi ien t tren cac van ao co hang nho hn hang cua ien t x co hang so chan
b = 1.
Hoa ai cng
d. Rieng oi vi ien t x thuoc cac van ao ns va np th cac ien t tren tang nang
lng chnh n = n 1 co hang so chan b = 0,85.
4. V du: Tnh hang so chan cua cac ien t 1s, 2s, 3p, 3d va 5s.

Hang 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Van ao 1s 2s ,2p 3s, 3p 3d 4s, 4p 4d 4f 5s, 5p
Th du 1 0,30 0
Th du 2 0,85 0,35 0
Th du 3 1 0,85 0,35 0
Th du 4 1 1 1 0,35 0
Th du 5 1 1 1 1 0,85 0,85 0,85 0,35

3.7.4 Th du
Hay tnh (1) tong hang so chan Eb, (2) ien tch hieu dung Z* cho cac ien t 1s va
2s2p cua nguyen t fluor trang thai c ban.
Giai:
Tnh tong hang so chan Eb va ien tch hieu dung Z*
oi vi ien t 1s: Eb = 0,3 Z* = 9 0,3 = 8,7
oi vi ien t 2s2p: Eb = (6 0,35) + (2 0,85) = 3,8 Z* = 9 3,8 = 5,2

Chng 4
nh luat Tuan hoan cua cac nguyen to

1. So lng cac nguyen to va hp chat c kham pha va tong hp ra ngay cang tang vi
toc o rat nhanh.
2. e co the hieu ro cac tnh chat cua cac nguyen to cung nh d oan va so sanh tnh
chat cua cac nguyen to va cac hp chat cua chung, can phai phan loai cac nguyen to
theo cac tnh chat giong nhau cua chung.
3. Co nhieu no lc phan loai cac nguyen to theo cac tieu chuan khac nhau, trong o, cong
trnh thanh cong nhat la cua Mendeleev.

4.1 Bang phan loai tuan hoan
4.1.1. nh luat tuan hoan
1. Nam 1869, Mendeleev cong bo nh luat tuan hoan: Tnh chat cua cac nguyen to cung
nh thanh phan va tnh chat cua cac n chat va hp chat tao nen t cac nguyen to o
bien thien mot ca ch tuan hoan theo th t tang dan cua khoi lng nguyen t.
2. Vi nhng thanh qua trong viec xac nh cau truc cua nguyen t, t nam 1913, ngi ta
sap xep nguyen t theo th t tang dan cua ien tch hat nhan.

Hoa ai cng
4.1.2. Nguyen tac sap xep cac nguyen to trong bang phan loai tuan hoan
1. Da tren nh luat tuan hoan, Medeleev thiet lap bang phan loai tuan hoan dang ngan
giong nh dang bang ngan hien nay gom 8 cot the hien 8 nhom va 7 hang kep the hien
7 chu ky.
2. Moi cot c phan thanh hai loai the hien phan nhom chnh va phu bang cach sap xep
ve pha ben phai (A) va ben trai (B).
3. Cac nguyen to c sap xep theo th t tang dan cua ien tch hat nhan. So th t cua
cac nguyen to cho biet trc tiep ngay so ien t co trong nguyen t.
4. Cac nguyen to co cau hnh ien t hoa tr giong nhau se c sap trong cung mot cot
do co tnh chat hoa hoc giong nhau.
5. Hien nay thng s dung dang bang dai, trong o moi hang c goi la mot chu ky.
6. So lng t chnh n (so lp vo ien t) cua nguyen to trung vi so th t cua chu ky.
7. Mot chu ky c bat au bang mot kim loai kiem (ngoai tr hydro) co cau hnh ien t
ns
1
va c ket thuc bang mot kh tr co cau hnh ns
2
np
6
(tr He).

4.2 Cau truc cua bang phan loai tuan hoan dang dai
1. Muc tieu cua bang phan loai tuan hoan la sap xep cac nguyen to theo th t tang dan
cua ien tch hat nhan (cung la tang dan cua so ien t) sao cho cac nguyen to co tnh
chat hoa hoc giong nhau nam tren cung mot cot hay hang.
2. Cac ien t hoa tr la cac ien t co nang lng cao thuoc cac van ao ns, (n2)f,
(n1)d va np.
3. Tnh chat hoa hoc cua nguyen to phu thuoc chu yeu vao so lng ien t hoa tr va so
lp vo ien t nh sau:

Lp vo ien t Van ao hoa tr
Tong so ien t hoa tr
s, p d f
1 K 1s 2
2 L 2s, 2p 8
3 M 3s, 3p 8
4 N 4s, 3d, 4p 8 10
5 O 5s, 4d, 5p 8 10
6 P 6s, 4f, 5d, 6s 8 10 14
7 Q 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p 8 10 14
Lu y: Cac ien t c sap xep theo quy tac Klechkowski.

Chu ky 1A BANG PHAN LOAI TUAN HOAN 8A
1 K H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
2 L Li Be B C N O F Ne
3 M Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B Al Si P S Cl Ar
4 N K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5 O Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6 P Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Hoa ai cng
7 Q Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq

Lantanid Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Actinid Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

4. Da vao s phan bo ien t nh tren, ngi ta xay dng loai bang phan loai tuan hoan
dang dai bao gom:
a. 7 hang the hien 7 lp vo ien t (chu ky) c anh so t 1 en 7 (hay K en Q)
- Ba chu ky au la cac chu ky ngan.
- Bon chu ky tiep theo la cac chu ky dai.
b. 18 cot the hien cac ien t hoa tr ns, (n1)d va np, phan thanh hai phan nhom:
- Phan nhom chnh A gom cac nguyen to khong co ien t hoa tr (n1)d.
- Phan nhom phu B gom cac nguyen to co ien t hoa tr (n1)d.
- Cac phan nhom c anh so t 1 en 8 kem theo phan nhom A hay B.
- Rieng phan nhom 8B gom 3 cot cua cac nguyen to co cau hnh ien t hoa tr
d
6
, d
7
va d
8
do chung co tnh chat hoa hoc rat giong nhau.
c. Cac nguyen to f c sap rieng trong hai hang co 14 cot khong c anh so va
c goi la nhom lantanid va actinid.
5. Cau hnh ien t cua cac phan nhom chnh A:

Phan nhom 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
ien t hoa tr ns
1
ns
2
ns
2
np
1
ns
2
np
2
ns
2
np
3
ns
2
np
4
ns
2
np
5
ns
2
np
6

6. Cau hnh ien t cua cac phan nhom phu B:

Phan nhom 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
ien t hoa tr
ns
2

(n-1)d
1

ns
2

(n-1)d
2

ns
2

(n-1)d
3

ns
1

(n-1)d
5

ns
2

(n-1)d
5

ns
2

(n-1)d
6

ns
2

(n-1)d
7

ns
2

(n-1)d
8

ns
1

(n-1)d
10

ns
2

(n-1)d
10

7. Cau hnh ien t cua cac lantanid va actinid:

ns
2

(n-2)f
2

ns
2

(n-2)f
3

ns
2

(n-2)f
4

ns
2

(n-2)f
5

(n-1)d
1

ns
2

(n-2)f
7

ns
2

(n-1)d
1

(n-2)f
7

ns
2

(n-2)f
9

ns
2

(n-2)f
10

ns
2

(n-2)f
11

ns
2

(n-2)f
12

ns
2

(n-2)f
13

ns
2

(n-2)f
14

ns
2

(n-1)d
1

(n-2)f
14

8. Nhan xet:
a. Cac nguyen to trong cung mot cot co cung cau hnh ien t hoa tr vi so lp vo
tang dan t tren xuong di.
b. Cac nguyen to trong cung mot chu ky co cung so lp vo ien t vi so ien t hoa
tr tang dan t trai sang phai trong mot phan nhom.
c. Cau hnh ien t bao hoa va ban bao hoa co o ben ln hn nen lam thay oi s
sap xep ien t cua mot so nguyen to nh:
-
24
Cr 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
1
3d
5
[Ar] 4s
1
3d
5
thay v [Ar] 4s
2
3d
4

-
29
Cu 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
1
3d
10
[Ar] 4s
1
3d
10
thay v [Ar] 4s
2
3d
9

Hoa ai cng
d. Co trng hp ac biet cac nguyen to lantanid va actinid, ien t cuoi cung c
sap xep vao van ao (n-1)d thay v vao van ao (n-2)f.

4.3 Bien thien tuan hoan mot so tnh chat cua cac nguyen to
4.3.1 Bien thien cua ban knh nguyen t
1. Ngi ta quy c ban knh cong hoa tr cua nguyen t A
bang mot na khoang cach gia 2 nguyen t A khi lien
ket AA la lien ket n cong hoa tr.

2
d
r
A A
A

= (4.1)
2. Khi i t trai sang phai trong cung mot chu ky, ban knh nguyen t giam dan do cac
nguyen t co so lp vo ien t bang nhau trong luc ien tch hat nhan tang len lam lc
hut gia hat nhan vi ien t tang len khien cho khoang cach gia hat nhan va ien t
ngan lai lam ban knh giam i.
V du: S gia tang ban knh cua nguyen to thuoc chu ky 3:

Nguyen t Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Ban knh nguyen t, 1,54 1,30 1,18 1,11 1,06 1,01 0,99 0,98

3. Khi i t tren xuong di trong cung mot phan nhom, ban knh nguyen t tang dan do
so lp vo ien t cua cac nguyen t tang len.
V du: S gia tang ban knh cua nguyen to thuoc phan nhom 4A a 4B:

Phan nhom 4A 4B
Nguyen t C Si Ge Sn Pb Ti Zr Hf
Ban knh nguyen t, 0,91 1,43 1,39 1,58 1,75 1,46 1,60 1,59

4. chu ky 4 lan au tien xuat hien cac nguyen to d a gay ra hieu ng co d.
a. Hieu ng co d oi vi cac nguyen to d trong cung chu ky lam cho ban knh cua cac
nguyen to d giam t khi i t trai sang phai.
V du: S gia tang ban knh cua nguyen to 3d thuoc chu ky 4:

3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
Sc 1,64 Ti 1,45 V 1,35 Cr 1,27 Mn 1,32 Fe 1,27 Co 1,26 Ni 1,24 Cu 1,28 Zn 1,39

- Nguyen nhan cua hien tng nay la do ien t them vao van ao (n-1)d nam
lp vo ben trong co hang so chan b = 0,85 nen lc hut gia hat nhan len ien
t ns tang t mac du ien tch hat nhan van tang.

b. Hieu ng co d oi vi cac nguyen to p trong cung chu ky lam cho ban knh cua cac
nguyen to p nay tang rat t khi i t tren xuong di trong cung mot phan nhom.
V du: S gia tang ban knh cua nguyen to kim loai thuoc cac phan nhom p:

Chu ky Hieu ng 3B 2B 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
2 B C N O F
dAA
Hoa ai cng
3 Al 1,43 Si P S Cl
4 Co d Zn 1,39 Ga 1,40 Ge 1,40 As 1,50 Se Br
5 Co d Cd 1,57 In 1,66 Sn 1,58 Sb 1,60 Te I
6 Co f La 1,87 Hg 1,62 Tl 1,73 Pb 1,75 Bi 1,70 Po 1,70

- Nguyen nhan cua hien tng nay la do viec tang them en 10 ien t vao van
ao (n-1)d nam lp vo ben trong du co hang so chan b = 0,85 van lam cho
lc hut gia hat nhan len ien t np tang len ro ret khi tang chu ky.

c. Hieu ng co d lap lai chu ky 5 co tac dung khong manh bang chu ky 4.
5. chu ky 6 lan au tien xuat hien cac nguyen to f a gay ra hieu ng co f.
a. Hieu ng co f oi vi cac nguyen to f trong cung chu ky lam cho ban knh cua cac
nguyen to f giam t khi i t trai sang phai.
V du: S gia tang ban knh cua nguyen to kim loai cua cac lantanid va actinid:

La 1,87 Ce 1,82 Pr 1,83 Nd 1,82 Pm Sm1,80 Eu 2,04 Gd 1,80 Tb 1,78 Dy 1,77 Ho 1,77 Er 1,76 Tu 1,75 Yb 1,94 Lu 1,73
Ac 1,88 Th 1,80 Pa 1,61 U 1,55 Np 1,58 Pu 1,73 Am1,73 Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

- Nguyen nhan cua hien tng nay la do ien t them vao van ao (n-2)f nam
lp vo sau ben trong co hang so chan b = 0,85 nen lc hut gia hat nhan len
ien t ns tang t mac du ien tch hat nhan van tang.

b. Hieu ng co f oi vi cac nguyen to (n-1)d trong cung chu ky lam cho ban knh cua
cac nguyen to d nay giam rat t, tham ch hi tang khi i t tren xuong di trong
cung mot phan nhom.
V du: S gia tang ban knh cua nguyen to d thuoc chu ky 4, 5 va 6:

3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
Sc 1,64 Ti 1,45 V 1,35 Cr 1,27 Mn 1,32 Fe 1,27 Co 1,26 Ni 1,24 Cu 1,28 Zn 1,39
Y 1,80 Zr 1,60 Nb 1,48 Mo 1,40 Tc 1,35 Ru 1,32 Rh 1,34 Pd 1,37 Ag 1,44 Cd 1,57
La 1,87 Hf 1,59 Ta 1,48 W 1,41 Re 1,37 Os 1,34 Ir 1,36 Pt 1,39 Au 1,44 Hg 1,62

- Nguyen nhan cua hien tng nay la do viec them 14 ien t vao van ao (n-2)f
nam lp vo ben trong du co hang so chan b = 0,85 van lam cho lc hut gia
hat nhan len ien t np tang len ro ret khi tang chu ky.

c. Hieu ng co f oi v i cac nguyen to p trong cung chu ky lam cho ban knh cua cac
nguyen to p nay tang rat t khi i t tren xuong di trong cung mot phan nhom.
V du: S gia tang ban knh cua nguyen to kim loai thuoc cac phan nhom p:

Chu ky Hieu ng 3B 2B 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
2 B C N O F
3 Al 1,43 Si P S Cl
4 Co d Zn 1,39 Ga 1,40 Ge 1,40 As 1,50 Se Br
Hoa ai cng
5 Co d Cd 1,57 In 1,66 Sn 1,58 Sb 1,60 Te I
6 Co f La 1,87 Hg 1,62 Tl 1,73 Pb 1,75 Bi 1,70 Po 1,70

- Nguyen nhan cua hien tng nay la do viec tang them en 24 ien t vao van
ao (n-1)d va (n-2)f nam lp vo ben trong du co hang so chan b = 0,85 van
lam cho lc hut gia hat nhan len ien t np tang len ro ret khi tang chu ky .

d. Hieu ng co f lap lai chu ky 7 neu co, se khong manh bang chu ky 6.
4.3.2 Bien thien cua nang lng ion hoa I
1. Nang lng ion hoa I la nang lng can thiet e tach mot ien t ra khoi nguyen t
(hay ion) pha kh va trang thai c ban.
2. Khi i t trai sang phai trong cung mot chu ky, nang lng ion hoa tang dan do lc hut
gia hat nhan va ien t tang dan khi ban knh giam dan.
3. Khi i t tren xuong di trong cung mot phan nhom, nang lng ion hoa giam dan do
lc hut gia hat nhan va ien t giam dan khi ban knh tang dan.
4. Cac tieu phan co cau hnh ien t bao hoa hay ban bao hoa se co nang lng ion hoa
cao hn bnh thng do o ben ac biet cua cac cau hnh nay.

4.3.3 Bien thien cua nang lng anion hoa A (ai lc ien t)
1. Nang lng anion hoa A la nang lng can thiet e nhan mot ien t vao nguyen t
(hay ion) pha kh va trang thai c ban.
2. Khi i t trai sang phai trong cung mot chu ky, nang lng anion hoa tang dan va co
cc ai tai cac halogen do ban knh giam dan.
3. Khi i t tren xuong di trong cung mot phan nhom, nang lng anion hoa giam dan
do ban knh tang dan.
4. Cac tieu phan co cau hnh ien t bao hoa hay ban bao hoa se co nang lng anion
hoa cao hn bnh thng do o ben ac biet cua cac cau hnh nay.

Bang 4.1 Bien thien cua cac tnh chat trong Bang Phan loai tuan hoan
Bien thien trong Bang Phan loai Tuan hoan I A
_
| | |
+ + + +

4.3.4 Bien thien cua o am ien _
1. o am ien _ bieu th kha nang cua mot nguyen to keo ien t ve pha no khi hnh
thanh lien ket hoa hoc.
2. Khi i t trai sang phai trong cung mot chu ky, o am ien tang dan.
3. Khi i t tren xuong di trong cung mot phan nhom, o am ien giam dan.
4. Pauling e ngh cong thc xac nh o am ien nh sau:
a. Xet 3 phan t A
2
, B
2
va AB co lien ket mang tnh cong hoa tr vi nang lng lien
ket lan lt la E
AA
, E
BB
va E
AB
.
b. Neu lien ket la cong hoa tr 100%, ta co:

B B A A B A
E . E E

= , kcal/mol (4.2)
Hoa ai cng
hay mol / kcal 0 E . E E E
B B A A B A
= = A

(4.3)
c. Neu lien ket AB b phan cc th moi lien he gia o am ien _ va AE c tnh
theo cong thc:
E 18 , 0
A B
A = _ _ (4.4)
trong o: _
F
c gan bang 4
5. Mulliken e ngh cong thc xac nh o am ien nh sau:
_
A
= (I
A
+ A
A
) (4.5)
6. Lu y la ngi ta thng s dung 2 khai niem khac nhau la (1) o phan cc cua lien ket
va (2) tac dung phan cc va b phan cc cua cac ion.

4.3.5 Bien thien cua tnh kim loai-khong kim loai
1. Bien thien cua tnh kim loai-khong kim loai phu hp vi bien thien cua o am ien.
2. Khi i t trai sang phai trong cung mot chu ky, tnh kim loai giam dan nen tnh kh
giam. Va tnh khong kim loai tang dan nen tnh oxi hoa tang.

Bang 4.2 Bien thien cua tnh kim loai trong Bang Phan loai tuan hoan
Bien thien trong Bang Phan loai Tuan hoan Tnh kim loai Tnh kh
+
+ |

3. Khi i t tren xuong di trong cung mot phan nhom, tnh kim loai tang dan nen tnh
kh tang. Va tnh khong kim loai giam dan nen tnh oxi hoa giam.

Chng 5
Lien ket hoa hoc phi c hoc lng t

5.1 Phan t
1. Phan t bao gom mot so xac nh cac nguyen t lien ket vi nhau va c phan bo
mot cach xac nh trong khong gian tao thanh cau truc ben vng. V du: CH
4
, SF
6
,

Hnh 5.1 Mo hnh phan t CH
4
, SF
6
va tinh the NaCl

2. oi vi mot so hp chat co cau truc tinh the nh kim cng, NaCl, th phai m rong
khai niem phan t la toan bo tinh the do khong the tach rieng tng phan t C hay NaCl
3. Mot cach chnh xac, khi tao lien ket e hnh thanh phan t, cac nguyen t khong con
ton tai nh cau truc ban au cua no.
Hoa ai cng
4. Mot cach gan ung, ngi ta xem nh ch co lp vo ien t hoa tr cua nguyen t tham
gia vao qua trnh tao lien ket.
5. Nguyen tac c ban la cac nguyen t lien ket vi nhau hnh thanh phan t co nang
lng thap hn tong nang lng cua cac nguyen t ban au nen he ben vng hn.

5.2 Lien ket hoa hoc
1. Lien ket hoa hoc co ban chat ien tao lc hut gi cac nguyen t lai vi nhau.
2. Cac thong so ac trng cho lien ket:
a. o dai lien ket d ( = 10
10
m) cua 1 lien ket la khoang cach can bang gia 2 hat
nhan cua 2 nguyen t lien ket vi nhau.
b. Goc lien ket (
0
) la goc tao bi 2 oan thang tng tng i qua cac hat nhan cua
nguyen t trung tam va 2 nguyen t lien ket vi no.
c. Bac lien ket N la so lng lien ket cong hoa tr c hnh thanh gia 2 nguyen t
ang xet. V du: Bac lien ket cua N trong NN la 3.
d. Nang lng lien ket E (kcal/mol, kJ/mol) la nang lng can cung cap e cat t 1
lien ket (hay nang lng toa ra khi hnh thanh 1 lien ket). Ngi ta thng s dung
gia tr tuyet oi cua nang lng e so sanh, ngha la gia tr tuyet oi cua nang lng
lien ket cang ln thi lien ket cang ben.
Ngc lai, theo quy c cua nhiet ong lc hoc th qua trnh toa nhiet mang dau tr,
ngha la nang lng lien ket cang am (hay cang thap) th lien ket cang ben.
5.3 Quy tac bat bo
1. Thc nghiem cho thay la ngoai tr Heli co 2 ien t, cac kh tr con lai co 8 ien t
lp vo ngoai cung va rat ben vng.
2. Quy tac bat bo cho rang nhieu nguyen t co xu hng lien ket vi nhau bang mot cach
nao o e co the hnh thanh c lp vo ngoai cung cha 8 ien t.
3. Quy tac bat bo ch ung oi vi cac nguyen to thuoc chu ky 2 co 4 van ao hoa tr cha
toi a 8 ien t ma khong con ung oi vi cac nguyen to thuoc cac chu ky khac.

5.4 Lien ket ion
5.4.1 ieu kien hnh thanh lien ket ion
1. Khi cac nguyen t lien ket vi nhau co o am ien khac biet ln th chung co kha nang
cho va nhan cac ien t hoa tr e tr thanh cac cation va anion.
2. Nguyen t cho ien t la 1 kim loai, nguyen t nhan ien t la 1 khong kim loai.
3. Khi chenh lech o am ien > 2,2 th tnh ion cua lien ket > 70% va ta co the xem nh
lien ket la lien ket ion. Khong co lien ket ion 100%.

Bang 5.1 Moi lien he gia o chenh lech o am ien va tnh ion
A_
% ion
A_
% ion
A_
% ion
A_
% ion
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1
4
9
15
22
1,2
1,4
1,6
1,8
2,0
30
39
47
55
63
2,2
2,4
2,6
2,8
3,0
70
76
82
86
89
3,2 92

Hoa ai cng
5.4.2 ien hoa tr (hoa tr ion)
1. Hoa tr cua mot nguyen to la so lng nguyen t hydro ma nguyen t cua nguyen to o
co kha nang ket hp hay thay the. Hoa tr luon luon la mot so nguyen dng.
2. Ngi ta nh ngha ien hoa tr (hoa tr ion) cua mot nguyen to la ien tch hnh thc
cua nguyen to o trang thai ion va thng c goi tat la hoa tr.
3. V vay, ien hoa tr co the dng hoac am. V du:

Hp chat ion NaF Al
2
(SO
4
)
3

Ion Na
+
F
Al
3+
SO
4
2

ien hoa tr +1 1 +3 2

5.4.3 o ben va tnh chat cua lien ket ion
1. Lc lien ket ion co ban chat tnh ien nen co the d oan o ben cua lien ket bang
nang lng tng tac tnh ien A:

) r r (
e ) q q (
k A
2
+
+
+
= (5.1)
trong o: q
+
, q
gia tr ien tch tuyet oi cua cation va anion

r
+
, r
ban knh cua cation va anion

k he so t le
e ien tch cua ien t
2. Phng trnh (5.1) cho thay o ben lien ket ion cang ln khi:
a. ien tch cua cac cation va anion cang ln
b. Ban knh cua chung cang nho.
3. Trong o, yeu to ien tch quan trong hn do:
a. Yeu to ien tch la tch cua 2 ien tch
b. Yeu to ban knh la tong cua 2 ban knh cation va anion
V du: Xet s bien oi cua nang lng tng tac tnh ien cua hp chat A
I
X
I
co ban
knh cua cation va anion eu la 1 khi tang ien tch cua anion len gap oi va khi
giam ban knh cua anion con mot na.

ien tch va ban knh q
= 1, r
= 1 q
= 2, r
= 1 q
= 1, r
= 0,5
Nang lng tnh ien
) 1 1 (
e ) 1 1 (
k A
2
+
=
) 1 1 (
e ) 2 1 (
k A
2
+
=
) 5 , 0 1 (
e ) 1 1 (
k A
2
+
=
Gia tr tng oi A 2A 0,67A

4. Lien ket ion co 2 tnh chat ac trng:
a. Bat nh hng: Mot ion hut cac ion ngc dau theo moi phng la nh nhau.
b. Bat bao hoa: Mot ion hut cac ion ngc dau vi so lng cang nhieu cang tot,
ngoai tr yeu to khong gian han che so lng ion trai dau co the bao quanh ion o.

Hoa ai cng
5.4.4 Tinh the ion Nang lng mang tinh the
1. Tinh the c ac trng bang s sap xep cua cac tieu phan nh phan t, ion, nguyen
t, mot cach trat t va tuan hoan trong khong gian.
2. Do tnh bat nh hng va bat bao hoa cua lien ket ion nen cac hp chat ion tao thanh
cac tinh the ion ch khong tao thanh phan t rieng le. Cac phan t ch co the ton tai
trang thai hi tai nhiet o cao. V du 1440
0
C mi co phan t NaCl.

Hnh 5.1 Tinh the NaCl va tinh the CsCl
3. Trong tinh the ion, khong co lien ket n thuan gia mot cation va mot anion rieng le
ma moi ion hut tat ca cac ion ngc dau va ay tat ca cac ion cung dau trong tinh the.
4. Nang lng mang tinh the la nang lng toa ra khi hnh thanh mot mol tinh the t trang
thai kh.
5. Noi chung, nang lng mang tinh the ion cang ln khi cac ion co ien tch cang ln va
ban knh cang nho.

5.5 Lien ket cong hoa tr theo thuyet Lewis
5.5.1 ieu kien hnh thanh lien ket cong hoa tr
1. Theo Lewis, khi cac nguyen t lien ket vi nhau co o am ien gan nhau th chung co
kha nang dung chung ien t tao thanh lien ket cong hoa tr e at c cau hnh ien
t cua kh tr gan nhat.
V du: H- + -Cl HCl (Cong thc Lewis)
2. ien t tao thanh lien ket cong hoa tr chu yeu khu tru trong khong gian gia 2 hat
nhan nen gan ket 2 nguyen t lai vi nhau.
3. Trong trng hp ac biet, oi ien t dung chung ch do mot ben cung cap th ta goi la
lien ket cong hoa tr-cho nhan hay lien ket phoi tr.
V du: H
3
N + H
+
H
3
NH
+
NH
4
+

5.5.2 Hoa tr (cong hoa tr)
Hoa tr cua nguyen to luc o c goi la cong hoa tr hay ch n gian la hoa tr va
bang tong so lien ket ma nguyen to o hnh thanh c. V vay, hoa tr luon luon dng.

5.5.3 Tnh chat cua lien ket cong hoa tr
1. Lien ket cong hoa tr co 2 tnh chat ac trng:
a. nh hng: Moi lien ket cong hoa tr nh hng theo mot phng xac nh.
b. Bao hoa: Moi nguyen t co mot so lng lien ket cong hoa tr xac nh va thong
thng khong ln hn 6.

Hoa ai cng
5.5.4 Cach viet cong thc Lewis (cong thc cau tao)
1. Cong thc Lewis la hnh thc bieu th tieu phan (phan t: CH
4
, ion phc tap: SO
4
2
,)
vi cac oi ien t lien ket hay t do c bieu dien bang cac ky hieu hay :.

2. Nguyen t trung tam cua tieu phan la nguyen t co o am ien thap. Nguyen t hydro
luon luon nam ngoai. V du: HCN co nguyen t trung tam la C.
3. Lien ket cong hoa tr-cho nhan hay lien ket phoi tr thng c bieu dien bang mui ten
hng ve nguyen t nhan oi ien t.
4. Hien nay, ngi ta thay ky hieu bang ky hieu do kho co the xac nh c lien ket
nao la phoi tr sau khi no a hnh thanh.
5. V du nh khong the phan biet c lien ket nao la lien ket cong hoa tr-cho nhan trong
4 lien ket NH trong NH
4
+
sau khi ion nay a hnh thanh.

5.5.5 ien tch hnh thc
1. ien tch hnh thc tren moi nguyen t c tnh bang cong thc:
So ien t hoa tr tang ngoai cung cua nguyen t
So ien t t do 1/2 So lien ket
2. Phan t trung hoa co tong so ien tch hnh thc tren cac nguyen t bang 0.
3. Cac ion co tong ien tch hnh thc tren cac nguyen t bang ien tch cua ion o.

5.5.6 Cach viet cong thc Lewis (cong thc cau tao)
5.5.6.1 Cach viet th nhat
1. Cach nay thng c s dung cho cac chat hu c tuan theo quy tac bat bo.
2. Goi:
V So oi ien t hoa tr = (Tong so ien t hoa tr cua tieu phan)
= (Tong so ien t hoa tr cua cac nguyen t
ien tch cua tieu phan)
h So nguyen t hydro co trong tieu phan
q So nguyen t khac hydro co trong tieu phan
3. Chap nhan quy tac bat bo, ta co cong thc tnh so lien ket o va t trong tieu phan:

So lien ket Mach h Mach vong
no = h + q 1 h + q
nt = 3q V + 1 3q V
V du:
HCN (mach h): V = 5; h = 1; q = 2 no = 2 nt = 2 HCN

NO
3
(mach h): V = 12; h = 0; q = 4 no = 3 nt = 1

Hoa ai cng
C
6
H
6
(mach vong): V = 15; h = 6; q = 6 no = 12 nt = 3

5.5.6.2 Cach viet th hai
1. Cach nay thng c s dung cho cac chat vo c khong tuan theo quy tac bat bo v
chu yeu cha cac nguyen to khong thuoc chu ky 2.
2. Moi nguyen t lien ket ong gop 1 ien t vao nguyen t trung tam. Rieng oxi va lu
huynh khong ong gop ien t.
3. So oi ien t t do va lien ket o chung quanh nguyen t trung tam c xac nh theo
cong thc:
1/2 [So ien t hoa tr cua nguyen t trung tam
+ So ien t ong gop ien tch cua ion]
4. Ve cong thc cau tao, them cac oi ien t t do cua cac nguyen t con lai.
5. Neu cac nguyen t cha at bat bo th chuyen cac oi ien t t do thanh cac lien ket
phoi tr dung chung.
6. Hng u the la chuyen oi ien t cua nguyen to co o am ien thap hn ve nguyen
to co o am ien cao hn. V du:

7. Neu co ien t oc than th ien t nay chiem rieng 1 van ao hoa tr nen kem ben va
de dang tao lien ket mi. V du:

5.5.7 u khuyet iem cua phng phap Lewis
- Ro rang, de hieu, ap dung de dang cho cac phan t n gian.
- Co the d oan nh tnh c chieu dai lien ket theo o boi cua lien ket. V du: d
CC
>
d
C=C
> d
CC
.
- Co the d oan nh tnh c s phan cc cua lien ket khi 2 nguyen t lien ket co o
am ien khac nhau. V du: HCl, CO
3
2
,
- Khong giai thch c ban chat cua lc lien ket.
- Khong giai thch c s ton tai cua cac hp chat co so ien t le nh NO
2
.
- Do viec tha nhan quy tac bat bo nen ch ung cho cac nguyen to thuoc chu ky 2.
Khong con ung cho cac nguyen to t chu ky ba tr len. V du: PF
5
, SF
6
,
Hoa ai cng
- Khong phan biet c s khac bie t gia cac loai lien ket o, t va o trong lien ket boi. V
du: Lien ket trong N
2
gom 1 lien ket o va 2 lien ket t.
- Khong giai thch c:
a. Cau hnh khong gian bao gom o dai lien ket va goc lien ket. V du: Cac lien ket
trong NO
3
, C
6
H
6
co o dai va goc lien ket nh nhau.
b. o phan cc va nang lng cua phan t. V du: Phan t CO
2
thang hang co o
phan cc bang 0, trong luc SO
2
gay goc va co o phan cc khac 0.

5.6 Lien ket kim loai
1. Lien ket gia cac nguyen t kim loai trang thai tinh the hay long c goi la lien ket
kim loai.
2. Trong tinh the kim loai, cac ien t hoa tr tach ra khoi cac nguyen t va di chuyen t
do trong toan khoi kim loai. Cac cation kim loai nam cac nut mang cua tinh the.
3. Lien ket kim loai theo quan iem phi c hoc lng t c hnh thanh do lc hut gia
am may cac ien t t do va cac cation kim loai nam trong mang tinh the.

5.7 Lien ket lien phan t
1. Tng tac gia cac phan t la do s phan cc cua cac phan t b phan cc.

5.8 Cac han che cua Thuyet phi c hoc lng t
Thuyet phi c hoc lng t khong giai thch c:
1. Ban chat cung nh tnh nh hng cua lien ke t cong hoa tr.
2. Hoa tr ln hn 4 cua mot so nguyen to nh P, S,
3. S ton tai cua cac hp chat co ien t oc than nh -NO
2
,
4. Cac kim loai chuyen tiep thng khong co cau hnh bat bo nh Fe
2+
, Fe
3+
, Cu
+
, Cu
2+
,
5. Cac hp chat thieu ien t nh benzen C
6
H
6
hay cac hp chat tha ien t nh XeF
2
.
6. Bon loai lien ket ion, cong hoa tr, kim loai va lien phan t ch la cac loai gii han cua
lien ket hoa hoc. Lien ket thc te trong cac hp chat la to hp cua cac loai lien ket ke
tren.
7. Ly do ton tai mot khoang cach can bang gia cac cation va anion trong lien ket ion do
lc ay cua chnh cac ion ngc dau nay.
8. Nhieu tnh chat cua kim loai, nhat la nhiet dung cua kim loai.
9. Lien ket lien phan t gia cac phan t khong phan cc, nhat la oi vi cac nguyen t
kh tr.

Chng 6
Lien ket hoa tr VB c hoc lng t
& Cau tao phan t

Hoa ai cng
6.1 Phng phap gan ung
1. e khac phuc cac khuyet ie m cua thuyet ien t ve hoa tr kinh ien, ngi ta s dung
quan iem c hoc lng t v phan t la mot he thong cac vi hat.
2. Do khong the giai c chnh xac phng trnh Schordinger cua he phan t v qua phc
tap nen ngi ta phai s dung cac phng phap gan ung.

6.2 Phng phap Heitler-London va phan t H
2

6.2.1 M au
1. Heitler va London a s dung c hoc lng t e giai bai toan cua phan t H
2
.

2. oi vi phan t H
2
, phng trnh Schroedinger co dang + = E+,
vi =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + A
t
A
t
b 2 a 2 b 1 a 1 12
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
r
1
r
1
r
1
r
1
r
1
R
1
e
m 8
h
m 8
h

6.2.2 Ham song
1. Theo phng phap gan ung, Heitler-London tha nhan la trong phan t H
2
van ton tai
cac van ao nguyen t H
a
va H
b
cha 1 ien t vi cau hnh s
a
1
va s
b
1
.
2. Vi s tha nhan la cac ien t c xem nh chuyen ong oc lap vi nhau, ap dung
nh luat nhan xac suat va tnh khong phan biet cua ien t, ta co 2 ham song tng
ng nhau cua he co dang:

1
= s
a
(1).s
b
(2)

2
= s
a
(2).s
b
(1)
3. To hp cua 2 ham tren la nghiem gan ung mo ta cac trang thai cua cac ien t trong
phan t vi c
j
la cac he so chuan hoa:

+
= c
1
1
+ c
2
= c
3
1
c
4
2

Ham
+
co spin oi song (|+), ham
co spin song song (||).

4. Do bnh phng cac ham
+
va
cho biet phan bo mat o xac suat co mat cua ien

t, ta co:

+
2
= c
1
2
1
2
+ c
2
2
2
2
+ 2c
1
c
2
2
lien ket

2
= c
1
2
1
2
+ c
2
2
2
2
2c
1
c
2
2
phan lien ket

Hoa ai cng
5. Vay khi hai ien t tren 2 van ao nguyen t cua H
2
co spin oi song th mat o ien t
vung gia hai hat nhan tang len. Ngc lai, khi hai ien t co spin song song th mat
o ien t vung gia hai hat nhan giam xuong.

6.2.3 Ket qua
1. Khi hai ien t tren 2 van ao nguyen t oi song th lien ket c hnh thanh do mat
o ien t vung gia hai hat nhan tang len giong nh hai am may s
a
1
va s
b
1
xen phu
len nhau va keo hai hat nhan lai gan nhau.
2. Nang lng cua phan t luc o se thap hn nang lng cua 2 nguyen t ban au.
3. Khoang cach gia 2 hat nhan la mot gia tr xac nh (0,74). Khi tien gan hn th 2 hat
nhan se ay nhau ra, va khi cach nhau ra th am may ien t se keo tr lai.
4. Tnh toan cho thay nang lng cua phan t cang thap khi 2 van ao lien ket co nang
lng cang gan nhau.

5. Neu hai ien t tren 2 van ao nguyen t cua H
2
song song th khong hnh thanh c
lien ket do mat o ien t vung gia hai hat nhan giam xuong.
- Nang lng cua phan t luc o cao hn nang lng cua 2 nguyen t ban au.
- Khoang cach gia 2 hat nhan cang gan th hat nhan cang ay nhau manh hn.
6. Khai quat hoa phng phap cua Heitler-London, Pauling va Slater a phat trien thanh
thuyet VB va van dung vao cac phan t khac va thu c cac ket qua trong viec nh
tnh cac lien ket va cau tao phan t c tong ket trong muc 6.3.

6.3 Tnh chat cua lien ket cong hoa tr theo VB
1. Lien ket cong hoa tr c hnh thanh do s ghep oi 2 ien t co spin oi song khi co
s xen phu cua 2 van ao nguyen t. V vay ien t lien ket co tnh chat nh x trong
vung gia hai hat nhan.
2. S xen phu co hieu qua tao lien ket khi o xen phu S > 0.
S xen phu co hieu qua am khi o xen phu S < 0.
S xen phu khong co hieu qua khi o xen phu S = 0.
3. Lc lien ket cong hoa tr mang ban chat ien do ien tch am cua ien t lien ket keo 2
hat nhan mang ien tch dng lai gan nhau.
4. Lien ket cong hoa tr co 2 tnh chat ac trng la:
a. nh hng: Cac nguyen t lien ket vi nhau theo cac phng xac nh sao cho s
xen phu la ln nhat.
b. Bao hoa: Mot nguyen t lien ket vi mot lng xac nh cac nguyen t khac cho
en luc khong con ien t hoa tr oc than.
5. Tat ca cac lien ket trc het phai la lien ket o. Neu bac lien ket ln hn 1 th se co
them cac lien ket t, o,
Hoa ai cng
6. Hoa tr cua mot nguyen to se bang so ien t oc than co the co cua nguyen to o khi
trang thai c ban hay kch thch. Trang thai kch thch lam tang so ien t oc than
cua nguyen t.
V du: Be, B, C, P, S, Cl
Be Be* (hoa tr 2)
|+ | |
B B* (hoa tr 3)
|+ | | | |
C C* (hoa tr 4)
|+ | | | | | |
2s 2p 2s 2p
P* (hoa tr 5)
| | | | |
S* (hoa tr 6)
| | | | | |
Cl* (hoa tr 7)
| | | | | | |
3s 3p 3d

6.4 o ben cua lien ket cong hoa tr theo VB
1. o ben cua lien ket cong hoa tr cang ln khi thoa man cac Yeu to
a. Hai van ao lien ket co nang lng gan nhau: ong nang
b. o xen phu gia hai van ao cang ln: Xen phu
c. Mat o ien t trong vung xen phu cang ln: Mat o
2. Trong o, yeu to mat o quan trong nhat do lng ien tch am cua ien t nh la keo
ket dnh hai hat nhan mang ien tch dng.
3. He qua la cac nguyen to thuoc chu ky nho 2 va 3 tao hp chat vi lien ket cong hoa tr
ben vng hn cac nguyen to thuoc chu ky ln 4, 5,
6.5 Lien ket cong hoa tr-cho nhan theo VB
1. Trong trng hp mot nguyen t co oi ien t t do va nguyen t con lai co van ao
trong (nh NH
3
va H
+
) th lien ket cong hoa tr c thc hien bang cach xen phu hai
van ao lien ket nhng oi ien t ch do mot nguyen t cung cap.
H
3
N( + H
+
H
3
N(H
+
NH
4
+

2. Lien ket nh vay c goi la lien ket cong hoa tr-cho nhan hay lien ket phoi tr.
3. Ket qua la hoa tr toi a cua mot nguyen t bang so van ao hoa tr co kha nang tham
gia tao lien ket cua nguyen t o.

6.6 Cac loai lien ket
1. Lien ket o la lien ket hnh thanh do s xen phu doc theo truc oi xng cua van ao
nguyen t. Ham song chung co dang va dau oi xng qua truc lien nhan.

Hoa ai cng

2. Lien ket t la lien ket hnh thanh do s xen phu pha ben cua truc oi xng cua van ao
nguyen t. Ham song chung co dang oi xng qua truc lien nhan nhng bat oi xng
ve dau.

6.7 Tnh nh hng cua lien ket cong hoa tr va hnh dang cua phan t
1. Lien ket cong hoa tr c phan bo theo cac phng sao cho s xen phu la cc ai.
2. V vay hnh dang cua cac van ao tham gia lien ket co anh hng quyet nh en hnh
dang cua phan t.
6.7.1 Phan t 2 nguyen t
1. Trng hp lien ket ss: Cac van ao co oi xng cau nen o xen phu ch phu thuoc
vao khoang cach gia 2 hat nhan ma khong phu thuoc vao hng lien ket.
2. Trng hp lien ket sp: o xen phu la cc ai khi truc lien nhan trung vi truc cua van
ao p tham gia lien ket.
3. Trng hp lien ket pp: o xen phu la cc ai khi truc lien nhan trung vi truc cua ca
2 van ao p tham gia lien ket.

1. V du: Phan t H
2
S co c cau goc c hnh thanh bang 2 lien ket sp cua (a) 2 van
ao s cua 2 H va (b) 2 van ao p vuong goc cua S.
2. Goc lien ket thc te la 92
0
do lien ket SH phan cc lam 2 H tch ien dng va ay
nhau.
Hoa ai cng

3. V du: Phan t BeH
2
co c cau thang hang c hnh thanh bang 1 lien ket ss va 1
lien ket sp cua (a) 2 van ao s cua 2 H va (b) 1 van ao s va 1 van ao p cua Be.
Cha giai thch c mot cach thoa ang c cau nay.

1. V du: Phan t NH
3
co c cau thap c hnh thanh bang 3 lien ket sp cua (a) 3 van
ao s cua H va (b) 3 van ao p vuong goc cua N. Goc lien ket thc te la 104,5
0
c
giai thch la do lien ket NH phan cc khien cho 3 H tch ien dng va ay nhau.

2. V du: Phan t BF
3
co c cau tam giac phang c hnh thanh bang 1 lien ket sp va 2
lien ket pp cua (a) 1 van ao s va 2 van ao p cua B va (b) 3 van ao p cua 3 F. Cha
giai thch c mot cach thoa ang c cau nay.
6.7.4 Phan t nhieu hn 4 nguyen t
1. Cac phan t nh CH
4
, PF
5
, SF
6
, lan lt co c cau t dien, thap oi tam giac, bat
dien, Cha the giai thch c mot cach thoa ang cac c cau nay.

6.8 Thuyet lai hoa
6.8.1 Nguyen tac lai hoa
1. e giai thch c mot cach thoa ang cac c cau cua BeH
2
, BF
3
, CH
4
, PF
5
, SF
6
,
Pauling va Slater bo sung them khai niem lai hoa vao thuyet VB.
2. Theo thuyet lai hoa, cac nguyen t khi lien ket co the to hp tuyen tnh n van ao hoa
tr lai thanh n van ao lai hoa e lien ket thuan li va phan t co nang lng thap nhat.

6.8.2 Cac kieu lai hoa thong thng

Kieu lai hoa
Cac van ao
tham gia lai hoa
Hnh dang cua cac
van ao lai hoa
Th du
sp s + p thang hang BeH
2

sp
2
s + 2p tam giac BF
3

Hoa ai cng

sp
3
s + 3p t dien CH
4

dsp
2
, sp
2
d d + s + 2p vuong phang PtCl
4
2

dsp
3
, sp
3
d s + 3p + d lng thap tam giac PF
5

d
2
sp
3
, sp
3
d
2
2d + s + 3p bat dien SF
6

dsp
2
, sp
2
d dsp
3
, sp
3
d d
2
sp
3
, sp
3
d
2

6.8.3 ieu kien lai hoa ben
1. Trang thai lai hoa se cang ben khi thoa man cac Yeu to
a. Cac van ao lai hoa co nang lng gan nhau: ong nang
b. o xen phu khi s dung van ao lai hoa cang ln: Xen phu
c. Mat o ien t trong vung xen phu cang ln: Mat o

6.8.4 Phng phap xac nh trang thai lai hoa cua nguyen t trung tam
1. Ngi ta xac nh trang thai lai hoa theo so oi ien t t do va lien ket o chung quanh
nguyen t trung tam.
2. Moi nguyen t lien ket ong gop 1 ien t vao nguyen t trung tam. Rieng oxi va lu
huynh khong ong gop ien t.
3. So oi ien t t do va lien ket o chung quanh nguyen t trung tam tnh theo cong thc:
1/2 (So ien t hoa tr cua nguyen t trung tam
+ So ien t ong gop ien tch cua ion)
4. So oi ien t t do va lien ket o xac nh trang thai lai hoa cua nguyen t trung tam:

So oi ien t t
do va lien ket o
Trang thai
lai hoa
Hnh dang cua cac
van ao lai hoa
Th du
2 sp Thang hang BeH
2

3 sp
2
Tam giac BF
3

Truc
Mat
xch ao
Hoa ai cng
4 sp
3
T dien CH
4

4 dsp
2
, sp
2
d Vuong phang PtCl
4
2

5 dsp
3
, sp
3
d Lng thap tam giac PF
5

6 d
2
sp
3
, sp
3
d
2
Bat dien SF
6

6.9 Cac dang cong thc cong hng
1. Thuyet VB xem ien t lien ket la nh x gia 2 hat nhan nguyen t lien ket.
2. ieu nay dan en ket qua khong chnh xac oi vi mot so hp chat.
V du: Ion NO
3
co the co en 3 cong thc tng ng nhau nh sau:

- Theo cac cong thc nay th trong ion NO
3
co 2 lien ket n dai va 1 lien ket oi

ngan. Thc nghiem cho thay 3 lien ket nay co o dai bang nhau.
- Ngi ta e ngh cong thc thc cua NO
3
la cong thc trung gian gia 3 cong thc

tren va goi la cong thc cong hng.
3. Cong thc cong hng la to hp tuyen tnh cac cong thc co the co cua hp chat vi
s ong gop rieng phan cua tng cong thc cau tao theo mot he so nao o sao cho
nang lng cua hp chat la thap nhat.
V du: Benzen co cong thc cong hng la to hp tuyen tnh cua 5 cong thc sau:

I II III IV V

Ta co ham song cua benzen la:
= c
1
I
+ c
2
II
+ c
3
III
+ c
4
IV
+ c
5
V

Trong o: c
1
= c
2
c
3
= c
4
= c
5

6.10 Cach viet cong thc lap the cua phan t
6.10.1 Cac quy tac
1. Cac oi ien t ay nhau theo th t sau:
a. LL > LB > BB
b. B ba > B oi > B n
Trong o: L oi ien t t do (liberty)
B oi ien t lien ket (bond)
2. Lc ay se rat ln khi goc lien ket s 90
0
. Lc ay bang 0 khi goc lien ket > 90
0
.
3. Lc ay cang giam khi o am ien cua nguyen t lien ket vi nguyen t trung tam cang
ln lam oi ien t lien ket lech ra xa khoi nguyen t trung tam khien cho lc ay cua
chung giam i, va ngc lai.
Hoa ai cng
4. Lc ay cang tang khi o am ien cua nguyen t trung tam cang ln lam oi ien t
lien ket b keo ve pha nguyen t trung tam khien cho lc ay cua oi ien t nay tang
len, va ngc lai.
5. Khi viet cac phan t co cong thc tap chung vuong phang, lng thap tam giac, bat
dien, phai sap xep cac oi ien t t do va lien ket sao cho lc ay la thap nhat.
6. V vay, trc het phai sap xep sao cho:
a. Cac oi ien t t do se nam oi song, hay
b. Cac oi ien t t do se tao goc tu, va
c. Cac lien ket se u tien nam tren truc.
V du: Viet cong thc lap the cua I
3
.
So ien t chung quanh I
nttt
: 7 + 2 + 1 = 10
So oi ien t: 5 So oi ien t lien ket: 2
Tap chung: sp
3
d So oi ien t t do: 3
Lc ay cua oi ien t 6LB < 2LL + 3LB + 1BB
6.10.2 Cong thc lap the cua cac hp chat thong thng
1. Goi L la oi ien t t do, ta co cac cong thc cua cac hp chat thong thng nh sau:

Cong thc
hp chat
So oi ien
t t do
Trang thai
tap chung
C cau
lap the
V du va
Cong thc lap the
AB
2
0 sp Thang hang
BeCl
2
, CO
2

AB
3
0 sp
2
Tam giac phang
BF
3
, SO
3

AB
2
L 1 sp
2
Ch V
SnX
2
, SO
2

AB
4
0 sp
3
T dien eu
CH
4
, SiX
4

AB
3
L 1 sp
3
Thap tam giac
NH
3
, PH
3

Hoa ai cng
AB
2
L
2
2 sp
3
Ch V
H
2
O, H
2
S

AB
5
0
dsp
3

sp
3
d
Lng thap
tam giac
PCl
5

Cong thc
hp chat
So oi ien
t t do
Trang thai
tap chung
C cau
lap the
V du va
Cong thc lap the
AB
4
L 1
dsp
3

sp
3
d
T dien lech
SF
4
, SeF
4

AB
3
L
2
2
dsp
3

sp
3
d
Ch T
ClF
3
, IF
3

AB
2
L
3
3
dsp
3

sp
3
d
Thang hang
I
3
, ICl
2

AB
6
0
d
2
sp
3

sp
3
d
2

Bat dien eu
SF
6
, SeF
6

AB
5
L 1
d
2
sp
3

sp
3
d
2

Thap vuong
IF
5
, BrF
5

Hoa ai cng
AB
4
L
2
2
d
2
sp
3

sp
3
d
2

Vuong phang
ICl
4
, XeF
4

6.11 Goc lien ket
1. Goc lien ket c xem nh xuat phat t cac trang thai tap chung cua nguyen t trung
tam co xet en anh hng cua cac yeu to khac.
V du:
Trang thai tap chung sp sp
2
sp
3
dsp
3
, sp
3
d d
2
sp
3
, sp
3
d
2

Goc lien ket (
0
) 180 120 109,5 90 va 120 90

2. oi ien t t do co tac dung ay rat ln khien cho goc lien ket giam.
V du:
Hp chat CH
4
H
3
N H
2
O
Goc lien ket (
0
) 109,5 107 104,5
Hp chat NO
2
+
-NO
2
NO
2

Goc lien ket (
0
) 180 134 115

3. Khi o am ien cua nguyen t trung tam cang ln th oi ien t lien ket cang lech ve
pha nguyen t trung tam khien cho lc ay cua chung tang len nen goc lien ket cang
tang, va ngc lai.
V du:
Hp chat H
2
O H
2
S H
2
Se
Goc lien ket (
0
) 104,5 92 91

4. Khi o am ien cua nguyen t lien ket vi nguyen t trung tam cang ln th oi ien t
lien ket cang lech ra xa khoi nguyen t trung tam khien cho lc ay cua chung giam i
nen goc lien ket cang giam, va ngc lai.
V du:
Hp chat PF
3
PCl
3
PBr
3

Goc lien ket (
0
) 97 100 101

6.12 Moment lng cc cua lien ket va phan t
6.12.1 Moment lng cc cua lien ket
1. Moment lng cc trong lien ket AB phan cc co o dai lien ket la d va ien tch tren
A va B la q c xac nh bang cong thc:
I q =
Hoa ai cng
+q l q

2. Moment lng cc thng c o bang n v Debye, viet tat la D.
1D = 1/310
29
C.m
6.12.2 Moment lng cc cua phan t
1. Moment lng cc cua phan t bang tong vect cua cac moment lng cc cua cac
lien ket va cac oi ien t t do.
2. V vay, cac phan t co c cau oi xng cao se co moment lng cc bang khong, mac
du moment lng cc cua cac lien ket khac khong.
V du: Cac phan t co moment lng cc bang khong
Hp chat C cau Hp chat C cau
CO
2
Thang hang PCl
5
Lng thap tam giac
BF
3
Tam giac eu I
3
Thang hang
CH
4
T dien ICl
4
Vuong phang
SF
6
Bat dien

3. Cac phan t co c cau oi xng khong cao se co moment lng cc khac khong.
V du: Cac phan t co moment lng cc khac khong
Hp chat C cau Hp chat C cau
SO
2
Ch V SF
4
T dien lech
NH
3
Thap tam giac ClF
3
Ch T
H
2
O Ch V IF
5
Thap vuong

6.12.3 o ion cua lien ket cong hoa tr
1. o ion cua lien ket cong hoa tr co the tnh bang cong thc Pauling:
100%
ion
o
ke t lie n cu a ion tnh %
=
trong o: ion la moment lng cc tnh c khi gia nh lien ket la ion 100%

6.13 Tom tat ve thuyet VB
1. Lien ket cong hoa tr c hnh thanh do s xen phu cua cac van ao lien ket khi hai
ien t tren 2 van ao nguyen t oi song.
2. ien t lien ket nh x trong vung gia hai hat nhan tham gia lien ket.
3. Lc lien ket cong hoa tr mang ban chat ien do ien tch am cua ien t lien ket keo 2
hat nhan mang ien tch dng lai gan nhau.
4. Lien ket cang ben khi at cac yeu to ong nang, o xen phu va mat o ien t ln.
5. Lien ket cong hoa tr co 2 tnh chat ac trng la nh hng va bao hoa.
6. Hoa tr toi a cua mot nguyen t bang so van ao hoa tr co kha nang tham gia tao lien
ket cua nguyen t o.
7. Phai bo sung thuyet lai hoa va cong hng e giai thch c cau cua mot so phan t.
Hoa ai cng

Chng 7
Cac loai lien ket khac

7.1 Lien ket Van der Waals
7.1.1 nh nghia
1. Gia cac phan t, cho du a bao hoa hoa tr, luon luon ton tai mot tng tac tnh ien
yeu c goi la lien ket Van der Waals.

7.1.2 Ban chat cua lien ket Van der Waals
1. Lien ket Van der Waals bao gom 3 tng tac chnh.
2. Tng tac nh hng (thng trc) xuat hien gia cac phan t phan cc. Cac phan t
phan cc se hut lan nhau bang cac cc trai dau cua cac phan t nay. Tng tac nay
lam cho cac phan t sap xep theo mot hng xac nh oi vi nhau.

Tng tac nh hng Tng tac cam ng Tng tac khuech tan

3. Tng tac cam ng (tam thi) xuat hien gia cac phan t co cc va phan t khong co
cc. Phan t co cc se lam phan cc tam thi phan t khong co cc va tao lc hut lan
nhau gia cac cc trai dau cua 2 phan t nay.
4. Tng tac khuech tan (lien tuc) xuat hien nh lng cc tam thi cua cac phan t du
co cc hay khong. Cac lng cc tam thi luon luon xuat hien, chuyen oi, bien mat va
tao ra tng tac cam ng khien cho cac phan t hut lan nhau.

7.1.3 o manh cua lien ket Van der Waals
1. Tng tac khuech tan gi vai tro quan trong oi vi moi phan t va cang manh khi the
tch V cua phan t cang ln, hay noi cach khac, khi khoi lng phan t M cang cao.
2. Tng tac nh hng gi vai tro quyet nh khi phan t phan cc va cang manh khi
phan t phan cc cang manh.
3. Tng tac cam ng thng co cng o rat yeu.
4. Khi cac phan t lai gan nhau th cac am may ien t cua cac phan t se ay nhau ra
cho en v tr can bang so vi cac tng tac Van der Waals.
5. Mot na khoang cach can bang ngan nhat gia 2 phan t nay c goi la ban knh Van
der Waals cua phan t.
7.1.4 Tnh chat cua lien ket Van der Waals
1. Lien ket Van der Waals co tnh bat bao hoa.
2. Tng tac nh hng co tnh nh hng.
3. Tng tac khuech tan va cam ng co tnh bat nh hng.
Hoa ai cng
4. Lien ket Van der Waals la mot tng tac yeu co nang lng lien ket < 40kJ/mol.
5. Lc lien ket giam rat nhanh khi khoang cach gia cac phan t tang len.
6. Lien ket Van der Waals c s dung e giai thch:
- Hien tng hoa long, ong ac cua cac kh tr va cac hp chat bao hoa hoa tr
- Hien tng hap phu va hap thu cua cac chat long va chat kh,

7.2 Lien ket hydro
7.2.1 Mo hnh cua lien ket hydro
1. Xet mo hnh cua lien ket hydro: A
o
H
o+
B
o

trong o: A la cac nguyen to co o am ien ln nh F, O, N va Cl
hay nguyen t gan vi nguyen t co o am ien ln: F
3
C, NC,
B la cac nguyen to co o am ien ln nh F, O, N va Cl
hay cac phan t co lien ket t nh noi oi, nhan thm,
2. Do A co o am ien ln nen keo ien t cua hydro ve pha mnh lam hydro thieu ien
t nen phan cc dng va tng tac tnh ien vi nguyen t B phan cc am.
3. Tng tac mang ban chat tnh ien nay c goi la lien ket hydro va thng c ky
hieu la . o dai cua lien ket hydro ln hn mot lien ket hoa hoc bnh thng.
V du:
Lien ket hydro H
2
NH
o+
N
o
H
3
HOH
o+
O
o
H
2
FH
o+
F
o
H
Nang lng lien ket kJ/mol 313 18,4 428 20,9 566 28
o dai lien ket 1,04 3,10 0,97 2,75 0,92 2,44

7.2.2 o ben cua lien ket hydro
1. Lien ket hydro la mot lien ket yeu co nang lng khoang 840kJ/mol trong luc lien ket
hoa hoc co nang lng khoang vai tram kJ/mol.
2. Lien ket hydro cang manh khi A va B co o am ien cang ln va kch thc cang nho.

7.2.3 Cac loai lien ket hydro va anh hng en tnh chat cua phan t
7.2.3.1 Lien ket hydro lien phan t
1. Lien ket hydro lien phan t la lien ket hydro c thc hien gia cac phan t khien cho
cac phan t nay c lien ket yeu lai vi nhau.
2. Lien ket hydro lien phan t lam thay oi tnh chat cua phan t:
a. Lam khoi lng bieu kien cua phan t tang len nen nhiet o nong chay va nhiet o
soi tang.
V du: Cac phan t H
2
O co M = 18 tao lien ket hydro vi nhau nen co T
s
=100
0
C;
trong luc H
2
S co T
s
= 62
0
C mac du H
2
S co phan t lng ln hn, M = 34,1.

Chat Lien ket hydro M T
s
,
0
C
H
2
O Co 18,0 100
H
2
S Khong 34,1 62
Hoa ai cng

Chat HFHF HCl HBr HI
T
s

0
C +19,52 85,08 66,77 35,4
T
nc

0
C 83,36 112,0 86,91 50,9

b. Lien ket hydro lien phan t gia chat tan va dung moi se lam tang o tan cua chat
tan trong dung moi.
V du: Etanol CH
3
CH
2
OH tan vo han trong nc do tao lien ket hydro vi nc;
trong luc dimetyleter CH
3
OCH
3
khong tao lien ket hydro nen t tan trong nc.

Chat Lien ket hydrovi nc o tan trong nc
Etanol CH
3
CH
2
OH Co Tan vo han
Dimetyleter CH
3
OCH
3
Khong t tan

c. Lam giam o acid cua cac acid a c nh hp bang lien ket hydro.

d. Lam tang o xop cua nc a khien cho nc a lai nhe hn nc long.

7.2.3.2 Lien ket hydro noi phan t
1. Lien ket hydro noi phan t la lien ket hydro c thc hien trong noi bo mot phan t.
2. Lien ket hydro noi phan t lam thay oi tnh chat cua phan t:
a. Lam phan t b co lai khien nhiet o nong chay va nhiet o soi giam.
V du: o-nitrophenol co lien ket hydro noi phan t lam phan t b co lai khien cho
nhiet o nong chay va nhiet o soi thap du khoi lng phan t M khong oi. Trong
luc o, p-nitrophenol co lien ket hydro lien phan t lam khoi lng bieu kien cua
phan t tang len nen nhiet o nong chay va nhiet o soi cao.
Hp chat

Nhiet o nong chay,
0
C 45 215

b. Lam thay oi tnh acid cua hp chat.
- Tnh acid se giam neu lien ket hydro lam cho hydro mang tnh acid b gi lai
chat hn.
- Tnh acid se tang neu lien ket hydro lam cho hydro mang tnh acid tr nen linh
ong hn.
Hoa ai cng

7.3 Lien ket kim loai
7.3.1 Nhac lai lien ket kim loai theo quan iem kinh ien
1. Theo quan iem kinh ien, lien ket kim loai c
thc hien bang tng tac tnh ien trong mang
tinh the gia cac cation kim loai nam tai nut mang
tinh the vi cac ien t hoa tr di chuyen t do
trong toan tinh the.
2. Quan iem nay ro rang, de hieu. Song no khong
giai thch c mot so tnh chat nh tnh ban dan,
dan nhiet, anh kim, cua kim loai.

7.3.2 Lien ket kim loai theo thuyet MO: Thuyet day nang lng
1. C n AO se to hp thanh n MO gom n/2 MO
lk
va n/2 MO
plk
.
2. Co the xem tinh the kim loai nh la mot phan t vo cung ln cha n nguyen t nen s
to hp cua n AO tng ng nhau (nh s, p hay d, f) cua phan t nay se hnh thanh n
MO tao thanh mot day MO co nang lng gan sat nhau.
3. Phan day nang lng cha ien t c goi la day hoa tr
4. Phan day nang lng khong cha ien t c goi la day dan
5. Khoang cach gia 2 day nang lng c goi la day cam

6. Kim loai la cac chat khong co day cam gia day hoa tr va day dan khien cho cac ien
t co the dch chuyen de dang t day hoa tr len day cam.
7. Co 2 trng hp oi vi kim loai:
a. Day nang lng cha ien ay ien t nh day 3s cua Na mi cha (2N) ien t
khien cho day hoa tr va day dan tiep giap nhau.
b. Day nang lng a ien ay 2N ien t nh day 3s cua Mg. Song day dan 3p xen
phu len day 3s nen day hoa tr va day dan van tiep giap nhau.
8. S dch chuyen de dang cua ien t t day hoa tr len day dan khien cho:
a. Kim loai dan ien va dan nhiet.
b. Kim loai co anh kim do cac ien t de dang hap thu va phat xa anh sang.
c. Va kim loai de dat mong hay keo si do lien ket bat nh x nen rat linh ong.

Hoa ai cng

9. Chat ban dan nh Si, Ge, la cac chat co day cam gia day hoa tr va day dan vi
nang lng AE ~ 0,13 eV khien cho cac ien t co the di chuyen t day hoa tr len day
cam khi b kch thch bang cach un nong, chieu bc xa,
10. Chat cach ien nh C
kim cng
la cac chat co day cam gia day hoa tr va day dan vi
nang lng AE > 3 eV khien cho cac ien t khong the di chuyen t day hoa tr len day
cam ngay ca khi b kch thch.

Chng 8
Thuyet van ao phan t MO
& Cau tao phan t

1. Thuyet VB a giai thch c lien ket va cau tao cua nhieu phan t.
2. Nhng no khong giai thch c mot so trng hp nh;
- S ton tai phan t ion H
2
+
ch co 1 ien t
- Tnh thuan t cua O
2
chng to oxi trong O
2
co ien t oc than,
3. V vay, hien nay ngi ta s dung phng phap van ao phan t MO (molecular orbital)
co o khai quat cao hn e mo ta phan t.

8.1 Cac nguyen ly c ban cua thuyet MO
1. Thuyet MO cho rang cac nguyen t trong phan t khong con gi lai cac tnh chat rieng
cua mnh, ngha la khong the mo ta phan t bang van ao nguyen t AO na.
2. Moi ien t trong phan t se chuyen ong trong mot ien trng do cac hat nhan
nguyen t va cac ien t con lai gay ra.
3. Trang thai cua moi ien t c mo ta bang mot ham song goi la van ao phan t MO.
4. Trang thai cua toan bo phan t c xac nh bang ham song toan phan cua phan t.
5. Cac MO c hnh thanh bang cach to hp tuyen tnh cac AO va c goi la cac MO-
LCAO (Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals).
6. T nAO ta se thu c nMO-LCAO bang cach to hp tuyen tnh.
7. Khi cac MO c hnh thanh t cac AO ch cua 2 nguyen t gan nhau trong phan t th
ta co cac MO tng t lien ket nh x 2 tam.
Hoa ai cng
8. Khi cac MO c hnh thanh t cac AO cua nhieu hn 2 nguyen t trong phan t th ta
co cac MO tng t lien ket bat nh x a tam.
9. S phan bo cac ien t tren cac MO cung tuan theo cac quy tac ben vng, quy tac
Pauli va quy tac Hund nh trong cac AO.
10. Bai toan ve phan bo ien t cua phan t bao gom cac viec:
a. Xac nh nang lng cua cac MO
b. Thiet lap gian o cua cac MO theo mc nang lng
c. Sap xep cac ien t vao cac MO e thu c cau hnh ien t cua phan t tng t
nh oi vi nguyen t.

8.2 Thuyet MO va ion phan t ong nguyen t H
2
+

1. Ion phan t ong nguyen t H
2
+
la oi tng nghien cu c ban va n gian nhat cua
phng phap MO.
2. Ly thuyet kinh ien va thuyet lien ket hoa tr VB khong giai thch c s ton tai cua ion
ch co mot ien t nay.

3. oi vi phan t ion H
2
+
, phng trnh Schroedinger co dang + = E+,
vi =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ A
t
b a
2
2
2
r
1
r
1
R
1
e
m 8
h

8.2.1 Cac MO cua H
2
+

Cac MO cua H
2
+
c hnh thanh bang cach to hp tuyen tnh cac AO 1s (ky hieu
la s) cua 2 nguyen t hydro theo cac quan niem sau:
1. Khi ien t chuyen ong gan hat nhan a th no chu tac dung chu yeu cua hat nhan a.
Trang thai cua ien t luc o c mo ta bang ham song s
a
co bo sung s nhieu loan
do hat nhan b gay ra bang mot ong gop nho cua s
b
.
2. Ly luan tng t, oi vi trng hp ien t chuyen ong gan hat nhan b th trang thai
cua ien t luc o c mo ta bang ham song s
b
co bo sung s nhieu loan do hat nhan
a gay ra bang mot ong gop nho cua s
a
.
3.
a
va s
b
.

1
s
a
+ c
2
s
b

4. Cac gia tr cua c
j
c xac nh theo ieu kien chuan hoa ham song.
5. V trong trng hp nay 2 AO la tng ng nen s ong gop cua chung vao MO la
nh nhau. Ta co bnh phng cua cac he so c
j
bieu dien xac suat hien dien cua ien t
gan hat nhan a va b phai bang nhau:
c
1
2
= c
2
2
hay c = c
1

2

6. Nh vay oi vi ion phan t H
2
+
, ta co hai MO la:

+
= c
1
s
a
+ c
2
s
b
= c(s
a
+ s
b
)

= c
1
s
a

2
s
b
= c(s
a
s
b
)

Hoa ai cng
8.2.2 Y ngha cua cac MO
1.
+

cho biet phan bo mat o xac suat co mat cua ien

t, ta co:

+
2
= c
2
(s
a
2
+ s
b
2
+ 2s
a
s
b
) lien ket

2
= c
2
(s
a
2
+ s
b
2
2s
a
s
b
) phan lien ket
2.
+

co s giam mat o xac suat co mat cua ien t

+

nh sau:

8.2.3 Nang lng cua phan t
1. Ket qua tnh toan cho thay:
a.
+
luon luon thap hn nang l ng cua cac van ao AO s
a
va
s
b +
c goi la MO lien ket hay o
lk
.
b.
luon luon cao hn nang lng cua cac van ao AO s

a
va s
b
.
c goi la MO phan lien ket hay o

plk
.
c. Tong quat, gian o nang lng cua cac MO co the co cac dang nh sau:

Gian o nang lng cua H
2
+
Gian o nang lng cua H
2
Gian o nang lng cua LiH

2. Khi ien t t cac AO co nang lng cao chuyen xuong cac MO co nang lng thap
hn se lam cho phan t ben vng hn cac nguyen t oc lap ban au.
3. ieu nay giai thch s ton tai cua ion phan t H
2
+
ma thuyet VB da tren s cap oi
ien t a khong ly giai c.
4. No cung giai thch c viec khong xay ra s hnh thanh phan t He
2
do viec ien 4
ien t va
lk

plk
khong lam giam nang lng cua he.

8.3 ieu kien e hnh thanh MO lien ket t cac AO
- Nang lng cua cac AO phai gan nhau. Khi mc nang lng cua cac AO qua khac biet
th tnh toan cho thay s giam nang lng cua MO c hnh thanh la khong ang ke
nen lien ket se khong thc hien c.
- Cac AO co (a) vung xen phu ln, (b) hng xen phu hu hieu va (c) co tnh oi xng
giong nhau ve dau oi vi truc lien nhan.
- S xen phu co hieu qua khi o xen phu S > 0.
S xen phu co hieu qua am khi o xen phu S < 0.
S xen phu khong co hieu qua khi o xen phu S = 0.

Hoa ai cng
8.4 Cac loai MO
8.4.1 MO lien ket, phan lien ket va khong lien ket
1. MO oi xng ve dau qua tam oi xng c goi la MO
g
(gerade: chan), MO phan oi
xng ve dau qua tam oi xng c goi la MO
u
(ungerade: le).
2. MO lien ket la MO co mc nang lng thap hn cac AO hp thanh.
lk

g lk

g
,
3. MO phan lien ket la MO co mc nang lng cao hn cac AO hp thanh.
plk

u plk

u
,
4. MO khong lien ket la MO co mc nang lng bang cac AO hp thanh.
klk

u klk

u
,

Kieu MO Mc nang lng Ky hieu
MO lien ket MO < AO
lk

g lk

g
,
MO phan lien ket MO > AO
plk

u plk
hay
u
,
MO khong lien ket MO AO
klk

u klk

u
,

8.4.2
1.
chung co dang va dau oi xng qua truc lien nhan.
2.
lk
hien dien tren truc lien nhan gia 2 hat nhan vi xac xuat cao
lk
nay tng ng

8.4.3
1. pha ben cua truc oi xng cua cac AO. Ham
song chung co dang oi xng qua truc lien nhan nhng bat oi xng ve dau.

Hoa ai cng

2.
lk
hien dien trong vung gia 2 hat nhan vi xac xuat cao nhng
khong phai tren truc lien nhan khien cho 2 hat nhan c gi lai kem chat che so vi
lk lk

3.

8.5 Cac ai lng ac trng cua lien ket cong hoa tr theo MO
1. Mot cach n gian, bac lien ket N gia 2 nguyen t c xac nh bang cong thc:
Bac lien ket N = 1/2 [So ien t tren MO lien ket So ien t tren MO phan lien ket]
2. Bac lien ket cang ln th o dai cua lien ket cang ngan va lien ket cang ben (oi vi
cung mot loai lien ket```````````````````````).
3. Nang lng lien ket c tnh bang bien thien nang lng do viec chuyen ien t t AO
co nang lng cao hn xuong MO co nang lng thap hn.

8.6 Tong quat ve phan t nh nguyen t ong nhan A
2

8.6.1 S hnh thanh cac MO
1. Cac phan t nh nguyen t ong nhan co tam oi xng nam trung iem cua truc lien
nhan.
2. Tong quat, cac AO la s, p oi vi chu ky 2 va ca d, f oi vi cac chu ky ln hn.
3. Cac AO co u cac ieu kien sau mi tham gia to hp vi nhau e hnh thanh MO:
a. Nang lng gan nhau
b. Xen phu hu hieu vi nhau bao gom 3 yeu to:
- Vung xen phu ln
- Hng xen phu hu hieu
- Co tnh oi xng giong nhau ve dau oi vi truc lien nhan

8.6.2 Gian o nang lng cua cac MO
1. Tong quat, khi khong co s to hp gia cac AO ns va np do nang lng cua chung
cach xa nhau, ta co cac MO sap theo th t nang lng tang dan nh sau:
1s

1s

2s

2s

2pz

2px

2py

2px

2py

2pz

3s

3s

3pz

3px

3py

3px

3py

3pz

2. Thong thng, ngi ta ch quan tam en cac AO hoa tr do s ong gop vao bien thien
nang lng do hnh thanh cac MO cua cac AO phi hoa tr la khong ang ke.
3. Trong trng hp co s to h p nao o gia cac AO ns va np do nang lng cua chung
gan nhau, ma chu yeu la ns va np
z
, ta co cac MO sap theo th t nang lng tang dan
nh sau:
Hoa ai cng
1s

1s

2s

2s

2px

2py

2pz

2px

2py

2pz

3s

3s

3px

3py

3pz

3px

3py

3pz

4. Trong chu ky 2, s to hp nao o gia cac AO 2s va 2p xay ra oi vi cac nguyen t Li,
Be, B, C va N do chenh lech nang lng cua 2 AO nay nho.

Chenh lech nang lng cua 2 AO 2s va 2p cua cac nguyen to thuoc chu ky 2
Nguyen t Li Be B C N O F
1,85 2,73 3,75 4,18 10,9 15,6 20,8

Khi khong co s to hp 2s va 2p cua O
2
va F
2
Khi co s to hp 2s va 2p cua Li
2
, Be
2
, B
2
, C
2
va
N
2

Hnh 8.1 Gian o nang lng cua cac MO oi vi cac phan t A
2
thuoc chu ky 2

5. Khi ien t ien vao cac MO lien ket cang nhieu th o boi va nang lng lien ket cang
ln, lien ket cang ben, o dai lien ket cang nho. Va ngc lai, khi ien t ien vao cac
MO phan lien ket cang nhieu th o boi va nang lng lien ket cang giam, lien ket cang
kem ben, o dai lien ket cang ln.

V du: Cau hnh ien t cua cac phan t nh nguyen t ong nhan.
Phan
t
Cau hnh ien t cua phan t
Bac
lien ket N
o dai
lien ket ()
Nang lng
lien ket (kJ/mol)
H
2

2
1s

1s
1 0,74 432
He
2

2
1s

2
*
1s
0
Li
2

2
2s
1 2,67 105
Be
2

2
2s

2
2s
0
B
2

2
2s

2
2s

1
2px

1
2py
1 1,59 287
C
2

2
2s

2
2s

2
2px

2
2py
2 1,31 628
Hoa ai cng
N
2

2
2s

2
2s

2
2px

2
2py

2
2pz
3 1,10 942
O
2

2
2s

2
2s

2
2pz

2
2px

2
2py

1
2px

1
2py

2 1,21 494

Phan
t
Bac
lien ket N
o dai
lien ket ()
Nang lng
lien ket (kJ/mol)
F
2

2
2s

2
2s

2
2pz

2
2px

2
2py

2
2px

2
2py

1 1,42 155
Cl
2

2
3s

2
3s

2
3pz

2
3px

2
3py

2
3px

2
3py

1 1,99 57
Br
2

2
4s

2
4s

2
4pz

2
4px

2
4py

2
4px

2
4py

1 2,28 45
I
2

2
5s

2
5s

2
5pz

2
5px

2
5py

2
5px

2
5py

1 1,67 36
Ne
2

2
2s

2
2s

2
2pz

2
2px

2
2py

2
2px

2
2py

2
2pz

0

V du: Cau hnh ien t cua cac ion phan t nh nguyen t ong nhan.
Phan
t
Bac
lien ket N
o dai
lien ket ()
Nang lng
lien ket (kJ/mol)
N
2
+

2
2s

2
2s

2
2px

2
2py

1
2pz
2,5 1,12 828
O
2
+

2
2s

2
2s

2
2pz

2
2px

2
2py

1
2px

2py

2,5 1,20 672

6. De dang nhan thay theo thuyet MO th phan t O
2
co 2 ien t oc than tren 2 MO
1
2px

1
2py
nen phu hp vi thc nghiem la thuan t. ay la ieu ma thuyet VB
khong giai thch c.
7. Khi i t tren xuong di trong phan nhom, ban knh nguyen t tang trong luc ien tch
hieu dung cua hat nhan hau nh khong tang nen o xen phu hu hieu giam, nang
lng lien ket cang nho, lien ket cang kem ben, o dai lien ket cang ln.

8.7 Tong quat ve phan t nh nguyen t d nhan AB
1. Trong cac phan t nh nguyen t ong nhan A
2
, ta co mot tam oi xng nam trung
iem cua truc lien nhan va s ong gop cua cac AO cung loai cua 2 nguyen t vao MO
la bang nhau the hien cac he so c
j
la giong nhau.
2. oi vi cac phan t nh nguyen t d nhan AB th ta khong co tam oi xng va s ong
gop cua cac AO cua 2 nguyen t vao MO la khac nhau the hien cac he so c
j
la khac
nhau.

8.7.1 S hnh thanh cac MO
1. Xet phan t AB vi nguyen to B co o am ien ln hn A nen cac AO cua B co mc
nang lng thap hn cua A.
Hoa ai cng
2. Mc nang lng cua MO lien ket se nam gan AO cua B hn. Ngc lai, mc nang
lng cua MO phan lien ket se nam gan AO cua A hn.
3. Noi cach khac, phan ong gop cu
B
vao MO lien ket ln hn phan ong gop cu
A

the hien qua he so c
jB
ln hn he so c
jA
. Ngc lai, phan o
A
vao MO
phan lien ket ln hn phan ong gop cu
B
the hien qua he so c
jA
ln hn he so c
jB
.
4. Ket qua la ien t tren MO lien ket nam gan B hn, con ien t tren MO phan lien ket
nam gan A hn.
5. Neu o am ien cua A va B rat khac biet th ien t tren MO lien ket hau nh nam tren
B va ta se co lien ket la ion.

8.7.2 Gian o nang lng cua cac MO
1. Tong quat, ta co cac MO sap theo th t nang lng tang dan nh sau:
1s

1s

2s

2s

2px

2py

2pz

2px

2py

2pz

3s

3s

3px

3py

3pz

3px

3py

3pz

V du 1:
2
2s

2
2s

2
2px

2
2py

1
2pz

Phan t Bac lien ket N o dai lien ket () Nang lng lien ket (kJ/mol)
BO 2,5 1,20 773
NO 2,5 1,17 186
CO 2,5 1,115

V du 2: Cac phan t va ion N
2
, CO, NO
+
, va CN

2
2s

2
2s

2
2px

2
2py

2
2pz
ng vi bac lien ket la 3. V co cau hnh ien t giong nhau nen N
2
va CO co
nhieu tnh chat giong nhau.

V du 3: Phan t NO co cau
2
2s

2
2s

2
2px

2
2py

2
2pz

1
2px
ng vi bac
lien ket la 2,5 ; d = 1,15 ; E = 677kJ/mol.

V du 4: Phan t HF co cac mc nang lng cua cac AO nh sau:
Van ao 1
sH
2
sF
2
pF

Mc nang lng (eV) 13,6 40,2 18,6

Mot cach gan ung, co the xem nh AO 1s cua hydro ch xen phu vi AO 2p
z
cua fluor

8.8 Lien ket cong hoa tr-cho nhan theo thuyet MO
1. Neu trong qua trnh to hp 2 AO thanh 2 MO, 2 ien t ban au thuoc ve ca 2 AO th 2
ien t nay se ien vao MO va ta co lien ket cong hoa tr.
2. Neu 2 ien t ban au ch thuoc ve ca 1 AO th 2 ien t nay cung se ien vao MO va
ta co lien ket cong hoa tr-cho nhan.
3. Lien ket cong hoa tr-cho nhan theo thuyet MO khac biet c ban so vi thuyet VB la co
lk

plk
roi mi ien ien t vao MO.
Hoa ai cng

8.9 Van ao bien va hoat tnh cua hp chat
1. HOMO (high occupied molecular orbital) la MO co mc nang lng cao nhat co cha
ien t.
2. LUMO (low unoccupied molecular orbital) la MO co mc nang lng thap nhat khong
cha ien t.
3. HOMO va LUMO c goi la cac MO bien.
4. Neu HOMO cua mot hp chat nay co kha nang to hp vi LUMO cua mot hp chat
khac tao thanh hp chat mi co nang lng thap hn tong nang lng cua 2 hp chat
ban au.

Hnh 8.2 Gian o nang lng cua to hp cac van ao bien

5. Co the giai thch mot so phan ng hoa hoc bang cach s dung MO bien nay.
V du: Phan ng cong than hanh vao hp chat C=O.
a.
C=O
khong cha ien t.
b. Cac hp chat than hach nh CN
, amin, se s dung HOMO la MO co cha ien t

tao thanh lien ket cong hoa tr-cho nhan gia hp chat than hach va CO.
c.
C=O
co truc hng thang goc vi truc lien nhan C=O nen hng lien ket
phai thang goc tng ng.
d.
C=O
co phan ong gop cua 2p cua C nhieu hn.

8.10 Lien ket ion theo thuyet MO
1. Theo thuyet MO, lien ket ion xuat hien khi MO cua phan t c hnh thanh chu yeu
bang s ong gop cua AO cua 1 nguyen t va ien t cua phan t nam tren MO nay.

Hnh 8.3 Lien ket ion theo thuyet MO
2. Thuyet phi c hoc lng t giai thch lien ket ion bang tng tac tnh ien cho thay lc
hut gia cac ion trai dau nhng lai khong the giai thch c tai sao cac ion nay luon
luon cach nhau mot khoang cach xac nh do mot lc ay nao o.
3. Thuyet c hoc lng t giai thch c ban chat cua lc ay nay chnh la lc tng tac
gia cac lp ien t cua cac ion trai dau.

Hoa ai cng
Chng 9
Trang thai tap hp cua vat chat

9.1 Trang thai cua vat chat
1. Cac hat nh phan t, ion, nguyen t, luon luon co mot ong nang lam cho cac hat nay
chuyen ong nhiet hon loan.
2. ong thi, gia cac hat luon luon co mot the nang la lc hut lam cho cac hat nay tu
hp lai vi nhau.
3. Tuy thuoc vao moi tng quan gia ong nang va the nang ma cac hat co the mot
trong ba trang thai ngng tu thong thng la ran, long va kh.

Bang 9.1 Moi lien he gia trang thai va tng quan gia ong nang va the nang
Trang thai Moi tng quan gia ong nang va the nang
Kh ong nang The nang
Long ong nang < The nang
Ran ong nang The nang

Ran Long Kh
Hnh 9.1 Ba trang thai ngng tu cua vat chat

Hnh 9.2 Cac trang thai ngng tu cua vat chat sap xep theo o trat t
9.2 Trang thai kh
- oi vi trang thai kh, cac hat co ong nang ln hn han the nang nen co the xem nh
cac hat chuyen ong hon loan va chiem toan bo the tch cua he.
- Cau truc cua chat kh la hoan toan vo trat t.
Hoa ai cng
- Trong chat kh, khoang cach gia cac hat rat ln so vi kch thc cua hat nen co the
nen chat kh mot cach de dang.
- Cac hat va cham vao thanh bnh tao nen ap suat cua chat kh. Cac n v o ap suat
thong thng la atm, N/m
2
, mH
2
O,
1atm = 9,8110
4
N/m
2
= 10 mH
2
O

9.2.1 Phng trnh trang thai kh ly tng
1. Kh ly tng la kh co 2 ac trng sau:
- Hat khong co the tch - Cac hat khong tng tac vi nhau
2. Trang thai cua kh c ac trng bang mot bo cac thong so trang thai nh sau:
- Nhiet o T - Ap suat P
- The tch V - So mol n
3. Phng trnh kh ly tng bieu dien moi lien he gia cac thong so trang thai:
nRT PV= (9.1)
hay: RT
M
m
PV = (9.2)
trong o: m khoi lng cua chat kh
M phan t lng cua chat kh
R he so t le va c goi la hang so kh ly tng,
R = 8,31 J/mol.o = 2,0 cal/mol.o = 0,082 .atm/mol.o
4. Ngi ta quy c ieu kien tieu chuan la T = 25
0
C , P = 1atm

9.2.2 Hon hp kh ly tng
9.2.2.1 Ap suat rieng phan
1. Xet hon hp kh ly tng gom cac chat kh A, B va C. Moi kh nay tao ra mot ap suat
len thanh bnh oc lap vi cac kh khac.
2. Ap suat rieng cua moi kh nay c goi la ap suat rieng phan P
i
cua kh o.
3. Ap suat rieng phan P
i
cua mot chat kh trong hon hp kh la ap suat co c khi mot
mnh lng kh o chiem toan bo the tch cua hon hp nhiet o a cho.
4. Ap suat chung cua hon hp kh bang tong cua cac ap suat rieng phan cua tat ca cac
kh co trong hon hp. Ta co:
P = P
A
+ P
B
+ P
C
(9.3)
Tong quat:
=
i
i
P P (9.4)
trong o: P
i
ap suat rieng phan cua kh i
9.2.2.2 Nong o mol rieng phan
1. Trong hon hp kh ly tng gom n
A
mol kh A, n
B
mol kh B va n
C
mol kh C, Nong o
mol rieng phan x
A
cua kh A c tnh bang cong thc:

C B A
A
A
n n n
n
x
+ +
= (9.5)
Tong quat:
=
i
i
j
j
n
n
x (9.6)
2. He qua la:
Hoa ai cng
a. Tong cac nong o mol rieng phan cua tat ca cac chat kh trong hon hp se bang 1.
b. Ap suat rieng phan P
i
cua kh i co the tnh bang cong thc:
P . x P
i i
= (9.7)

9.2.3 Kh that
1. Kh that khac kh ly tng la:
- Hat co the tch - Cac hat co tng tac vi nhau
2. S khac biet nay co the bieu dien mot cach n gian bang cach them he so nen Z vao
phng trnh kh ly tng.
nRTZ PV= (9.8)
3. Mot cach chnh xac hn, ta co:
oi vi mot mol kh that: ( ) RT b V
V
a
P
2
= |
.
|
\
|
+ (9.9)
oi vi n mol kh that: ( ) nRT nb V
V
a n
P
2
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ (9.10)
trong o: a he so bieu dien anh hng cua tng tac gia cac hat
b he so bieu dien anh hng cua the tch cua hat

9.3 Trang thai ran
1. oi vi trang thai ran, cac hat co ong nang nho hn han the nang nen co the xem nh
cac hat ch dao ong chung quanh v tr can bang cua chung. V vay chat ran co the
tch va hnh dang co nh.
2. Khoang cach gia cac hat rat nho so vi kch thc cua hat nen chat ran b nen mot
cach vo cung kho khan.

9.3.1 Trang thai tinh the
Tinh the la chat ran co cac ac trng sau:
1. Cac tieu phan trong tinh the c sap xep theo mot trat t xac nh nao o.
2. Trat t nay c lap i lap lai trong toan bo tinh the nen c goi la trat t xa.
3. Trat t nay (1) khien cho tinh the co hnh thai ben ngoai xac nh va (2) quyet nh tnh
oi xng ben trong cua tinh the.

Tinh the NaClTinh the CsCl

4. He qua la tinh the co tnh bat ang hng do s sap xep theo cac phng khac nhau la
khac nhau.
5. Tinh the co nhiet o nong chay xac nh.
Hoa ai cng
6. Tuy thuoc vao ban chat cua lien ket gia cac tieu phan trong tinh the, ngi ta phan
chia tinh the thanh cac loai sau:

Bang 9.2 Phan loai tinh the theo ban chat lien ket gia cac tieu phan trong tinh
the
Loai tinh the Th du Loai tinh the Th du
Tinh the ion NaCl, CsCl, Tinh the kim loai Fe, Cu
Tinh the cong hoa tr C
kim cng
, SiC, Tinh the Van der Waals He, I
2
,

9.3.2 Trang thai vo nh hnh
Chat vo nh hnh la chat ran co cac ac trng sau:
1. Cac tieu phan trong chat vo nh hnh c sap xep mot cach hon on khong theo mot
trat t xac nh nao ca. Th du nh thuy tinh, nha PVC,
2. He qua la chat ran vo nh hnh co tnh ang hng do s sap xep theo cac phng
khac nhau la hon on giong nhau.
3. Chat ran vo nh hnh khong co hnh dang ben ngoai xac nh khi hoa ran.
4. Chat vo nh hnh khong co nhiet o nong chay xac nh ma co mot khoang hoa mem
roi mi hoa long.
5. Thc te th van co mot trat t nao o trong chat vo nh hnh nhng ch nam trong mot
khong gian rat nho nen c goi la trat t gan.

9.4 Trang thai long
1. Khi cung cap nang lng cho chat ran th cac hat se co nang lng cao hn nen khong
ch dao ong chung quanh v tr can bang ma con quay, tnh tien va trt len nhau
nhng cha u nang lng e chuyen ong hon loan nh trang thai kh.
2. Trang thai nh vay c goi la trang thai long.
3. He qua la chat long co cac ac trng sau:
a. Chat long co the tch xac nh nh chat ran.
b. Chat long khong co hnh dang xac nh nh chat ran ma no se lay hnh dang cua
bnh cha.
c. Chat long co tnh ang hng do s sap xep theo cac phng khac nhau la hon
on giong nhau.
d. Khoang cach gia cac hat van nho so vi kch thc cua hat nen chat long b nen
mot cach cc ky kho khan.
e. Cac hat nam tren be mat cua chat long b cac hat ben trong hut vao tao thanh sc
cang be mat khien cho be mat chat long co xu hng co lai e co dien tch nho
nhat.
4. Thc te th van co mot trat t nao o trong chat long nhng trat t nay ch nam trong
mot khong gian rat nho nen c goi la trat t gan.

9.5 Tom tat
1. Cac tnh chat ac trng cua cac trang thai ton tai cua cac chat c trnh bay tom tat
trong Bang 9.3.
Hoa ai cng

Bang 9.3 Cac tnh chat ac trng cua trang thai ton tai cua chat
Trang thai
Ran
Long Kh
Tinh the Vo nh hnh
Tng quan
cua cac nang
lng
ong nang
The nang
ong nang
The nang
ong nang
< The nang
ong nang
The nang
Chuyen ong
cua cac hat
Dao ong Dao ong
Dao ong,
quay, tnh tien
Hon loan
Trat t Trat t xa Trat t gan Trat t gan Vo trat t
Khoang cach
gia cac hat
Rat gan Rat gan Gan Rat xa
Hnh thai Xac nh Khong xac nh Khong xac nh Khong xac nh
The tch Xac nh Xac nh Xac nh Khong xac nh
Tnh chat
Bat ang hng ang hng ang hng ang hng
Khong chu nen Khong chu nen Khong chu nen Chu nen
T
nc
Xac nh Khong xac nh
Cac tnh chat
ac trng khac
Co tnh
oi xng
Co vung nhiet
o hoa mem
Co sc cang
be mat

Chng 10
Nhiet ong lc hoc hoa hoc

10.1 Muc tieu nghien cu cua Nhiet ong lc hoc hoa hoc
1. Nhiet ong lc hoc nghien cu cac quy luat cua s bien oi nang lng t dang nay
sang dang khac hay t phan nay sang phan khac cua he, ac biet la qua trnh bien oi
nhiet nang thanh c nang cua nhien lieu trong ong c ot trong.
2. Nhiet ong lc hoc c ap dung vao hoa hoc hnh thanh Nhiet ong lc hoc hoa hoc
cho phep tnh c:
a. Nang lng cua qua trnh phan ng
b. Chieu cua phan ng
c. Mc o phan ng

10.2 Cac nh ngha can thiet
10.2.1 He (hay he thong)
1. He la mot tap hp so lng ln cac tieu phan cua cac chat can
c nghien cu. Phan con lai cua vu tru la moi trng ngoai.
2. V du 1cm
3
khong kh ieu kien thng 1atm va 25
0
C cha
khoang 2,7.10
19
phan t kh nam trong mot xylanh co gan mot
Hoa ai cng
piston di ong la mot he. Phan con lai cua vu tru, ke ca xylanh
va piston la moi trng ngoai.
3. He h la he trao oi chat lan nang lng vi moi trng ngoai.
V du nh mot bnh cha nc nong e h.
4. He kn la he khong trao oi chat ma ch trao oi nang lng vi moi trng ngoai.
V du nh mot bnh kn cha nc nong khong boc cach nhiet.
5. He co lap la he khong trao oi ca chat lan nang lng vi moi trng ngoai.
V du nh mot bnh kn cha nc nong c boc cach nhiet tot.
6. He oan nhiet la he khong trao oi chat va nhiet nhng co the trao oi cong vi moi
trng ngoai. Luc o the tch cu a he thay oi. V du nh he khong kh cha trong xi lanh
va piston a trnh bay trong Muc 1. khi c boc cach nhiet tot.
7. Ngi ta quy c:
a. Khoi lng va nang lng (nhiet, cong,) ma he nhan vao mang dau +.
b. Khoi lng va nang lng (nhiet, cong,) ma he toa ra moi trng mang dau .

10.2.2 Trang thai nhiet ong
1. Trang thai nhiet ong cua mot he c xac nh bang mot tap hp cac gia tr cua cac
thong so trang thai the hien cac tnh chat v mo ve ly hoc va hoa hoc cua he. Chung ta
ch quan tam en cac thong so trang thai ac trng cho tnh chat cua he.
V du: Chat kh co cac thong so trang thai la ap suat P, the tch V, so mol n, nhiet o T,
khoi lng m, o nht , chiet suat n, the hien cac tnh chat cua he.
2. Thong so trang thai co tnh chat khuech o khi gia tr cua thong so o t le tuyen tnh
vi khoi lng. V du nh the tch V, so mol n, khoi lng m,
Thong so khuech o co tnh cong tnh. V du nh khoi lng m cua he bang tong cac khoi
lng m
1
, m
2
, m
3
, cua cac hp phan.
3. Thong so trang thai co tnh chat cng o khi gia tr cua thong so o khong t le tuyen
tnh vi khoi lng. V du nh nhiet o T, ap suat P, nong o C, o nht ,
Thong so cng o khong co tnh cong tnh. V du nh nhiet o cua hon hp 1kg H
2
O
30
0
C va 1kg H
2
O 50
0
C tron eu vi nhau la 40
0
C ch khong phai la 80
0
C.
4. Phng trnh trang thai the hien moi lien he gia cac thong so trang thai.
V du: Kh ly tng co phng trnh trang thai la PV = nRT bieu th moi lien he gia cac
thong so trang thai P, V, n va T cua kh ly tng.
5. Mot he se trang thai can bang nhiet ong khi gia tr cua tat ca cac thong so trang
thai moi iem trong he la nh nhau va khong thay oi theo thi gian.

10.2.3 Qua trnh bien oi
1. Khi mot he chuyen t trang thai 1 sang trang thai 2 th ngi ta noi he thc hien mot
bien oi hay mot qua trnh.
2. Ngi ta thng goi trang thai 1 la trang thai au va trang thai 2 la trang thai cuoi.
3. Bien oi c xac nh ve mat nhiet ong lc hoc neu biet ro trang thai au va cuoi.
4. Con ng bien oi ch c xac nh khi biet trang thai au, trang thai cuoi va tat ca
cac trang thai trung gian ma he trai qua trong qua trnh bien oi.
5. Bien oi h xay ra khi trang thai au va trang thai cuoi cua he khac nhau.
6. Bien oi kn xay ra khi trang thai au va trang thai cuoi cua he trung nhau.
Hoa ai cng
7. Bien oi ang nhiet xay ra khi nhiet o cua he khong oi.
8. Bien oi ang ap xay ra khi ap suat cua he khong oi.
9. Bien oi ang tch xay ra khi the tch cua he khong oi.
10. Bien oi oan nhiet xay ra khi he khong trao oi chat va nhiet nhng co the trao oi
cong vi moi trng ngoai.

Bien oi thuan nghch Bien oi bat thuan nghch
Hnh 1.1 Qua trnh bien oi thuan nghch va bat thuan nghch
11. Bien oi thuan nghch la bien oi xay ra vo cung cham qua lien tiep nhieu trang thai
can bang trung gian khac nhau vo cung t.
Nh vay, bien oi thuan nghch la bien oi trang thai can bang, hay co the xem la mot
bien oi gan nh khong bien oi.
12. Bien oi bat thuan nghch la bien oi xay ra khong thuan nghch.
Nh vay, bien oi bat thuan nghch la bien oi khong can bang.
13. Tat ca cac qua trnh trong t nhien (nh qua trnh truyen nhiet t vat nong sang vat
lanh,) khong xay ra vo cung cham nen eu la cac bien oi bat thuan nghch va con c
goi la bien oi t nhien.

10.2.4 Ham trang thai
1. Mot ham F c goi la ham trang thai neu gia tr cua no ch phu thuoc vao cac gia tr
cua cac thong so trang thai ma khong phu thuoc vao cach bien oi cua he.
2. Noi cach khac, bien thien gia tr AF cua ham trang thai khi xay ra bien oi t trang thai
1 en trang thai 2 la:
AF = F
2
F
1
(1.1)
khong phu thuoc vao con ng bien oi ma ch phu thuoc vao trang thai au va trang thai
cuoi.
V du: oi vi mot he kh ly tng:
a. Ham PV la mot ham trang thai v gia tr cua no ch phu thuoc vao gia tr cua cac
thong so trang thai P, V, n, T.
b. Ham cong gian kh c hoc W khong phai la ham trang thai v no phu thuoc vao ca
cach bien oi.
- Khi bien oi thuan nghch:
1
2
tn
V
V
ln nRT W = (1.2)
- Khi bien oi bat thuan nghch: W
btn
= P
kh quyen
(V
2
V
1
) (1.3)
- Ta co cong cc ai W
max
: W
max
= W
tn
> W
btn
(1.4)

Hoa ai cng
10.2.5 Khai niem ve nang lng
10.2.5.1 Noi nang
1. Nang lng cua he gom ba phan:
a. ong nang chuyen ong cua toan he: E
= mv
2

b. The nang cua toan he do he nam trong trong trng: E
t
= mgh
c. Noi nang cua cac tieu phan trong he
2. Nang lng c truyen i di 2 dang chnh la nhiet va cong.
3. Nhiet ong lc hoc hoa hoc thng khao sat mot he khong chuyen ong va luon luon
chu tac dung cua trong trng ngoai khong oi nen ong nang va the nang cua toan
he bang 0.
4. V vay, ta ch quan tam en noi nang cua he.
5. Noi nang U cua he gom:
a. ong nang cua chuyen ong hon loan cua cac tieu phan nh phan t, nguyen t,
hat nhan va ien t (nh chuyen ong tnh tien, dao ong, quay,).
b. The nang tng tac hut va ay cua cac tieu phan nh phan t, nguyen t, hat nhan
va ien t.
6. Nh vay, noi nang U la mot ham trang thai v gia tr cua noi nang ch phu thuoc vao
trang thai cua he ma khong phu thuoc vao con ng bien oi he en trang thai o.
7. Ngay ca 0
0
K, ta cung khong the chuyen he ve trang thai khong chuyen ong nen
khong the o c gia tr tuyet oi cua noi nang ma ch co the o c o bien thien
cua noi nang khi chuyen t trang thai au en trang thai cuoi.
AU = U
c
U
(1.5)
8. Noi nang cua mot he bat ky phu thuoc vao ban chat, thanh phan, lng chat, ap suat,
nhiet o va the tch cua he.
9. Noi nang cua mot he kh ly tng ch phu thuoc vao nhiet o v nhiet o lam thay oi
ong nang cua cac tieu phan.
10. S thay oi ap suat va the tch khong lam thay oi ong nang cung nh the nang tng
tac cua cac tieu phan nen khong anh hng en noi nang cua he kh ly tng.

10.2.5.2 Nhiet va Cong
1. Nhiet q la mot dang cua nang lng tng ng vi s chuyen ong hon loan cua cac
tieu phan nh phan t, nguyen t, hat nhan va ien t.
2. Cong W la mot dang cua nang lng tng ng vi s chuyen ong co nh hng cua
toan bo mot he bao gom mot so lng vo cung ln cac tieu phan.
V du: Chuyen ong cua khoi kh ve hng ay piston i ra khi kh gian n.
3. n v o thong thng cua nhiet va cong la Joule (J) hay calori (cal). 1cal = 4,184J.
4. Nhiet va cong khong phai la ham trang thai v gia tr cua chung phu thuoc ca vao con
ng bien oi. Ta co:
q
max
= q
tn
> q
btn
(1.6)
W
max
= W
tn
> W
btn
(1.7)

10.2.5.3 Nhiet dung
1. Nhiet dung cua mot he cu the xac nh la lng nhiet can thiet e nang nhiet o cua
he o len 1
0
C. n v o thong thng la J/o hay cal/o.
Ngoai nang
cua he
Hoa ai cng
2. Nhiet dung rieng cua mot chat la lng nhiet can thiet e nang nhiet o cua 1g nguyen
chat cua chat o len 1
0
C. n v o la J/g.o hay cal/g.o.
3. Nhiet dung mol C cua mot chat la lng nhiet can thiet e nang nhiet o cua 1 mol
nguyen chat cua chat o len 1
0
C. n v o la J/mol.o hay cal/mol.o.
4. Nhiet dung mol ang tch C
V
la nhiet dung mol ieu kien the tch khong oi.
5. Nhiet dung mol ang ap C
P
la nhiet dung mol ieu kien ap suat khong oi.

10.3 Nguyen ly 1
10.3.1 Nguyen ly 1
1. Phat bieu: Tong nang lng cua mot he co lap luon luon bao toan.
2. ng dung: Khi mot he kn bien oi t trang thai au 1 en trang thai cuoi 2 theo cac
con ng bien oi a, b, c, va ch trao oi nhiet q
i
va cong W
i
vi moi trng ngoai th
nguyen ly 1 khang nh:
Tong nang lng trao oi di dang nhiet va cong q + W la mot hang so va khong phu
thuoc vao con ng bien oi.
AU = U
c
U
= const (1.8)
AU = q + W (1.9)

AU = q
a
+ W
a
= q
b
+ W
b
= q
c
+ W
c
= q
i
+ W
i
(1.10)
Khi s bien oi la vo cung nho, ta lay vi phan:
dU = oq + oW (1.11)
trong o: dU vi phan toan phan
oq + oW vi phan rieng phan
3. He qua:
a. oi vi mot he co lap khong trao oi chat va nang lng vi moi trng ngoai:
q = 0 ; W = 0 AU = 0 (1.12)
b. Trong mot chu trnh (hay qua trnh kn), trang thai au trung vi trang thai cuoi:
AU = 0 q + W = 0 (1.13)

10.3.2 Nhiet ang tch va nhiet ang ap
1. Xet mot he kn bien oi ma ch trao oi nhiet q va cong W vi moi trng ngoai:
dU = oq + oW (1.14)
2. oi vi cac phan ng hoa hoc thong thng, ta ch xet en cong W la cong gian n
cua cac chat kh chong lai ap suat cua moi trng ngoai. Luc o ta co:
PdV W = o (1.15)
Thay the vao (1.4), ta co: PdV q dU o = (1.16)
Chu y: Phai them dau v khi he sinh cong th noi nang cua he giam lam AU < 0.
Hoa ai cng
3. Trong qua trnh gian n ang nhiet cua kh ly tng, ta co AU = 0, ngha la toan bo
lng nhiet cung cap cho he se chuyen het thanh cong gian n.
AU = 0 oq = PdV (1.17)
10.3.2.1 Nhiet ang tch
1. Neu he kn bien oi ma khong thay oi the tch (ang tch):
V = const
he khong sinh cong gian n v: dV = 0
Thay the vao (1.8), ta co: dU = oq
V
PdV = oq
V

Luc o:
}
= o = A
V V
q q U
U q
V
A = (1.18)
q
V
la nhiet ang tch. Ch
V
cho biet the tch cua he khong oi.
2. Trong mot bien oi ang tch, lng nhiet trao oi bang bien thien noi nang cua he nen
lng nhiet nay ch phu thuoc vao trang thai au va trang thai cuoi cua he.

10.3.2.2 Nhiet ang ap
1. Neu he kn bien oi ma khong thay oi ap suat (ang ap):
P = const
AU = U
c
U
= q
P
+ W
nen: ( )
c
c
V V P PdV W = =
}

Ta co: AU = U
c
U
= q
P
P(V
c
V
)
Luc o: q
P
= (U
c
U
) + P(V
c
V
)
V P U q
P
A + A = (1.19)
q
P
la nhiet ang ap. Ch
P
cho biet ap suat cua he khong oi.

10.3.2.3 Ham entalpi
1. at: PV U H + (1.20)
H c goi la entalpi. Ham H la mot ham trang thai v U va PV la ham trang thai.
Ta co: q
P
= H
c
H

H q
P
A = (1.21)
2. Trong mot bien oi ang ap, lng nhiet trao oi bang bien thien entalpi cua he nen
lng nhiet nay ch phu thuoc vao trang thai au va trang thai cuoi cua he.

10.3.2.4 Moi lien he gia AH va AU
1. Phan ng hoa hoc la bien oi co kem theo s thay oi thanh phan cua he. Chung
thng c tien hanh nhiet o va ap suat co nh (ang nhietang ap).
2. Neu co s thay oi the tch th s thay oi the tch nay c quyet nh bi s thay oi
so mol cua cac chat kh tham gia phan ng:
PAV = AnRT (1.22)
Thay (1.18) va (1.22) vao (1.19): q
P
= q
V
+ AnRT (1.23)
nRT U H A + A = A (1.24)

Hoa ai cng
10.4 Ap dung nguyen ly 1 vao hoa hoc
10.4.1 Nhiet phan ng
1. Mot phan ng hoa hoc c bieu dien bang s o tong quat sau:
aA + bB cC + dD
Cac tac chat Cac san pham
2. Trang thai au: a mol A va b mol B co tong noi nang U
tc
= aAU
A
+ bAU
B

Trang thai cuoi: c mol C va d mol D co tong noi nang U
sp
= cAU
C
+ dAU
D

3. Cac phan ng hoa hoc thng kem theo hieu ng thu hay toa nhiet lam tang hoac giam
nang lng cua he.
4. Lng nhiet thu vao hay toa ra khi mot phan ng xay ra hoan toan c goi la nhiet
phan ng, ky hieu la Q (J, cal).
5. Theo quy c, phan ng thu nhiet co Q > 0, phan ng toa nhiet co Q < 0.
6. Vi phan ng ang tch, ta co nhiet phan ng ang tch Q
V
:

tc sp V
U U U Q = A = (1.25)
7. Vi phan ng ang ap, ta co nhiet phan ng ang ap Q
P
:

tc sp P
H H H Q = A = (1.26)
8. Ngi ta o nhiet phan ng bang nhiet lng ke.
9. Da tren nhiet dung a biet san cua nhiet lng ke va s bien thien nhiet o o c
bang nhiet ke gan tren nhiet lng ke khi tien hanh mot phan ng hoa hoc trong nhiet
lng ke, ngi ta se xac nh c nhiet phan ng.

10.4.2 Trang thai va ieu kien chuan
1. Trang thai chuan cua mot chat la trang thai ben nhat cua chat o ap suat P = 1atm,
nhiet o T = 298
0
K (25
0
C).
V du: Trang thai chuan cua carbon la graphit ran, cua nc la nc long, cua hydro la kh
hydro,
2. ieu kien chuan khi tien hanh mot phan ng la ap suat P = 1atm, nhiet o T = 298
0
K
(25
0
C) va vi 1 mol chat. oi vi dung dch th nong o cua chat la 1 mol/lt 1M.

10.4.3 Phng trnh phan ng nhiet hoa hoc
1. Mot phng trnh phan ng nhiet hoa hoc bao gom cac phan bat buoc sau:
a. Phng trnh phan ng hoa hoc
b. Trang thai cua hoa chat khi phan ng
c. ieu kien tien hanh phan ng (ap suat, nhiet o)
d. Nhiet phan ng Q
P
(AH) hay Q
V

V du: H
2
(k) + O
2
(k) H
2
O(l)
0
298
H A = 57,8kcal
2. Phng trnh nay cho biet khi 1 mol kh H
2
phan ng vi mol kh O
2
e tao thanh 1
mol H
2
O long 1atm va 298
0
K (25
0
C) se toa ra mot lng nhiet la 58,7kcal.
3. AH cua phan ng ieu kien chuan khi tao thanh 1 mol chat P = 1atm, T = 298
0
K
(25
0
C) c goi la entalpi chuan, va ky hieu la
0
298
H A (J/mol, cal/mol).
4. Entalpi chuan
0
298
H A cua nhieu phan ng khac nhau a c o va ghi san trong cac
sach giao khoa va tra cu.
Hoa ai cng

10.4.4 Sinh nhiet mol chuan
1. Do khong biet c gia tr tuyet oi cu a entalpi, ngi ta quy c:
Entalpi chuan cua n chat bang 0
2. Sinh nhiet mol cua mot hp chat la nhiet phan ng khi tao thanh mot mol hp chat o
t cac n chat.
3. Sinh nhiet mol chuan AH
(s)
cua mot hp chat la nhiet phan ng ieu kien chuan khi
tao thanh mot mol hp chat o t cac n chat trang thai chuan.
V du: H
2
(k) + O
2
(k) H
2
O(l)
0
298
H A = 57,8kcal
Nh vay, sinh nhiet mol chuan cua H
2
O long la AH
(s)H
2
O
= = 58,7 kcal/mol.
4. Nh vay, sinh nhiet mol chuan chnh la entalpi chuan khi cac tac chat la cac n chat
trang thai chuan.
5. Mot chat co sinh nhiet mol chuan cang thap th cang ben.
6. Sinh nhiet mol chuan cua nhieu chat a c o va ghi san trong cac so tay tra cu.

10.4.5 Thieu nhiet mol chuan
1. Thieu nhiet mol cua mot chat la nhiet phan ng khi ot chay mot mol chat o bang
oxigen e tao thanh cac oxid ben nhiet ong hoc nhat ieu kien o.
2. Thieu nhiet mol chuan AH
(t)
cua mot chat la nhiet phan ng ieu kien chuan khi ot
chay mot mol chat o bang oxigen trang thai chuan e tao thanh cac oxid ben nhiet
ong hoc nhat ieu kien chuan.
V du: CH
4
(k) + 2O
2
(k) CO
2
(k) + 2H
2
O(l)
0
298
H A = 212,7kcal
Nh vay, thieu nhiet mol chuan cua CH
4
kh la AH
(t)CH
4
= 212,7 kcal/mol.
3. Cac oxid ben nhat ieu kien chuan cua H la H
2
O, C la CO
2
, N la NO
2
, S la SO
3
,
4. Thieu nhiet mol chuan cua nhieu chat a c o va ghi san trong cac so tay tra cu.

10.4.6 Xac nh nhiet phan ng
10.4.6.1 nh luat Hess Ap dung e tnh nhiet phan ng
1. Phat bieu:
Nhiet phan ng cua mot phan ng la mot ai lng khuech o va ch phu thuoc vao
trang thai au va trang thai cuoi cua cac tac chat va san pham ma khong phu thuoc
vao cach thc hien phan ng.
V du: e tao thanh cac san pham t cac tac chat, neu co cac con ng 1, 2, 3, 4, e
thc hien phan ng, ta co:

H H H H H
4 3 2 1
A = A = A = A = A (1.27)
2. He qua 1: Nhiet phan ng cua phan ng thuan bang nhiet phan ng cua phan ng
nghch nhng ngc dau.
Hoa ai cng

ng th
H H A = A (1.28)
3. He qua 2: Nhiet phan ng bang tong sinh nhiet cua cac san pham tr tong sinh nhiet
cua cac tac chat.

tc ) s ( sp ) s (
H H H A A = A (1.29)
4. He qua 3: Nhiet phan ng bang tong thieu nhiet cua cac tac chat tr tong thieu nhiet
cua cac san pham.

sp ) t ( tc ) t (
H H H A A = A (1.30)
5. V du 1: Tnh nhiet phan ng cua phan ng sau:
2C(graphit) + O
2
(k) 2CO(k) AH = ?
Cho biet: C(graphit) + O
2
(k) CO
2
(k) AH
1
= 94,05kcal
2CO(k) + O
2
(k) 2CO
2
(k) AH
2
= 135,28kcal
Theo nh luat Hess va he qua 1:
2C(graphit) + O
2
(k) 2CO(k) AH = ?

2CO
2
(k)
Ta co: 2C(graphit) + 2O
2
(k) 2CO
2
(k) AH
3
= 2(94,05)kcal
2CO
2
(k) 2CO(k) + O
2
(k) AH
4
= 135,28kcal
2C(graphit) + O
2
(k) 2CO(k) AH = ?
kcal 82 , 52 28 , 135 ) 05 , 94 ( 2 H H H
4 3
= + = A + A = A
CaCO
3
(r) CaO(r) + CO
2
(k) AH = ?
Cho: AH
(s)
288,5 151,9 94,1 kcal/mol
Theo he qua 2, ta co: AH = AH
(s)sp
= AH
(s)tc

AH = (151,9 94,1) (288,5) = +42,5 kcal
7. V du 3: Tnh nhiet phan ng cua phan ng ester hoa sau:
CH
3
COOH(l) + C
2
H
5
OH(l) CH
3
COOC
2
H
5
(l) + H
2
O(l) AH = ?
Cho: AH
(t)
208,2 326,7 545,9 kcal/mol
Theo he qua 3, ta co: AH = AH
(t)sp
= AH
(t)tc

AH = (208,2 326,7) (545,9) = +11 kcal

10.4.6.2 Xac nh nhiet phan ng theo nang lng lien ket
1. Nhiet phan ly AH
(pl)
cua mot chat la nang lng can thiet e phan ly 1 mol chat o
trang thai kh thanh cac nguyen t trang thai kh ieu kien chuan.
V du: H
2
(k) 2H(k)
0
298
H A = 104,2 kcal/mol
Nh vay, nhiet phan ly cua hydro la AH
(pl)H
2
= 104,2 kcal/mol.
2. Nhiet thang hoa AH
(th)
cua mot chat la nang lng can thiet e chuyen 1 mol chat o
trang thai ran thanh cac nguyen t trang thai kh ieu kien chuan.
V du: C(r) C(k)
0
298
H A = 172 kcal/mol
+ 2O
2

AH
3
= 2(94,05)kcal
O
2

AH
4
= 135,28kcal
+
Hoa ai cng
Nh vay, nhiet thang hoa cua carbon graphit la AH
(th)C
= 172 kcal/mol.
3. Nhiet chuyen pha AH
(cp)
cua mot chat la lng nhiet thu vao hay toa ra khi bien oi 1
mol chat o t trang thai ran trang thai long hay trang thai long trang thai kh
nhiet o xay ra qua trnh chuyen pha. Nhiet o chuyen pha cua mot chat mot ap suat
xac nh se khong thay oi trong suot qua trnh chuyen pha.
V du: ap suat 1atm, nc co nhiet o chuyen pha ran long va long kh lan lt
la 0
0
C va 100
0
C.
Nh vay, qua trnh chuyen pha la mot qua trnh thuan nghch.
V du: H
2
O(l) H
2
O(k)
0
373
Nh vay, nhiet chuyen pha cua nc long thanh hi nc la 10,52 kcal/mol. Nhiet chuyen
pha cua hi nc thanh nc long se la 10,52 kcal/mol.
4. Nang lng lien ket E
lk
la nang lng toa ra khi tao thanh lien ket cua 1 mol chat t
cac nguyen t trang thai kh ieu kien chuan. Lu y la E
lk
< 0 khi toa nhiet.
V du: H(k) + Cl(k) HCl(k)
0
298
C(k) + 4H(k) CH
4
(k)
0
298
Nh vay, nang lng lien ket cua lien ket HCl la E
HCl
= 102,5 kcal/mol; nang lng lien
ket cua lien ket CH la E
CH
= 398/4 = 99,5 kcal/mol.
5. T cac gia tr cua E
lk
, AH
(pl)
, AH
(th)
, AH
(cp)
, chung ta co the tnh c nhiet phan ng, va
ngc lai.
6. Nhiet phan ng bang tong nang lng cua cac lien ket mi c hnh thanh trong san
pham tr i tong nang lng cua cac lien ket cu trong tac chat can pha v:

) tc ( lk ) sp ( lk
0
298
E E H = A (1.31)
H
2
(k) + Cl
2
(k) 2HCl(k) ? H
0
298
= A
Cho: E
HH
= 866,31 ; E
ClCl
= 482,21 ; E
HCl
= 858,00 (kJ/mol)
Ta co:
) tc ( lk ) sp ( lk
0
298
E E H = A

0
298
H A = 2(858,00) (866,31 482,21) = 367,48kJ
C(r) + 2H
2
(k) CH
4
(k) ? H
0
298
= A
Cho: AH
(th)C
= 172 ; AH
(pl)H
2
= 104,2 ; E
CH
= 99,5 kcal/mol
Ta co: C(r) C(k) AH
(th)C
= 172 kcal/mol
+ 2H
2
(k) 4H(k) 2AH
(pl)H
2
= 2(104,2) kcal/mol
C(k) + 4H(k) CH
4
(k) 4E
CH
= 4(99,5) kcal/mol
C(r) + 2H
2
(k) CH
4
(k)
0
298
H A

H C H ) pl ( C ) th (
0
298
E 4 H 2 H H
2

+ A + A = A

0
298
H A = 172,0 + 208,2 + (398,0) = 17,8kcal

10.4.6.3 Xac nh nhiet phan ng trong trng hp tong quat
1. Trong trng hp tong quat, phan ng co the c thc hien khong phai ieu kien
chuan, hoac cac san pham khong cung nhiet o vi cac tac chat, hoac i kem vi
bien oi hoa hoc con co cac qua trnh chuyen pha ran long kh,
Hoa ai cng
2. Do AH thay oi khong nhieu theo nhiet o nen mot cach gan ung, ta xem nh AH
khong bien oi theo nhiet o va s dung
0
298
H A e tnh toan nhiet phan ng.
3. Ngoai ra, can tnh them lng nhiet un nonglam nguoi theo nhiet dung va/hay lng
nhiet chuyen pha theo nhiet chuyen pha neu co xay ra qua trnh chuyen pha.

10.5 Nguyen ly II
1. Nguyen ly I cho phep xac nh nhiet phan ng cua cac phan ng hoa hoc.
2. Nguyen ly II se cho phep d oan chieu va mc o cua cac phan ng hoa hoc.

10.5.1 Khai niem ve entropi S
1. oi vi mot he gom hai buong kh cha hai kh A va B cach nhau bang mot mang ngan
trang thai 1, khi keo mang ngan len th co xay ra s tron lan t nhien gia hai kh lam
cho he trang thai 2 co o hon loan cao hn v cac kh a tron lan vao nhau va moi
phan t kh co the chuyen ong t do trong mot khong gian ln hn bao gom ca hai
buong kh.
2. Khi un nong he tren cang manh bang cach cung cap lng nhiet q cang ln vao he th
cac phan t kh se chuyen ong cang hon loan va o t do cua he cang tang.

Trang thai 1 Trang thai 2

3. Vi cung mot lng nhiet q th khi cung cap vao he ang nhiet o thap T
1
se gay ra
s hon loan ln hn la khi cung cap vao chnh he o nhng nhiet o T
2
> T
1
.
4. Nh vay, he co o hon loan (hay o t do) cang tang khi lng nhiet cung cap cho he
cang ln va nhiet o cua he cang thap.

10.5.2 Nguyen ly II: Ham trang thai entropi S
1. Ngi ta co the phat bieu nguyen ly II thong qua ham trang thai entropi S.
2. Ngi ta at ra ham trang thai entropi S e mo ta o t do cua mot he ang nhiet
nhiet o T trao oi thuan nghch vi moi trng ngoai mot lng nhiet q
tn
:

T
q
S
tn
= (1.32)
3. Khi s bien oi o t do la vo cung nho, ta lay vi phan:

T
q
dS
tn
o
= (1.33)
trong o: dS vi phan toan phan
oq vi phan rieng phan
4. Ngay ca 0
0
K, ta cung khong the chuyen he ve trang thai khong chuyen ong nen
khong the o c gia tr tuyet oi cua o t do ma ch co the o c o bien thien
cua o t do khi he bien oi t trang thai au en trang thai cuoi.
Kh A Kh B Kh A+B Kh B+A
Hoa ai cng

}
o
= = A
c
tn
c
T
q
S S S (1.34)
5. oi vi trao oi bat thuan nghch, v q
tn
> q
btn
nen ta co:

T
q
dS
btn
o
> (1.35)
va
}
o
> = A
c
btn
c
T
q
S S S (1.36)
6. V ham entropi S la mot ham trang thai nen o bien thien AS ch phu thuoc vao trang
thai au va trang thai cuoi, ta co:

T
q
T
q
dS dS dS
btn tn
btn tn
o
>
o
= = = (1.37)
va
} }
o
>
o
= = A = A = A
c
btn
c
tn
c btn tn
T
q
T
q
S S S S S (1.38)
7. oi vi he co lap khong trao oi chat va nang lng vi moi trng ngoai, ta co:
a. Khi bien oi thuan nghch:
q
tn
= 0 AS = 0
Vay trong qua trnh thuan nghch (can bang) th entropi cua he khong oi, he trang thai
can bang. De dang thay rang ay la mot qua trnh khong co that.
b. Khi bien oi bat thuan nghch:
q
btn
= 0 AS > 0
Vay, ieu kien e qua trnh bat thuan nghch xay ra t nhien oi vi he co lap la entropi cua
he phai tang cho en khi he at c trang thai can bang ng vi gia tr entropi cc ai
S
max
.
V du nh khi tron hai kh A va B th qua trnh at en can bang khi hai kh a tron eu va
entropi cua he luc o la cc ai.
8. oi vi he khong co lap th ta xem nh he va moi trng ngoai tao thanh mot he co lap,
ta co:
a. Khi bien oi thuan nghch:
AS
he
+ AS
moi trng
= 0
AS
he
= AS
moi trng

Vay trong qua trnh thuan nghch (can bang) th tong entropi cua toan vu tru khong oi.
Entropi cua he tang len bao nhieu th entropi cua moi trng phai giam i bay nhieu, va
ngc lai.
b. Khi bien oi bat thuan nghch:
AS
he
+ AS
moi trng
> 0
AS
he
> AS
moi trng

Vay, ieu kien e qua trnh bat thuan nghch xay ra t nhien oi vi he khong co lap la
tong entropi cua toan vu tru phai tang.
9. T hai phan tren, chung ta i en ket luan la ieu kien e mot bien oi xay ra t nhien
la tong entropi cua vu tru phai tang.

10.5.3 Moi lien he gia entropi S va xac suat nhiet ong cua he
1. Xet trng hp N phan t kh nam trong mot bnh co the tch V (trang thai 1). Gia s
mot trng hp la N phan t kh nay tap trung trong the tch cua bnh (trang thai 2).
2. Qua trnh chuyen t trang thai 1 en trang thai 2 thc te la khong the t xay ra.
Hoa ai cng
3. Neu goi p la xac suat cua 1 phan t kh co mat trong trong toan bo the tch V cua bnh.
Xac suat co mat cua phan t kh tren trong V/4 se la p/4.

Trang thai 1Trang thai 2
4. Xac suat cua N phan t kh co mat trong trong toan bo the tch V cua bnh la:
W
1
= p.p.p.pp (N lan) = p
N

5. Xac suat cua N phan t kh co mat trong trong the tch V cua bnh la:
W
2
= p/4.p/4.p/4.p/4p/4 (N lan) = (p/4)
N

6. W
1
va W
2
chnh la xac suat nhiet ong hoc cua he trang thai 1 va trang thai 2.
7. Trang thai 1 co cac phan t chuyen ong t do hn trong mot the tch ln hn nen o
hon loan (hay o t do) cua he ln hn va xac suat nhiet ong hoc W
1
ln hn.
8. Khi N tang th so lng xac suat nhiet ong tang manh va W
1
cang rat ln so vi W
2
.
9. Boltzman a ra bieu thc the hien moi lien quan gia entropi S va xac suat nhiet ong
hoc cua he nh sau:
W ln k S= (1.39)
trong o: k hang so Boltzman; k = R/N = 1,380.10
23
J/
0
K
R hang so kh ly tng; R = 8,314 J/mol.
0
K
N so Avogadro; N = 6,022.10
23
mol
1

10. Nh vay, n v cua entropi la J/
0
K hay cal/
0
K.

10.5.4 Nguyen ly III
1. Ngi ta tha nhan mot tinh the hoan hao cua mot nguyen chat 0
0
K ch co mot cach
sap xep duy nhat, ngha la mot tinh the hoan hao co xac suat nhiet ong hoc W = 1.
Ta co: S
0
= klnW = kln1 = 0 (1.40)
2. T o, ta co nguyen ly III:
Entropi cua mot tinh the hoan hao cua mot nguyen chat 0
0
K bang khong.

10.5.5 Entropi tuyet oi
1. Nguyen ly III tha nhan S
0
= 0 cho phep tnh c entropi truyet oi cua cac chat co
nhiet dung ang ap C
P
mot nhiet o bat ky theo nhiet ang ap Q
P
e a 1 mol chat
o en nhiet o a cho.
2. Entropi chuan cua mot chat la entropi cua chat o ieu kien chuan P = 1atm, T =
298
0
K (25
0
C) va vi 1 mol chat (oi vi dung dch th nong o phai la 1 mol/lt), va c
ky hieu la
0
298
S .
3. n v cua entropi chuan la J/mol.
0
K hay cal/mol.
0
K.
4. Entropi chuan
0
298
S cua nhieu chat khac nhau a c o va ghi san trong cac sach
giao khoa va tra cu.
5. Can c vao ban chat cua entropi, ta thay khi nhiet o cang cao th o hon loan cua he
cang ln lam cho entropi cua mot chat cang ln.
Hoa ai cng
6. Ta de dang thay rang oi vi cung mot chat, entropi trang thai ran < long < kh.
V du: Chat Nc a Nc long Hi nc

0
298
S cal/mol.
0
K 9,4 16,72 45,11
oi vi cac chat khac nhau th chat nao co phan t cang phc tap se co S cang ln.
V du: Chat Nguyen t O Phan t O
2
Phan t O
3

0
298
S cal/mol.
0
K 38,47 49,00 57,08

10.5.6 Tnh bien thien entropi AS cua phan ng
aA + bB cC + dD
2. Trang thai au: a mol A va b mol B co tong entropi S
tc
= aS
A
+ bS
B

Trang thai cuoi: c mol C va d mol D co tong entropi S
sp
= cS
C
+ dS
D

3. Do entropi la mot ham trang thai va la mot ai lng dung o, lng bien thien entropi
AS
T
cua he nhiet o T bang tong entropi cua cac san pham tr tong entropi cua cac
tac chat:

) tc ( T ) sp ( T T
S S S = A (1.41)
4. Khi phan ng c tien hanh trong ieu kien chuan, ta co:

0
) tc ( 298
0
) sp ( 298
0
298
S S S = A (1.42)
5. Do AS thay oi khong nhieu theo nhiet o nen mot cach gan ung, ta xem nh AS
khong bien oi theo nhiet o va s dung
0
298
S A e tnh toan entropi cua phan ng.
6. V du 1: Tnh bien thien entropi
0
298
S A cua phan ng sau:
SO
2
(k) + O
2
(k) SO
3
(k) ? S
0
298
= A
Cho biet: Chat SO
2
O
2
SO
3

0
298
S J/mol.
0
K 248,53 205,03 256,23
Ta co:
0
) tc ( 298
0
) sp ( 298
0
298
S S S = A

0
)) k ( O ( 298
0
)) k ( SO ( 298
0
)) k ( SO ( 298
0
298
2 2 3
S 2 1 S S S = A
| | ) 03 , 205 ( 2 1 53 , 248 23 , 256 S
0
298
+ = A
81 , 94 S
0
298
= A J/mol.
0
K
7. V du 2: Tnh bien thien entropi
0
298
S A cua phan ng sau:
CaCO
3
(r) CaO(r) + CO
2
(k) ? S
0
298
= A
Cho biet: Chat CaCO
3
(r) CaO(r) CO
2
(k)

0
298
S (J/mol.
0
K) +92

+40 +214
Ta co:
0
)) r ( CaCO ( 298
0
)) k ( CO ( 298
0
)) r ( CaO ( 298
0
298
3 2
S S S S + = A
= A
0
298
S 40 + 214 92
= A
0
298
S 162 J/mol.
0
K
Hoa ai cng
10.5.7 Tnh bien thien entropi AS cua qua trnh chuyen pha va hoa tan
1. AS cua qua trnh chuyen pha nhiet o chuyen pha T c tnh theo cong thc:

T
H
S
) cp (
) cp (
A
= A (1.43)
V du: Tnh AS cua qua trnh chuyen pha nc long thanh hi nc, cho biet:
H
2
O(l) H
2
O(k) mol / kcal 52 , 10 H
0
373
= A
Nh vay, AS cua qua trnh chuyen pha nc long thanh hi nc la:
20 , 28
373
10520
T
H
S
) cp (
) cp (
= =
A
= A cal/mol.
0
K
2. AS cua qua trnh hoa tan nhiet o T c tnh theo cong thc:

T
H
S
) ht (
) ht (
A
= A (1.44)
V du: Tnh AS cua qua trnh hoa tan muoi NaCl trong nc, cho biet:
NaCl(r) NaCl(dd) mol / kcal 11 , 1 H
0
) ht ( 298
= A
Nh vay, AS cua qua trnh hoa tan muoi NaCl ran thanh dung dch NaCl cha cac cation
Na
+
va Cl
298
0
K (25
0
C) la:
72 , 3
298
1110
T
H
S
) ht (
) ht (
= =
A
= A cal/mol.
0
K

10.6 Nang lng t do G (the ang nhietang ap)
10.6.1 The nhiet ong
1. Trong trong trng co gia toc g, mot vat co khoi lng m o cao h
1
se ri xuong o
cao h
2
< h
1
mot cach t nhien ma khong can phai tac ong mot cong nao ca.
2. Khong nhng the, khi vat ri con tao ra c mot cong W khong phu thuoc vao con
ng ri ma ch phu thuoc vao o cao au va o cao cuoi:
W = mg(h
2
h
1
)
3. Tong quat, ta noi vat co mot the nang trong trong trng la:
E = mgh
4. Nh vay, the nang la mot ham trang thai cho biet kha nang cua mot he khi trong
nhng ieu kien xac nh co the thc hien mot bien oi t nhien va sinh ra mot cong
bang vi o giam the nang neu bien oi la thuan nghch.
5. Tng t nh vay, the nhiet ong la cac ham trang thai cho biet kha nang cua mot he
khi trong nhng ieu kien xac nh co the thc hien mot bien oi t nhien va sinh ra
mot cong bang vi o giam the nhiet ong neu bien oi la thuan nghch.

10.6.2 Yeu to entalpi va yeu to entropi cua qua trnh ang nhietang ap
1. Tuyet ai a so cac phan ng hoa hoc c th c hien nhiet o khong oi va ap suat
khong oi c goi la ieu kien ang nhietang ap.
2. V vay, chung ta se xem xet ky lng trng hp bien oi ang nhietang ap e xac
nh ieu kien can thiet cho mot qua trnh co the xay ra t nhien.
3. Theo nguyen ly I va II, ta co:
dU = op + oW va dS = oq/T
4. Neu xem cong oW gom cong gian n P.dV va cong hu ch oA, ta co:
Hoa ai cng
dU = op P.dV + oA = T.dS P.dV + oA
chuyen ve, ta co: oA = dU + P.dV T.dS
Lay tch phan: A = AU + P.AV T.AS
A = (U
2
U
1
) T.(S
2
S
1
) + P.(V
2
V
1
)
A = (U + PV TS)
2
(U + PV TS)
1

A = (H TS)
2
(H TS)
1

5. Ta thay cong hu ch A nhan c bang hieu cua H TS cua trang thai au va trang
thai cuoi. Khi A = 0 th he se khong sinh cong hu ch c na. Luc o he trang thai
can bang va khong bien oi na.
6. Mot cach khac, t cac khao sat yeu to entalpi va yeu to entropi tren, chung ta nhan
thay trong mot he bien oi ang nhietang ap co hai xu hng ngc nhau.
7. V du xet mot bnh cha kh phan cc H
o+
F
o
. Cac phan t HF co xu hng t nhien
sap xep trat t va nh hng e cac au phan cc dng hng ve cac au phan cc
am va ngc lai. Cac phan t con co xu hng t nhien chuyen ong nhiet hon loan
khien cho chung sap xep mot cach vo trat t va bat nh hng.
8. Xu hng t nhien th nhat la trong he se hnh thanh cac lien ket mi chac che hn
cac lien ket cu nen he toa ra nang lng (bao gom nhiet q va cong W) lam cho he co
o trat t cao hn va nang lng thap hn.
9. Trong trng hp nay, entalpi cua he giam xuong va bien thien cua entalpi la am.
AH = q + W < 0
10. Xu hng t nhien th hai la do chuyen ong nhiet hon loan cua cac tieu phan trong he
se lam cho he t bien oi trang thai au sang trang thai cuoi co o hon loan cao hn,
hay noi mot cach khac, co o t do cao hn.
11. Trong trng hp nay, entropi cua he tang len va bien thien cua entropi la dng.
AS = S
2
S
1
= q
tn
/T > 0
hay T.AS = q
tn
> 0
12. Nh vay, nang lng toa ra (AH < 0) do entalpi giam xuong khien he co o trat t cao
hn va nang lng thap hn lai co tac dung ngc la lam cho he co o t do giam
xuong (AS < 0).
13. He se at trang thai can bang, ngha la khong bien oi, khi ong lc cua hai xu hng
oi nghch tren bang nhau va triet tieu nhau, ngha la khi:
q + W = AH = T.AS = q
tn

hay AH T.AS = 0 (1.45)
Lu y: AH < 0 nen AS cung < 0 v T tnh theo nhiet o Kelvin luon luon dng.
14. He se bien oi mot cach t nhien theo chieu thuan khi ong lc cua xu hng th nhat
manh hn ong lc cua xu hng th hai, ngha la khi nang lng toa ra nhieu hn
khien cho AH am hn T.AS:
AH < T.AS
hay AH T.AS < 0 (1.46)
15. He se bien oi mot cach t nhien theo chieu nghch khi ong lc cua xu hng th nhat
yeu hn ong lc cua xu hng th hai, ngha la khi nang lng toa ra t hn khien cho
AH dng hn T.AS:
AH > T.AS
hay AH T.AS > 0 (1.47)

Hoa ai cng
10.6.3 Nang lng t do G (the ang nhietang ap)
1. at: TS H G = (1.48)
G c goi la nang lng t do hay the ang nhietang ap. Ham G c goi la ham
nang lng t do va la mot ham trang thai v H va S eu la ham trang thai.
Ta co: S . T H G A A = A (1.49)
2. T cac khao sat trong muc 1.6.2., ta co the i en ket luan la: Trong mot bien oi ang
nhietang ap, gia tr cua bien thien nang lng t do AG cua he cho biet chieu bien
oi t nhien cua he:
a. Khi AG = AH T. AS < 0: He bien oi mot cach t nhien theo chieu thuan
b. Khi AG = AH T. AS = 0: He at trang thai can bang (tc la khong bien oi)
c. Khi AG = AH T. AS > 0: He bien oi mot cach t nhien theo chieu nghch
3. Do dau cua AG do dau va o ln cua AH va AS quyet nh nen ta co the tom tat cac
kha nang t bien oi cua he theo dau cua cac gia tr tren nh sau:

Trng
hp
Dau
Ket luan ve chieu bien oi
AH AS AG
1
2
3
4
5

+

+
+

+

+
?
?
0
T xay ra theo chieu thuan
T xay ra theo chieu nghch
T xay ra theo chieu thuan T thap
T xay ra theo chieu thuan T cao
trang thai can bang

4. Nang lng t do G ieu kien chuan cho 1 mol chat c goi la nang lng t do
chuan, va ky hieu la
0
298
G .
5. Nh vay, n v cua nang lng t do chuan G la J/mol hay cal/mol.
6. Bien thien nang lng t do AG cua mot bien oi ieu kien chuan cua 1 mol chat
c goi la bien thien nang lng t do chuan, con c goi tat la nang lng t do
chuan va ky hieu la
0
298
G A .
7. Bien thien nang lng t do AG khi tao thanh 1 mol cua mot hp chat ieu kien
chuan t cac n chat trang thai chuan c goi la bien thien nang lng t do tao
thanh chuan, con c goi tat la nang lng t do tao thanh chuan va cung c ky
hieu la
0
298
G A .
8. Nang lng t do tao thanh chuan
0
298
G A cua nhieu chat khac nhau a c o va ghi
san trong cac so tay tra cu.

10.6.4 Ap dung nang lng t do G vao hoa hoc
aA + bB cC + dD
2. Trang thai au: a mol A va b mol B co tong nang lng t do:
AG
tc
= aAG
A
+ bAG
B
= a(AH
A
T.AS
A
) + b(AH
B
T.AS
B
)
Trang thai cuoi: c mol C va d mol D co tong nang lng t do:
Hoa ai cng
AG
sp
= cAG
C
+ dAG
D
= c(AH
C
T.AS
C
) + d(AH
D
T.AS
D
)
3. Ta co bien thien nang lng t do AG cua mot phan ng la:

tc sp
G G G A A = A (1.50)
va: AG = (AH
sp
T.AS
sp
) + (AH
tc
T.AS
tc
)
AG = (AH
sp
AH
tc
) T(AS
sp
AS
tc
) (1.51)
4. Do AH va AS thay oi khong nhieu theo nhiet o nen mot cach gan ung, ta tnh AG tai
nhiet o phan ng T t cac gia tr
0
298
H A ,
0
298
S A va nhiet o T.
5. Phan ng se oi chieu thuan nghch tai nhiet o T* co AG = 0:
AG = AH T*.AS = 0
S
H
* T
A
A
= (1.52)
6. V du 1: Tnh bien thien nang lng t do
0
298
G A cua phan ng sau:
CaCO
3
(r) CaO(r) + CO
2
(k) ? G
0
298
= A
Cho biet: Chat CaCO
3
(r) CaO(r) CO
2
(k)

0
298
G A kJ/mol 1128 604 394
Ta co:
0
)) r ( CaCO ( 298
0
)) k ( CO ( 298
0
)) r ( CaO ( 298
0
298
3 2
G G G G A A + A = A

0
298
G A = 604 394 + 1128 = 130 kJ
Phan ng nay co
0
298
G A dng nen ch xay ra theo chieu nghch nhiet o 298
0
K.
7. V du 2: Tnh bien thien nang lng t do
0
1273
G A cua phan ng tren:
Cho biet: Chat CaCO
3
(r) CaO(r) CO
2
(k)

0
298
H A kJ/mol 1207 635 393

0
298
S J/mol.
0
K +92

+40 +214
Ta co:
0
298
H A = 635 393 + 1207 = 179 kJ/mol

0
298
S A = +40 + 214 92 = 162 J/mol.
0
K = 0,162 kJ/mol.
0
K

0
298
0
298
0
1273
S . T H G A A = A = 179 (12730,162) = 27,23 kJ/mol.
0
K
Phan ng nay co
0
1273
G A am nen xay ra theo chieu thuan nhiet o 1273
0
K.
8. V du 3: Tnh nhiet o oi chieu cua phan ng tren.
Ta co:
162 , 0
179
S
H
* T =
A
A
= = 1105
0
K = 832
0
C

Chng 11
Can bang hoa hoc

1.1 Phan ng thuan nghch va phan ng bat thuan nghch
1. Co the phan cac phan ng hoa hoc thanh hai loai chnh.
Hoa ai cng
2. Khi mot phan ng hoa hoc, trong ieu kien xac nh, ch xay ra theo chieu thuan ma
khong the xay ra theo chieu nghch th ta noi phan ng o la mot phan ng mot chieu,
phan ng hoan toan hay phan ng bat thuan nghch.
V du: Khi un nong kali clorat 400
0
C va 1 atm th xay ra phan ng phan huy:
KClO
3

C 400
0
KCl +
3
/
2
O
2

Cha ai thc hien c phan ng nay theo chieu nghch 400
0
C va 1 atm.
3. Khi mot phan ng hoa hoc, trong ieu kien xac nh, xay ra theo ca chieu thuan lan
chieu nghch th ta noi phan ng o la mot phan ng khong hoan toan hay phan ng
thuan nghch.
V du: Khi un nong hon hp 1 mol hydro va 1 mol iod 445
0
C va 1 atm th xay ra phan
ng ket hp tao thanh hydro iodur:
H
2
+ I
2

C 445
0
2HI
Cung luc o, luon luon xay ra phan ng phan huy hydro iodur thanh hydro va iod:
H
2
+ I
2

C 445
0
2HI
Ket qua la cuoi cung luon luon thu c 0,2 mol H
2
; 0,2 mol I
2
va 1,6 mol HI. Khong the
tien hanh phan ng nay 445
0
C va 1 atm ch theo chieu thuan hoac chieu nghch.
4. Mot cach chnh xac th trong phan ng bat thuan nghch, ta van thu c mot hon hp
san pham va tac chat. Nhng lng san pham vo cung ln so vi lng tac chat nen ta
xem nh tac chat a phan ng cho en het.

1.2 Ve khai niem thuan nghch va bat thuan nghch
1. Can phan biet ro rang hai khai niem thuan nghch va bat thuan nghch trong nhiet ong
hoc hoa hoc va trong can bang hoa hoc v chung co hai y ngha hoan toan khac nhau.
2. Trong nhiet ong hoc hoa hoc:
a. Bien oi thuan nghch tng ng vi bien oi xay ra vo cung cham e he luon luon
trang thai can bang.
b. Bien oi bat thuan nghch tng ng vi bien oi xay ra ma he trang thai khong
can bang.
3. Trong can bang hoa hoc:
a. Thuan nghch tng ng vi phan ng xay ra hoan toan hay mot chieu.
b. Bat thuan nghch ng vi mot phan ng xay ra khong hoan toan hay theo ca chieu
thuan lan chieu nghch. Mot phan ng bat thuan nghch co 3 ac iem:
- cung mot ieu kien phan ng (nhiet o, ap suat) th phan ng xay ra theo ca
chieu thuan lan chieu nghch.
- Du bat au t cac tac chat hay san pham vi t le the nao chang na th en luc
cuoi cung, khi he at ti trang thai can bang, ta eu thu c mot t le lng san
pham/tac chat xac nh giong nhau.
- T le lng san pham/tac chat nay se khong thay oi theo thi gian neu ieu kien
phan ng van gi nguyen khong oi.

1.3 Can bang ong the Hang so can bang
1. He ong the la he co cac tnh chat ly hoc va hoa hoc hoac la khong thay oi trong toan
bo he hoac la thay oi mot cach lien tuc. Nh vay, trong he khong co be mat phan chia
gia cac phan khac nhau.
Hoa ai cng
V du: Khong kh trong mot bnh kn co thanh phan, nhiet o, ap suat, chiet suat, hoan
toan giong nhau la mot he ong the. Bau kh quyen cua trai at co thanh phan, nhiet o,
ap suat, chiet suat, khong giong nhau khi i t mat at len cao dan cung nh khi i t ni
nay en ni khac nhng van la mot he ong the v cac tnh chat nay thay oi mot cach lien
tuc ch khong ot bien.
aA + bB cC + dD
Trong ieu kien phan ng xac nh, theo thi gian he phan ng pha kh se at c
trang thai can bang. Luc o, thanh phan cua he co t le:
const
p . p
p . p
K
cb
b
B
a
A
d
D
c
C
P
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= (2.7)
trong o: K
p
hang so can bang cua phan ng
p
i
ap suat rieng phan cua chat i trang thai can bang
cb cho biet he trang thai can bang
va:
P
cb
b
B
a
A
d
D
c
C
K RT
P P
P P
RT G ln
.
.
ln
0
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A (2.8)
va:
RT
G
P
0
e K
A
= (2.9)
3. Ngi ta m rong y tng nay qua he phan ng pha long vi hang so can bang K
C

c bieu dien theo nong o cua cac chat trong he nh sau:
const
C . C
C . C
K
cb
b
B
a
A
d
D
c
C
C
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= (2.10)
trong o: C
i
nong o cua chat i trang thai can bang
cb cho biet he trang thai can bang
va:
C
cb
b
B
a
A
d
D
c
C
K RT
C C
C C
RT G ln
.
.
ln
0
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= A (2.11)
va:
RT
G
C
0
e K
A
= (2.12)
4. Nh vay, hang so can bang K
P
va K
C
ch phu thuoc vao nhiet o cua he.
5. Gia hai hang so can bang K
P
va K
C
co moi lien he sau:

n
C P
) RT .( K K
A
= (2.13)
trong o: An hieu so gia so mol kh cua san pham va so mol kh cua tac chat
An = d + c b a
6. Ta nhan thay o dch chuyen can bang phu thuoc vao gia tr cua AG
0
:
a. AG
0
<< 0 th K >> 1, can bang cang dch chuyen theo chieu thuan tao thanh lng
san pham cang ln.
b. AG
0
>> 0 th K << 1, can bang cang dch chuyen theo chieu nghch tao thanh lng
san pham cang nho.
c. AG
0
= 0 th K = 1, he a trang thai can bang va khong thay oi na.
7. Mc o phan ng c xac nh bang o chuyen hoa X:
Hoa ai cng

au ban chat mol So
hoa chuye n a chat mol So
X = (2.14)
8. T cac phng trnh (2.115), ta tnh c hang so can bang K t AG
0
, ap suat hay
nong o cua cac tac chat va san pham cua he trang thai can bang, va ngc lai.
9. V du: Hay xac nh o chuyen hoa khi can bang, hang so can bang K
P
va AG
0
cua
phan ng sau:
H
2
+ I
2

atm 1 , C 445
0
2HI
Cho biet neu cho 1 mol H
2
va 1 mol I
2
phan ng vi nhau 445
0
C va P = 1 atm th khi can
bang ta thu c 0,2 mol H
2
; 0,2 mol I
2
va 1,6 mol HI. R = 8,31 J/mol.
0
K.
Giai: Ta co: 8 , 0
1
2 , 0 1
X =
=
Tong so mol cua he khi can bang:
0,2 + 0,2 + 1,6 = 2 mol
Ap suat rieng phan cua cac chat trong he:
T
T
i
T
i
i
P
n
n
P
P
p = =
Chat H
2
I
2
HI
T
T
i
i
P
n
n
p =

1 , 0 1
2
2 , 0
= 1 , 0 1
2
2 , 0
= 8 , 0 1
2
6 , 1
=
Ta co: 64
1 , 0 1 , 0
8 , 0
p . p
p
K
2
1
I
1
H
2
HI
P
2 2
=
= =
24814 64 ln 718 31 , 8 K ln RT G
P
0
= = = A J/mol = 24,81 kJ/mol

1.4 Can bang d the
1. He d the la he co cac be mat phan chia gia cac phan khac nhau cua he va cac tnh
chat ly hoc va hoa hoc thay oi ot ngot khi i qua cac be mat phan chia nay.
2. oi vi cac phan ng d the cua chat kh phan ng vi cac chat long va chat ran th ta
ch tnh en ap suat hay nong o cua chat kh va chat long.
V du: oi vi phan ng:
CaCO
3
(r) CaO(r) + CO
2
(k)
ta co: ( )
cb
CO P
2
p K =
hay: ( )
cb
CO C
2
C K =
3. oi vi cac phan ng d the cua chat long phan ng vi cac chat ran th ta ch tnh en
nong o cua chat long. Neu co mot chat rat tha th ta cung khong tnh en chat nay.
V du: oi vi phan ng:
RCOOR(l) + H
2
O(l, tha) RCOOH(l) + ROH(l)
ta co:
|
cb
C
RCOOR
OH R RCOOH
K
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
' [
] ' ].[ [

1.5 Anh hng cua nhiet o en hang so can bang
1. Ta co: AG
0
= AH
0
T.AS
0
= RTlnK
Hoa ai cng
2. Rut ra:
R
S
RT
H
K ln
0 0
A
+
A
=
3. Gia s nhiet o T
1
th hang so can bang cua phan ng la K
1
, con nhiet o T
2
th
hang so can bang cua phan ng la K
2
. Thong thng, AH
0
va AS
0
khong thay oi nhieu
khi tang nhiet o t T
1
en T
2
. Ta co:

R
S
RT
H
K ln
0
1
0
1
A
+
A
= (2.15)

R
S
RT
H
K ln
0
2
0
2
A
+
A
= (2.16)
4. Lay (2.18) tr (2.17), ta co:

|
|
.
|
\
|
A

A
=
1
0
2
0
1 2
RT
H
RT
H
K ln K ln

|
|
.
|
\
|
A
=
1 2
0
1
2
T
1
T
1
R
H
K
K
ln (2.17)
5. Phng trnh tren c goi la phng trnh Vant Hoff. No cho phep xac nh c hang
so can bang K nhiet o T
2
khi biet hang so can bang nhiet o T
1
.
6. Phng trnh Vant Hoff cung cho phep xac nh AH
0
cua phan ng neu biet hai hang
so can bang K
1
va K
2
cua phan ng o 2 nhiet o T
1
va T
2
khac nhau.

1.6 S chuyen dch can bang
1. Nh a thay tren, mot he can bang th cac thong so nh nhiet o, ap suat, nong o
cua cac cau t, se co cac gia tr hoan toan xac nh.
2. Neu thay oi mot trong cac yeu to nay th he se chuyen sang mot trang thai mi vi
can bang mi. Qua trnh o c goi la s chuyen dch can bang.
3. Moi dch chuyen can bang hoa hoc eu tuan theo mot nguyen ly chung c goi la
Nguyen ly Le Chatelier:
Trong mot phan ng can bang, moi s thay oi cac yeu to anh hng en mc can bang
se lam can bang chuyen theo chieu chong lai s thay oi o.
4. Cu the la:
a. Khi thay oi nong o cua mot chat th can bang se chuyen dch theo hng chong
lai s thay oi nay.
Chieu thay oi nong o Chieu chuyen dch can bang
Tang nong o tac chat Chuyen theo chieu thuan e giam nong o tac chat
Giam nong o tac chat Chuyen theo chieu nghch e tang nong o tac chat
Tang nong o san pham Chuyen theo chieu nghch e giam nong o san pham
Giam nong o san pham Chuyen theo chieu thuan e tang nong o san pham

b. Khi thay oi nhiet o cua he th can bang se chuyen dch theo hng chong lai s
thay oi nay.
Chieu thay oi nhiet o Chieu chuyen dch can bang
Hoa ai cng
AH
0
< 0
Phan ng theo chieu thuan se
toa nhiet lam tang nhiet o
Tang nhiet o
Chuyen theo chieu nghch
e giam nhiet o
Giam nhiet o
Chuyen theo chieu thuan
e tang nhiet o
AH
0
> 0
Phan ng theo chieu thuan se
thu nhiet lam giam nhiet o
Tang nhiet o
e giam nhiet o
Giam nhiet o
e tang nhiet o
c. Khi thay oi ap suat cua he th can bang se chuyen dch theo hng chong lai s
thay oi nay.
Chieu thay oi ap suat Chieu chuyen dch can bang
Phan ng lam tang so mol kh
tang ap suat
Tang ap suat
e giam ap suat
Giam ap suat
e tang ap suat
Phan ng lam giam so mol kh
giam ap suat
Tang ap suat
e giam ap suat
Giam ap suat
e tang ap suat

5. V du: Xet phan ng:
CaCO
3
(r) CaO(r) + CO
2
(k)
kJ H 130
0
298
= A

nhiet o giam, ap suat tang
ay la mot phan ng co AH > 0 nen la phan ng thu nhiet va lam tang so mol kh do hnh
thanh them kh CO
2
.
a. Khi tang nong o cua CO
2
th can bang se chuyen theo chieu nghch e lam giam
nong o cua CO
2
xuong.
b. Phan ng thu nhiet lam he giam nhiet o nen khi tang nhiet o cua he th can bang
se chuyen theo chieu thuan e lam giam nhiet o xuong.
c. Phan ng lam tang so mol kh lam tang ap suat nen khi tang ap suat th can bang
se chuyen theo chieu nghch e lam giam ap suat xuong.

Chng 12
ong hoa hoc

3.1 Muc tieu nghien cu cua ong hoa hoc
1. Mot phan ng hoa hoc co the xay ra ve mat nhiet ong hoc khi AG < 0. Can bang phan
ng c xac nh qua hang so can bang K:
Hoa ai cng

RT
G
K ln
0
A
=
2. Tuy nhien, co nhieu phan ng tuy co AG < 0 nhng thc te hau nh khong xay ra. V du
phan ng:
H
2
(k) + O
2
(k) H
2
O(k)
0
298
G A = 228,58 kJ/mol
tuy co
0
298
G A rat am nhng sau hang nam van khong xay ra. Trong trng hp o, ngi ta
noi co nhng tr ngai ong hoc km ham van toc phan ng lam cho phan ng co van toc
cc ky nho khong the quan sat c. Gia toc o phan ng va ai lc hoa hoc cua cac chat
tham gia phan ng khong co mot moi lien quan nao.
3. Lnh vc hoa hoc nghien cu ve van toc va c che cua cac phan ng hoa hoc c goi
la ong hoa hoc. Ngi ta thng nghien cu anh hng cua ba yeu to c ban sau en
van toc cua cac phan ng hoa hoc:
a. Nong o cua cac chat tham gia phan ng (oi vi cac chat kh, anh hng cua ap
suat cung tng t nh anh hng cua nong o v P = CRT)
b. Nhiet o
c. Ban chat cua chat xuc tac

3.2 nh ngha van toc phan ng
1. Ngi ta thng xac nh van toc phan ng bang bien thien nong o cua mot trong cac
tac chat hay san pham trong mot n v thi gian.

t
C
v
A
A
= (3.1)
trong o: v: van toc phan ng, mol/lt.thi gian
AC: bien thien cua nong o trong khoang thi gian At
2. V van toc phan ng phai dng nen ta quy c s dung dau khi xac nh van toc
phan ng theo tac chat, va dau + khi xac nh van toc phan ng theo san pham.
3. Van toc phan ng phu thuoc vao nong o cua cac chat tham gia phan ng nen v c
xac nh bang bieu thc (3.1) ch la van toc trung bnh trong khoang thi gian At. Van
toc trung bnh nay se tien ti van toc tc thi tai thi iem t khi At 0:

dt
dC
t
C
lim v
0 t t
=
A
A
=
A
(3.2)
4. Trong trng hp tong quat th cac chat tham gia phan ng co he so t lng khac
nhau:
aA + bB cC + dD (3.3)
khi o:
dt
dC
a
d
dt
dC
a
c
dt
dC
a
b
dt
dC
v
C C B A
= = = = (3.4)

3.3 Anh hng cua nong o en van toc phan ng
3.3.1 nh luat tac dung khoi lng
1. Nam 1867, Guldberg va Waage a thiet lap nh luat tac dung khoi lng e xac nh
anh hng cua nong o en van toc cua phan ng (3.3):
aA + bB cC + dD (3.3)
2. Van toc cua phan ng t le vi tch so cua nong o cac chat tham gia phan ng vi cac
so mu tng ng la cac he so t lng trong phng trnh phan ng.
Hoa ai cng

b
B
a
A
C kC v = (3.5)
trong o: k: hang so van toc phan ng
a: bac theo A
b: bac theo B
3. Tong a + b + c goi la bac phan ng (bac chung), va cung c goi la phan t so
la so phan t tham gia vao phan ng.

Tong a + b + Bac phan ng Phan t so
1 Phan ng bac 1 Phan ng n phan t
2 Phan ng bac 2 Phan ng nh phan t
3 Phan ng bac 3 Phan ng tam phan t

V du: Phan ng
2 2 4 2 4 4 2 2 2 4
O 5 O H 8 SO K MnSO 2 SO H 3 O H 5 KMnO 2 + + + + +
c goi la phan ng thap phan t hay phan ng bac 10 va co bac 2 theo KMnO
4
, bac 5
theo H
2
O
2
va bac 3 theo H
2
SO
4
.

3.3.2 nh luat c ban hien ai cua ong hoa hoc
1. Nhng nghien cu thc nghiem cho thay tuyet ai a so cac phan ng khong tuan theo
nh luat tac dung khoi lng. o la do tuyet ai a so cac phan ng hoa hoc la cac
phan ng phc tap bao gom nhieu phan ng n gian.
2. Thc nghiem cung cho thay cac phan ng n gian chu yeu co phan t so la 1 va 2,
rat t khi co phan t so bang 3. Phan ng n gian co phan t so cao hn 3 khong ton
tai.
3. Co the phat bieu nh luat c ban hien ai cua ong hoa hoc nh sau:
Van toc v cua phan ng tai moi thi iem t le vi tch nong o luc o cua cac chat tham
gia phan ng vi mot so mu xac nh.
4. Vay, mot cach tong quat theo quan iem hien ai, oi vi phng trnh (3.3) ta co bac
ong hoc (goi tat la bac) khi va ch khi van toc v cua phan ng c xac nh bang
thc nghiem co dang:

| o
=
B A
C kC v (3.6)
trong o: o + | bac ong hoc
k, o va | ch co the xac nh bang thc nghiem
5. Phan ng noi chung se dien ra qua nhieu giai oan c s khac nhau. Moi giai oan c
s nay co mot hang so van toc xac nh va khac biet vi cac hang so van toc cua giai
oan c s khac.
6. Van toc chung cua phan ng se la mot to hp phc tap cua cac van toc phan ng n
gian thanh phan nen khong tuan theo nh luat tac dung khoi lng na.
7. Mot cach n gian, neu ch co mot giai oan c s co van toc cham th van toc chung
cua phan ng c quyet nh bi van toc cua giai oan cham nhat goi la giai oan
toc nh.
8. Tap hp tat ca cac giai oan c s cua mot phan ng se cho biet cach thc ma phan
ng xay ra, va do o c goi la c che phan ng.

Hoa ai cng
3.4 Anh hng cua nhiet o en van toc phan ng
1. Trong cuoc song hang ngay, e bao quan thc pham ngi ta dung tu lanh; e nau an
nhanh ngi ta dung noi ap suat; ay la viec s dung co y thc anh hng cua nhiet
o en van toc phan ng hoa hoc.

3.4.1 Ket qua thc nghiem
1. Cac nghien cu thc nghiem rong rai cho thay rat nhieu phan ng hoa hoc co van toc
phan ng tang t 2 en 4 lan khi tang nhiet o len 10
0
C. Thc chat nhiet o anh hng
en van toc phan ng thong qua hang so van toc.
2. Con so cho biet van toc phan ng tang len bao nhieu lan khi nhiet o tang len 10
0
C
c goi la he so nhiet o, ky hieu la . Ta co:

T
10 T
k
k
+
= va
1
10
T T
2
v v
1 2
= (3.7)
trong o: T nhiet o cua he

3.4.2 nh luat Arrhenius
1. Phng trnh thc nghiem cua Arrhenius bieu th anh hng cua nhiet o en van toc
phan ng nh sau:

RT
E
Ae k
-
= (3.8)
trong o: A: yeu to tan so ac trng cho moi phan ng nghien cu
E
*
: nang lng hoat hoa cua phan ng
R: hang so kh ly tng
2. De dang xac nh k
2
tai nhiet o T
2
khi biet k
1
tai nhiet o T
1
:

(
=
-
2 1 1
2
T
1
T
1
R
E
k
k
ln (3.9)
3.5 Anh hng cua chat xuc tac en van toc phan ng
3.5.1 nh ngha
1. Chat xuc tac la mot chat ma s co mat cua no trong moi trng phan ng lam thay oi
van toc cua phan ng va chat nay van con nguyen ven khi ket thuc phan ng.
2. Chat xuc tac lam tang van toc phan ng c goi la chat xuc tac dng. Td: MnO
2
lam
tang phan ng phan huy H
2
O
2
.
3. Chat xuc tac lam giam van toc phan ng la chat xuc tac am, song ngi ta thng goi
la chat c che .
4. Ngi ta thng chia xuc tac thanh hai loai la xuc tac ong the va xuc tac d the.
Ngoai ra, con co the ke them xuc tac men.
5. Trong xuc tac ong the, chat xuc tac va tac chat trong cung mot pha (long hay kh),
phan ng xay ra trong toan bo the tch cua he (tc la trong khong gian ba chieu).
6. Con trong xuc tac d the th chat xuc tac va tac chat trong hai pha khac nhau. Thong
thng, chat xuc tac pha ran con cac chat phan ng pha long hay kh. Phan ng
ch xay ra tren be mat cua chat xuc tac, ngha la trong khong gian hai chieu.
7. Mot so phan ng co san pham lai la xuc tac cho chnh phan ng o. Mot phan ng nh
vay c goi la phan ng t xuc tac.

Hoa ai cng
3.5.2 Cac ac trng cua s xuc tac
1. Chat xuc tac khong lam thay oi tnh chat nhiet ong cua he:
a. Chat xuc tac khong the lam cho mot phan ng co AG
0
> 0 xay ra.
b. Chat xuc tac khong lam thay oi AG
0
cua phan ng nen cung khong lam thay oi
can bang cua phan ng.
c. Chat xuc tac ch lam cho phan ng at ti ca n bang nhanh hn, ngha la phan ng
dien ra nhanh hn.

Hnh 3.1 o th cua phan ng Hnh 3.2. o th cua phan ng
trong hai trng hp co va khong co xuc tac bac khong

2. Chat xuc tac co tnh chon loc:
a. Moi chat xuc tac ch lam xuc tac cho mot phan ng hay mot loai phan ng nhat
nh.
b. oi vi cung vi mot tac chat, khi s dung cac xuc tac khac nhau co the thu c
cac san pham khac nhau. V du:

CH
3
CHO

C
2
H
5
OH
C
2
H
4

3. Chat xuc tac lam thay oi con ng phan ng:
a. Chat xuc tac lam thay oi t con ng phan ng co nang lng hoat hoa cao sang
con ng co nang lng hoat hoa thap.
b. He qua la phan ng dien ra nhanh hn.

3.6 Cac phng trnh ong hoc cua cac phan ng hoa hoc n gian
3.6.1 Phan ng bac khong
1. Phan ng bac khong la phan ng co van toc phan ng khong phu thuoc vao nong o
cua cac chat tham gia phan ng.
2. Nh vay, van toc phan ng la mot hang so, khong phu thuoc vao thi gian.
3. Xet phan ng co dang tong quat:
aA + bB cC + dD
4. Phan ng co bac khong khi phng trnh ong hoc vi phan co dang:
k
dt
dC
v
A
= =
E
AB
San pham
Toa o phan ng
AKB
AK
A + B
CA
CA0
Toa o phan ng
Cu
Al2O3
Hoa ai cng
hay kdt dC
A
= (3.10)
trong o: k co n v la mol/lt.thi gian
5. Lay tch phan phng trnh tren t thi iem t
1
= 0 vi nong o ban au cua A la C
A0

en thi iem t vi nong o cua A la C
A
, ta co:
kt C C
0 A A
=
hay kt C C
0 A A
= (3.11)
6. Thi gian can thiet e lng tac chat phan ng c mot na (C
A
= 0,5C
A0
) c goi la
thi gian ban huy t.

k
C 5 , 0
0 A
= t (3.12)

3.6.2 Phan ng bac mot
aA + bB cC + dD
2. Phan ng co bac mot khi phng trnh ong hoc vi phan co dang:

A
A
kC
dt
dC
v = =
hay kdt
C
dC
A
A
= (3.13)
trong o: k co n v la thi gian
1

3. Lay tch phan phng trnh tren, ta co:
kt
C
C
ln
0 A
A
= (3.14)
trong o: C
A0
: nong o ban au cua A
C
A
: nong o cua A tai thi iem t
4. Phng trnh tren thng c viet lai di dang:
kt C ln C ln
0 A A
= +
hay kt C ln C ln
0 A A
= (3.15)
5. Khi nghien cu phan ng bac mot ngi ta thng chu y en mot ai lung la thi gian
ban huy t. T phng trnh (3.14), ta co:
693 , 0 2 ln k
C 2 / 1
C
ln
0 A
0 A
= = t =

k
693 , 0
= t (3.16)
6. Vay thi gian ban phan ng la mot hang so ac trng cho phan ng (tai mot nhiet o
xac nh).
7. Mot ng dung thc te quan trong cua chu ky ban huy la xac nh tuoi cua cac khoang
vat va nien ai cua cac vat co bang cach so sanh ham lng
14
C trong mau vat can
xac nh vi ham lng cua no trong vat the song. o chnh xac cua phng phap nay
la 200 nam.

3.6.3 Phan ng bac hai
Hoa ai cng
aA + bB cC + dD
2. Phan ng co bac hai khi phng trnh ong hoc vi phan co dang:

B A
B A
C kC
dt
dC
dt
dC
v = = = (3.17)
3. Trong trng hp n gian nhat khi nong o ban au cua A va B bang nhau. Khi mot
phan t A tham gia phan ng th mot phan t B cung b tieu thu. Do o, tai moi thi
iem nong o cua A va B eu bang nhau. V vay co the viet:

2
A
A
kC
dt
dC
=
hay kdt
C
dC
2
A
A
= (3.18)
a. Lay tch phan phng trnh tren, ta co:
kt
C
1
C
1
0 A A
= (3.19)
b. Thi gian ban huy t:

0 A 0 A
C
1
2 / C
1
k = t

0 A
kC
1
= t (3.20)
c. Nh vay, khac vi phan ng bac mot, thi gian ban phan ng cua phan ng bac hai
phu thuoc vao nong o ban au cua chat phan ng.
4. Trong trng hp nong o ban au cua A va B khac nhau, C
A0
= C
B0
. at C
A0
= a va
C
B0
= b. Lng A va B a phan ng cho en thi iem t la x. x cung la nong o cua san
pham c tao thanh.
a. Phng trnh ong hoc vi phan co dang:
) x b )( x a ( k
dt
dx
=
hay kdt
) x b )( x a (
dx
=

(3.21)
b. Lay tch phan phng trnh tren, ta co:

) x a ( b
) x b ( a
ln
a b
1
kt
= (3.22)
c. Bieu thc tren se khong co gia tr neu a = b. Khi b > a va t = t th ta co x = a/2:

) 2 / a a ( b
) 2 / a b ( a
ln
a b
1
k
= t

b
a b 2
ln
a b
1
k

= t (3.23)

Chng 13
Dung dch

Hoa ai cng
4.1 S hnh thanh dung dch
4.1.1 Cac he phan tan
1. Chung ta hay e cap en cac chat nguyen chat. Nhng thc te, cac chat thng ton tai
va c s dung dang hon hp nhieu chat.
2. Ngi ta goi cac he gom hai hay nhieu chat tron lan vi nhau la he phan tan. Chat
quyet nh trang thai ran, long hay kh cua he c goi la moi trng phan tan, cac
chat con lai la chat phan tan. Trong trng hp cac chat cung mot pha th chat nao
co khoi lng ln hn se la moi trng phan tan.
3. Moi trng phan tan va chat phan tan eu co the thuoc mot trong ba trang thai ran,
long va kh.
4. Da vao kch thc cua cac hat phan tan ma ngi ta chia lam ba loai he phan tan la
he phan tan tho, dung dch keo va dung dch that.

4.1.2 He phan tan tho
1. He phan tan tho co kch thc cua cac hat phan tan trong khoang t 10
7
en 10
4
m.
He nay khong ben, rat de lang va co the nhn thay bang knh hien vi hay mat thng.
2. Tuy thuoc vao trang thai cua pha phan tan va moi trng phan tan, ngi ta goi ten cac
he phan tan nh sau:

Pha phan tan Moi trng phan tan Ten he phan tan V du
Ran Ran Dung dch ran Hp kim vangbac
Ran Long Huyen phu Nc song
Long Long Nhu tng Sa bo
Ran Kh Khoi Khoi bep
Long Kh Sng Sng mu

4.1.3 He dung dch keo
1. He dung dch keo co kch thc cua cac hat phan tan trong khoang t 10
9
en
10
7
m. He nay tng oi ben, t lang va co the nhn thay bang knh sieu hien vi.

4.1.4 He dung dch that
1. He dung dch that thng c goi la dung dch co kch thc cua cac hat phan tan
bang kch thc cua cac phan t hay ion (10
10
m). He nay rat ben, khong lang.
2. Trong dung dch that, cac hat cua pha phan tan va cac phan t cua moi trng phan
tan co kch thc gan bang nhau nen khong con be mat phan chia na. Toan bo dung
dch la mot he ong the.
3. Luc nay, chat phan tan c goi la chat tan, moi trng phan tan c goi la dung moi
va qua trnh phan tan c goi la qua trnh hoa tan.
4. Dung dch long c hnh thanh khi moi trng phan tan la pha long, pha phan tan la
ran, long hay kh. ay la he hay gap nhat trong thc te.
5. Dung dch ran co moi trng phan tan la pha ran.

Hoa ai cng
4.1.5 Nhiet ong hoc cua qua trnh hoa tan
1. Qua trnh hoa tan bao gom hai qua trnh vat ly va qua trnh hoa hoc:
a. Qua trnh vat ly: gom cac qua trnh pha v cac lien ket trong chat tan, ac biet la
pha v mang tinh the chat ran, e hnh thanh va chuyen cac tieu phan nh nguyen
t, phan t hay ion vao dung moi. Qua trnh nay thu nhiet, AH
vl
> 0.
b. Qua trnh hoa hoc: gom cac qua trnh hnh thanh cac lien ket gia cac tieu phan noi
tren vi cac phan t dung moi va c goi la qua trnh solvat hoa, khi dung moi la
nc th c goi la qua trnh hydrat hoa. Qua trnh nay toa nhiet, AH
hh
< 0.
2. Hieu ng nhiet cua qua trnh hoa tan se la:
AH
ht
= AH
vl
+ AH
hh

3. Nang lng t do cua qua trnh hoa tan se la:
AG
ht
= AH
ht
T.AS
ht

4. V AH
vl
> 0 va AH
hh
< 0 nen hieu ng nhiet AH
ht
co the dng hay am.
5. Nhiet lng toa ra hay thu vao khi hoa tan mot mol cua mot chat vao mot lng u
ln dung moi c goi la nhiet hoa tan.
6. Qua trnh hoa tan chat ran hay chat long vao dung moi thng la qua trnh lam tang o
t do cua he, AS
ht
> 0. Do o, du qua trnh hoa tan cu a a so cac tinh the la qua trnh
thu nhiet AH
ht
> 0 nhng van t dien ra do nang lng t do AG
ht
< 0. Neu tinh the rat
ben th no se khong tan trong dung moi do nhiet solvat hoa va s tang o t do cua he
khong bu noi lng nhiet can dung e pha v mang tinh the.
7. Qua trnh hoa tan chat kh vao dung moi nc thng la qua trnh toa nhiet do ch co
qua trnh solvat hoa va phan ong nang cua cac phan t kh giam i khi hoa tan se
chuyen thanh nhiet nen AG
ht
< 0.
8. Dung moi hu c thng lai cho hieu ng thu nhiet khi hoa tan chat kh. Qua trnh hoa
tan chat kh vao dung moi thng lam giam o t do cua he, AS
ht
< 0.

4.1.6 Nong o cua dung dch
1. Nong o cua dung dch la lng chat tan co trong mot n v khoi lng hay mot
n v the tch cua dung dch hay dung moi.
2. Cac loai nong o chu yeu thng s dung c trong cac Muc tiep sau.

4.1.6.1 Nong o phan tram %
1. Nong o phan tram % c bieu dien bang so gam chat tan co trong 100g dung dch,
c ky hieu la %. V du nh dung dch H
2
SO
4
10% co cha 10g H
2
SO
4
va 90g H
2
O
trong 100g dung dch.
100
B A
A
C
+
= , % (4.1)
trong o: C nong o phan tram, %
A, B lng chat tan va dung moi tnh bang gam

4.1.6.2 Nong o mol M
1. Nong o mol M c bieu dien bang so mol chat tan co trong 1 lt dung dch, c ky
hieu la M. V du nh dung dch H
2
SO
4
2M co cha 2mol H
2
SO
4
(298 = 196g H
2
SO
4
)
trong 1 lt dung dch.
Hoa ai cng

V . M
m
C = , M (4.2)
trong o: C nong o mol, M
m khoi lng chat tan
M phan t lng cua chat tan
V the tch cua dung dch
4.1.6.3 Nong o ng lng gam N
1. Nong o ng lng gam N c bieu dien bang so ng lng gam chat tan co
trong 1 lt dung dch, c ky hieu la N.
2. V du: Dung dch H
2
SO
4
1N co cha 1 ng lng gam H
2
SO
4
(98/2 = 49g H
2
SO
4
)
trong 1 lt dung dch.

4.1.6.4 Nong o molan
1. Nong o molan c bieu dien bang so mol chat tan co trong 1000g dung moi. V du
nh dung dch H
2
SO
4
co nong o molan la 3 co cha 3 mol H
2
SO
4
trong 1000g nc.

4.1.6.5 Nong o phan mol x
i

1. Nong o phan mol x
i
c bieu dien bang t so gia so mol cua chat tan o vi tong so
mol cua cac chat tan va dung moi.

=
i
i
i
n
n
x (4.3)
trong o: x
i
: nong o phan mol cua chat i
n
i
: so mol cua chat i
En
i
: tong so mol cua tat ca cac chat tan va dung moi

4.1.6.6 o chuan T
1. o chuan T c bieu dien bang so g cua chat tan co trong 1ml dung dch va ky hieu la
T. V du nh dung dch NaOH 0,02T co cha 0,02g NaOH trong 1ml dung dch.
4.1.7 o tan
1. Khi qua trnh hoa tan at en trang thai can bang th nong o cua chat tan at en gia
tr cc ai, chat tan khong the tan them c na. Dung dch nh vay c goi la dung
dch bao hoa.
2. o tan cua mot chat la nong o cua dung dch bao hoa cua chat o.
3. Trong thc te, ngi ta thng bieu dien o tan bang so gam chat tan co trong 100g
dung moi va ky hieu la S.
4. Ngi ta quy c nh sau:

S < 0,01 0,01 1 1 10 > 10
Tnh tan Khong tan Kho tan Tan De tan

5. Ngi ta nhan thay co quy luat thc nghiem ve o tan nh sau: Cac chat co ban chat
giong nhau th de tan vao nhau.
6. ieu nay co ngha la:
Hoa ai cng
a. Cac chat khong phan cc de tan trong cac dung moi khong phan cc, v du nh
phan t I
2
khong phan cc de tan trong C
6
H
6
dung moi khong phan cc.
b. Cac chat phan cc hay ion de tan trong dung moi phan cc, v du nh muoi NaCl
de tan trong H
2
O la dung moi phan cc. Ngc lai, I
2
kho tan trong H
2
O, hoac NaCl
kho tan trong C
6
H
6
.
7. Kha nang hoa tan cua chat tan vao dung moi phu thuoc vao ban chat cua chat tan, ban
chat cua dung moi, nhiet o va ap suat.
8. Neu qua trnh hoa tan thu nhiet, AH
ht
> 0 th khi tang nhiet o se lam tang o tan. Neu
qua trnh hoa tan toa nhiet, AH
ht
< 0 th khi tang nhiet o se lam giam o tan.
9. Trong thc te ngi ta thng tang nhiet o e tang van toc hoa tan (ong hoc hoa tan)
du qua trnh hoa tan la thu nhiet hay toa nhiet nham giam thi gian hoa tan.
10. Ap suat ch anh hng chu yeu en o tan cua cac chat kh.

4.2 Tnh chat cua dung dch khong ien ly
4.2.1 Nhiet o soi cua chat long
1. trang thai long, lc hut gia cac tieu phan manh u e gi chung lai vi nhau. Ch co
mot so tieu phan co ong nang ln mi co kha nang tach khoi be mat thoang cua chat
long e chuyen thanh pha hi.
2. Song song vi qua trnh bay hi la qua trnh ngng tu hi thanh chat long.
3. Ap suat hi luc hai qua trnh tren can bang vi nhau goi la ap suat hi bao hoa.
4. Ap suat hi bao hoa cua chat long nho hn ap suat cua kh quyen th hien tng bay
hi khong the xay ra trong long chat long ma ch xay ra tai mot so iem tren be mat
thoang cua chat long.
5. Khi tang nhiet o th so tieu phan co ong nang ln tang len nen qua trnh bay hi va
ap suat hi bao hoa cung tang len.
6. Khi ap suat hi bao hoa cua chat long bang ap suat cua kh quyen ben ngoai th hien
tng bay hi luc nay xay ra trong long chat long va c goi la hien tng soi, nhiet
o tng ng c goi la nhiet o soi.

4.2.2 S giam ap suat hi cua dung dch nh luat Raoult I
1. Khi hoa tan mot chat khong ien ly va khong bay hi vao mot dung moi th cac tieu
phan cua chat tan se phan tan eu trong toan bo the tch cua dung moi.
2. Mot phan cac tieu phan dung moi tren be mat thoang se c thay the bang cac tieu
phan chat tan khong bay hi.
3. So tieu phan dung moi bay hi be mat thoang giam i nen ap suat hi cua dung moi
tren dung dch cung giam i so vi dung moi nguyen chat.
4. S giam ap suat hi cua dung dch tuan theo nh luat Raoult I:
Ap suat hi cua dung moi nam can bang vi dung dch loang t le vi phan mol cua
dung moi trong dung dch.

dm 0
x P P = (4.4)
trong o: P
0
ap suat hi cua dung moi nguyen chat tai nhiet o a cho
P ap suat hi cua dung dch tai nhiet o a cho
x
dm
phan mol cua dung moi trong dung dch

Hoa ai cng
4.2.3 S tang nhiet o soi va s giam nhiet o ong ac cua dung dch
nh luat Raoult II
1. V ap suat hi cua dung dch luon luon thap hn ap suat hi cua dung moi nguyen chat
tai cung nhiet o nen:
Dung dch co nhiet o soi cao hn va nhiet o ong ac thap hn dung moi nguyen
chat.
2. S tang nhiet o soi va s giam nhiet o ong ac cua dung dch tuan theo nh luat
Raoult II:
o tang nhiet o soi cung nh o giam nhiet o ong ac cua dung dch t le vi nong
o molan cua chat tan trong dung dch va phu thuoc vao ban chat cua dung moi ma
khong phu thuoc vao ban chat cua chat tan.
C K T
s s
= A (4.5)
C K T
r r
= A (4.6)
trong o: AT
s
o tang nhiet o soi cua dung dch
AT
r
o giam nhiet o ong ac cua dung dch
C nong o molan cua dung dch
K
s
, K
r
hang so soi va hang so ong ac cua dung moi
3. Hang so soi va hang so ong ac ch co the xac nh bang thc nghiem. Bang 4.1 trnh
bay gia tr K
s
va K
r
cua mot so dung moi.
4. Khi dung dch bay hi th nong o chat tan tang dan nen nhiet o soi cua dung dch
cung tang dan.
Bang 4.1 Ks va Kr cua mot so dung moi
Dung moi T
s
,
0
C T
r
,
0
C K
s
K
r

Nc 100 0 0,52 1,86
Benzen 79,6 5,6 2,65 4,90
Etanol 78,5 1,19
Ete etylic 34,5 40 2,11
Phenol 7,27
Long nao 180 40,0

4.2.4 ng dung cua nh luat Raoult
1. Ngi ta da vao s giam ap suat hi, o tang nhiet o soi va o giam nhiet o ong
ac cua dung dch e xac nh phan t lng cua chat tan trong dung dch.
2. T o co the thu c cac thong tin ve mc o polyme hoa cua chat tan, so tieu phan
trong cac ai phan t protit,
3. V du: Nhiet o ong ac cua dung dch cha 0,224g acid benzoic trong 20g benzen
tinh khiet la 5,232
0
C.
Cho biet K
r
cua benzen la 4,90 va nhiet o ong ac cua benzen tinh khiet la 5,478
0
C. Hay
xac nh dang ton tai cua acid benzoic trong dung dch.
Giai: o ha nhiet o ong ac cua dung dch la:
AT = 5,478 5,232 = 0,246
0
C
Hoa ai cng
Goi M la phan t lng bieu kien cua acid benzoic trong dung dch, theo d kien cua bai
toan, ta co:

20
1000
M
244 , 0
90 , 4 246 , 0 =
hay 243
20
1000
246 , 0
244 , 0
90 , 4 M = =
Theo cong thc C
6
H
5
COOH th phan t lng cua acid benzoic la 122,05. Nh vay la hau
het cac phan t acid benzoic trong dung dch b dime hoa do s tao thanh cac lien ket
hydro.

4.2.5 Hien tng tham thau
1. Mang ban tham la loai mang ch cho phan t dung moi i qua mang ma khong cho
phan t chat tan i qua.
2. Khi s dung mang ban tham e ngan gia mot ben la dung moi va mot ben la dung
dch, ta thay co s di chuyen mot cach t nhien cua mot lng dung moi t ben dung
moi nguyen chat i qua mang ban tham e vao ben dung dch.
3. Hien tng nh vay goi la hien tng tham thau.
4. Hien tng tham thau cung xay ra oi vi hai dung dch co nong o khac nhau, dung
moi se di chuyen t ben co nong o chat tan thap sang ben co nong o chat tan cao.
4.2.6 Ap suat tham thau cua dung dch
1. Th nghiem c tien hanh trong he thong dung cu nh
trong Hnh 4.1. Trong bnh B cha dung moi nguyen chat
S con trong bnh A cha dung dch vi dung moi S. Bnh
A co lap mang ban tham thanh bnh.
2. Luc bat au phan ng th mc chat long trong bnh A va
bnh B c at ngang nhau. Hien tng tham thau se
lam cho dung moi trong bnh B chuyen vao bnh A khien
cot chat long cua A dang cao en gia tr khong oi h.
3. Ap suat do cot chat long nay gay ra c goi la ap suat
tham thau.

4.2.7 nh luat Vant Hoff
1. Ap suat tham thau cua dung dch loang thoa man phng trnh kh ly tng:
nRT V= t (4.7)
trong o: t ap suat tham thau cua dung dch, atm
V the tch cua dung dch, lt
n so mol chat tan, mol
R hang so kh ly tng, R = 0,082 lt.atm/mol.
0
K
T nhiet o tuyet oi,
0
K

4.2.8 ng dung cua nh luat Vant Hoff
1. Ngi ta da vao ap suat tham thau e xac nh phan t lng cua chat tan trong dung
dch va biet c trang thai ton tai cua chung trong dung dch.
2. V du: Dung dch cha m = 160g hemoglobin trong 2 lt co ap suat tham thau bang
0,026atm 4
0
C. Hay xac nh phan t lng cua hemoglobin.

Hnh 4.1 o
ap suat tham thau
Hoa ai cng
Giai: Phan t lng M cua hemoglobin c xac nh theo cong thc:
70000
2 026 , 0
277 082 , 0 160
V
mRT
n
m
M =

=
t
= =

4.2.9 ieu kien e s dung cac nh luat Raoult va Vant Hoff
1. Cac nh luat Raoult ch ung khi ap dung cho cac dung dch loang khong bay hi va
khong ien ly.
2. Khi o, cac gia tr o c khong phu thuoc vao ban chat cua chat tan, ngha la bo qua
tng tac gia chat tan va dung moi.
3. oi vi dung dch khong loang th tng tac gia cac tieu phan chat tan vi nhau va
gia cac tieu phan chat tan vi dung moi khong the bo qua c.
4. oi vi dung dch ien ly th co s phan ly cua chat tan nen can co s hieu chnh ma ta
se xet en trong phan tiep theo.
5. Khong the s dung cac nh luat nay cho cac chat bay hi v nong o cua chung b bien
oi do qua trnh bay hi.
4.3 Tnh chat cua dung dch ien ly
1. Cac chat nh acid, baz va muoi khong tuan theo nh luat Raoult va Vant Hoff.
2. Cac gia tr o giam ap suat hi, o tang nhiet o soi, o giam nhiet o ong ac, ap
suat tham thau o c cua cac chat nay tren thc te luon luon ln hn gia tr tnh theo
ly thuyet. Mat khac, dung dch cua cac chat nay dan ien.
3. Cac hien tng nay a dan en gia thuyet ve ien ly: Cac chat nh acid, baz va muoi
khi hoa tan vao dung moi co s phan ly thanh cac cation va anion.
4. Cac chat nh vay goi la chat ien ly.
5. Hien tng phan ly chat thanh cac ion c goi la hien tng ien ly.

4.3.1 Qua trnh ien ly
1. Qua trnh ien ly la mot qua trnh tng tac phc tap gia dung moi va chat tan e tao
thanh cac ion b solvat hoa (neu dung moi la nc th ta goi la b hydrat hoa).

4.3.1.1 Qua trnh ien ly cua hp chat ion
1. Qua trnh ien ly cua hp chat ion bao gom:
a. Qua trnh tng tac gia cac phan t dung moi vi cac ion tren be mat tinh the lam
suy yeu lien ket gia cac ion nay vi cac ion khac trong tinh the.
b. Qua trnh chuyen cac ion b solvat hoa mot phan nay vao trong long dung dch.
c. Qua trnh solvat hoa hoan toan ion trong long dung dch.

Hoa ai cng
Hnh 4.2 S o ien ly cua NaCl

4.3.1.2 Qua trnh ien ly cua hp chat phan cc
1. Di tac dung cua ien trng do cac cc cua dung moi tao ra, lien ket cong hoa tr
phan cc cang b phan cc manh va chuyen thanh lien ket ion nen phan t phan ly
thanh ion.

Hnh 4.3 S o ien ly cua phan t phan cc HCl
4.3.2 o ien ly
1. Goi i la o sai lech khoi cac nh luat Raoult-Vant Hoff cua dung dch cac chat ien ly, i
c goi la he so Vant Hoff:

tan hoa t phan so
dch dung trong co t phan so
i = (4.8)

lt
tn
lt , r
tn , r
lt , s
tn , s
lt
tn
T
T
T
T
P
P
i
t
t
=
A
A
=
A
A
=
A
A
= (4.9)
2. o ien ly o c nh ngha nh sau:

au ban tan hoa tan chat (mol) o nong
ly ien a tan chat (mol) o nong
= o (4.10)
1
1 n
1 i
<
= o (4.11)
trong o: n: bac cua chat ien ly, tc la so ion ma mot phan t chat ien ly
tao thanh khi phan ly.
V du NaCl co n = 2, CaCl
2
: n = 3, AlCl
3
: n = 4,
3. V du: Dung dch cha 8g NaOH trong 1000g nc co nhiet o ong ac la 0,677
0
C.
Tnh o phan ly cua NaOH trong dung dch.
Giai: Ta co: 372 , 0
40
8
86 , 1
M
m
K C K T
r r lt , r
= = = = A
Do o: 82 , 1
372 , 0
677 , 0
T
T
i
lt , r
tn , r
= =
A
A
=
Vay: 82 , 0
1 2
1 82 , 1
1 n
1 i
=
= o

4.3.3 Chat ien ly
1.
1. Thc te cho thay nong o va phai khoang 0,1N th a so cac chat ien ly c phan
thanh hai nhom ro ret la chat ien ly yeu va chat ien ly manh.
a. Chat ien ly yeu co o khoang vai phan tram bao gom cac acid yeu, baz yeu va mot
so t muoi (nh ZnCl
2
, CdCl
2
, HgCl
2
, Fe(SCN)
3
,).
Qua trnh ien ly cua cac chat ien ly yeu la mot qua trnh khong hoan toan.
b. Chat ien ly manh co o ~ 100% bao gom cac acid manh, cac baz manh va hau het
cac muoi.
Hoa ai cng
Qua trnh ien ly cua cac chat ien ly manh la mot qua trnh hoan toan.
2. Do o, ngi ta thng quy c cac chat khi nong o 0,1N co:

S < 3% 3 30% > 30%
Chat ien ly Yeu Trung bnh Manh

4.3.4 Chat ien ly manh
1. Trong dung dch nc, chat ien ly manh thng phan ly hoan toan. Do o so lng ion
trong dung dch nay ln hn so lng ion co trong dung dch chat ien ly yeu co cung
nong o.
2. Do s phan ly hoan toan nay nen nong o cua cac ion trong dung dch khong loang lam
se ln. Khoang cach trung bnh gia cac cac ion se tng oi nho.
3. V du: Trong dung dch NaCl bao hoa, khoang cach trung bnh gia cac ion ch ln gap
oi khoang cach gia cac ion trong tinh the. V vay, lc hut va lc ay gia cac ion la
kha ln khien cho cac ion khong chuyen ong t do na.

4.3.5 Chat ien ly yeu
1. Co the dung cac nh luat can bang hoa hoc va viet bieu thc hang so can bang cho
can bang c thiet lap gia cac phan t va cac ion trong dung dch ien ly yeu. Xet
chat ien ly AX:
AX A
+
+ X

hang so can bang co dang:
] AX [
] X ][ A [
K
+
= (4.12)
trong o: t so nong o cua cac ion san pham cua s phan ly
mau so nong o cua phan t khong phan ly
2. Hang so can bang ng vi qua trnh phan ly cua chat ien ly yeu c goi la hang so
phan ly. Gia tr cua K phu thuoc vao nhiet o, vao ban chat cua chat ien ly va dung
moi; no khong phu thuoc vao nong o cua dung dch. K cang ln th chat ien ly cang
de phan ly.

4.3.6 nh luat Ostwald
1. Goi nong o cua chat ien ly AX ban au phan ly ra hai ion la C, o phan ly cua chat
ien ly trong dung dch khao sat la o th nong o cua moi ion A
+
va X
se la oC va nong
o cua cac phan t khong ien ly la C(1 o).
2. Phng trnh hang so phan ly se co dang:

) 1 ( C
) C (
] AX [
] X ][ A [
K
2
o
o
= =
+

o
o
=
1
C K
2
(4.13)
3. Phng trnh nay cho phep tnh hang so phan ly cua chat ien ly khi biet o phan ly cua
no tai mot nong o nao o. Ngoc lai, cung tnh c o phan ly cua chat ien ly cac
nong o khac nhau khi biet hang so phan ly cua no.
Hoa ai cng
4. oi vi dung dch trong o s phan ly cua chat ien ly rat nho th phng trnh cua nh
luat Oswald tr nen n gian. V trong trng hp nh vay, o 1, nen gia tr cua o
mau so co the bo qua. Khi o phng trnh co dang:

C
K
hay C K
2
~ o o ~ (4.14)
5. Phng trnh nay cho thay ro chat ien ly yeu co o phan ly tang khi nong o giam (tc
la khi pha loang dung dch).
6. Ket qua thu c la do giong nh trong moi can bang hoa hoc khac, can bang cua
dung dch ien ly yeu la can bang ong, ngha la khi can bang th van toc phan ly bang
van toc ket hp.
7. Qua trnh pha loang khong anh hng en qua trnh phan ly ma ch lam giam xac suat
va cham nen lam giam qua trnh ket hp khien cho can bang chuyen theo chieu nghch.

Chng 14
Can bang trong dung dch ien ly

5.1 S t ion hoa cua nc
1. Nc tinh khiet van dan ien du rat yeu. ieu o chng to la nc tinh khiet cung cha
mot so ion hnh thanh do s t ion hoa cua nc theo phng trnh:
H
2
O H
+
+ OH
(5.1)
2. Hang so can bang ien ly cua nuc la:

] O H [
] OH ][ H [
K
2
+
= (5.2)
3. Do nc ien ly rat yeu nen co the xem nh nong o cua nc khong oi. Ta gop
chung nong o cua nc vi K:
] OH ][ H [ K ] O H .[ K
O H 2
2
+
= = (5.3)
4. K
H
2
O
c goi la tch so ion cua nc. Gia tr cua no ch phu thuoc vao nhiet o.
5. mot nhiet o xac nh, tch so nong o cua cac ion H
+
va OH
trong nc va dung
dch nc loang la mot hang so va c goi la tch so ion cua nc K
H
2
O
.
6. nhiet o trong khoang gan 25
0
C, ngi ta thng xem K
H
2
O
la mot hang so va bang
1.10
-14
.

5.2 Khai niem ve pH
5.2.1 Moi trng trung tnh
1. Trong nc tinh khiet 298
0
K, ta co:
l / mol 10 10 . 1 K ] OH [ ] H [
7 14
O H
2
+
= = = = (5.4)
2. Moi trng trung tnh la moi trng co nong o [H
+
] va [OH
] bang nhau va bang 10

-
7
mol/l 298
0
K (25
0
C).

Hoa ai cng
5.2.2 Moi trng acid
1. Neu hoa tan mot lng acid nh HCl vao nc th no se phan ly cho ion H
+
:
HCl H
+
+ Cl

lam cho nong o H
+
tang len va nong o OH
giam xuong mot cach tng ng sao cho tch

so nong o cua hai ion luon luon bang K
H
2
O
. Ket qua la:
] OH [ ] H [
+
>
2. Moi trng acid la moi trng co nong o ion H
+
ln hn nong o ion OH
va ln
hn 10
-7
mol/l 298
0
K (25
0
C).
5.2.3 Moi trng baz
1. Neu hoa tan mot lng baz nh NaOH vao nc th no se phan ly cho ion OH
:
NaOH Na
+
+ OH

lam cho nong o OH
tang len va nong o H

+
giam xuong mot cach tng ng sao cho tch
so nong o cua hai ion luon luon bang K
H
2
O
. Ket qua la:
] H [ ] OH [
+
>
2. Moi trng baz la moi trng co nong o ion OH
ln hn nong o ion H
+
va ln hn
10
-7
mol/l 298
0
K (25
0
C).

3. V du: Tnh nong o cac ion [H
+
] va [OH
] trong dung dch HNO

3
0,01M.
Giai: HNO
3
la mot acid manh phan ly hoan toan:

+
+
3 3
NO H HNO
nen suy ra: [H
+
] = [HNO
3
]
0
= 0,01 = 10
2
mol/l
Ta co the bo qua nong o ion H
+
do nc phan ly ra v no rat nho so vi 0,01.
Da vao phng trnh tch so ion cua nc, ta co:
l / mol 10
10
10
] H [
K
] OH [
12
2
14
O H
2
= = =
5.2.4 Ch so pH
1. Viec dung nong o ion H
+
hay ion OH
e bieu dien o acid-baz cua dung dch rat bat

tien v phai dung nhng so luy tha am. Do o, ngi ta thng bieu dien o acid-baz
cua dung dch bang ch so pH hay ch so pOH.
2. Ch so pH c nh ngha bang cong thc:
] H lg[ pH
+
= (5.5)
3. Tng t, ngi ta nh ngha ch so pOH bang cong thc:
] OH lg[ pOH

= (5.6)
4. Vay, nhiet o thng (298
0
K = 25
0
C), pH cua cac moi trng c trnh bay trong hai
bang 5.1 va 5.2:

Bang 5.1. Moi quan he gia [H
+
], pH va pOH vi o acid-baz cua moi trng
Moi trng Acid Trung tnh Baz
[H
+
] > 10
-7
mol/ 10
-7
mol/ < 10
-7
mol/
pH < 7 7 > 7
Hoa ai cng
pOH > 7 7 < 7

5. V du: Tnh pH cua dung dch NaOH 0,002M.
Giai: NaOH la mot baz manh phan ly hoan toan:
NaOH Na
+
+ OH

nen suy ra: [OH
] = [NaOH]
0
= 0,002mol/l = 2.10
3
mol/l = 10
2,7
mol/l
Nong o ion H
+
trong dung dch se la:
l / mol 10 . 5
10
10
] OH [
K
] H [
3 , 11
7 , 2
14
O H
2
+
= = =
pH = lg10
-11,3
= 11,3

Hoa ai cng
Bang 5.2. Moi quan he gia [H
+
], [OH
], pH va pOH
Moi trng Acid
Trung
tnh
Baz
[H
+
] 1 10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
10
10
10
11
10
12
10
13
10
14

[OH
] 10
14
10
13
10
12
10
11
10
10
10
9
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
1
pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
pOH 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

5.3 Thuyet acid-baz
5.3.1 Thuyet Arrhenius
1. Arrhenius nh ngha acid-baz nh sau:
2. Acid la nhng chat khi hoa tan vao nc se phan ly cho ion H
+
.
V du: HCl H
+
+ Cl

3. Baz la nhng chat khi hoa tan vao nc se phan ly cho ion OH
.
V du: NaOH Na
+
+ OH

4. Thuyet acid-baz cua Arrhenius a giai thch c tnh acid-baz cua cac dung dch nc
co cha cac ion [H
+
] hay [OH
].
5. Tuy nhien, no khong ap dung c cho tat ca cac dung moi khac. V du nh dung moi
NH
3
long.
6. Ngi ta cung nhan thay co nhng phan ng acid-baz khong theo kieu tng tac acid-
baz cua Arrhenius. V du:
HCl(k) + NH
3
(k) NH
4
Cl(r) (5.7)
7. Ngoai ra, thuyet Arrhenius cung khong giai thch c qua trnh tng tac gia cac
acid. V du:
COOH CH HNO
3 3
+
+
+
3 2 3
NO COOH CH (5.8)

5.3.2 Thuyet Bronsted
1. Bronsted nh ngha acid va baz nh sau:
2. Acid la tieu phan co kha nang cho ion H
+
.
V du:
+
4
NH H
+
+ NH
3

3. Baz la tieu phan co kha nang nhan ion H
+
.
V du: NH
3
+ H
+

+
4
NH
4. Acid Arrhenius la acid Bronsted v co kha nang cho ion H
+
.
5. Baz Arrhenius la baz Bronsted v co cha nhom OH
co kha nang nhan ion H

+
.
6. Hn na, cac phan ng kieu (5.7) va (5.8) cung c xem la phan ng acid-baz.
7. Cac acid va baz Bronsted co the la phan t trung hoa, cation hay anion. V du:
a. Acid: HCl, NH
4
+
, HSO
4
,
b. Baz: NH
3
, OH
, H
2
NNH
3
+
,

Hoa ai cng
5.3.2.1 Acid-baz lien hp
1. Xet v du cu the cua s ien ly HCl trong dung moi nc:
HCl + H
2
O H
3
O
+
+ Cl

acid HA baz B acid HB baz A
2. Ta nhan thay:

Trong phan ng thuan Trong phan ng nghch
HCl la acid v nhng ion H
+
cho H
2
O Cl
la baz v nhan ion H

+
cua H
3
O
+
.
H
2
O la baz v nhan ion H
+
cua HCl. H
3
O
+
la acid v nhng ion H
+
cho Cl

3. HCl c goi la acid lien hp cua baz Cl
va H
2
O la baz lien hp cua acid H
3
O
+
.
4. Nh vay, khi acid HA cho ion H
+
th no tr thanh baz lien hp A
(cua acid HA).

5. Ngc lai, khi baz B nhan ion H
+
th no tr thanh acid lien hp HB
+
(cua baz B).

5.3.2.2 o manh cua acid-baz
1. nh ngha acid-baz theo quan iem Bronsted cho phep nh lng o manh cua acid-
baz trong dung dch nen c s dung mot cach rong rai.
2. Mot acid cang manh khi no cang de cho ion H
+
th baz lien hp cua no se cang yeu v
cang kho nhan ion H
+
va ngc lai.
3. Tuy nhien, o manh cua mot acid con phu thuoc vao kha nang nhan ion H
+
cua baz
phan ng vi no. Nh vay o manh cua acid-baz co tnh tng oi.
4. V du: Trong dung dch HCl th H
2
O ong vai tro mot baz nhan ion H
+
nhng trong dung
dch NH
3
th H
2
O ong vai tro mot acid:
HCl + H
2
O(baz) H
3
O
+
+ Cl

NH
3
+ H
2
O(acid)
+
+ OH NH
4

4. Xet mot cap acid-baz lien hp trong dung moi nc:

HA + H
2
O H
3
O
+
+ A

Hang so phan ly cua acid HA:

] O H ][ HA [
] A ][ O H [
K
2
3
HA
+
=
Hang so acid cua acid HA:

] HA [
] A ][ O H [
] O H .[ K K
3
2 HA a
+
= =
A
+ H
2
O HA + OH

Hang so phan ly cua baz A
-
:

] O H ][ A [
] OH ][ HA [
K
2
A

Hang so baz cua baz A
-
:

] A [
] OH ][ HA [
] O H .[ K K
2
A
b

= =

Ta co: ] OH ][ O H [
] A ][ HA [
] OH ][ HA ][ A ][ O H [
K . K
3
3
b a
+
+
= = (5.9)
hay:
O H b a
2
K K . K = (5.10)
5. Ta co: Tch Ka va Kb cua mot cap acid-baz lien hp bang tch so ion cua nc.
at:
a a
lgK pK =

b b
lgK pK =
Hoa ai cng
6. Nh vay, oi vi mot cap acid-baz lien hp:
14 pK pK pK
O H b a
2
= = + (5.11)
7. He qua la oi vi:
a. Mot acid: K
a
cang ln hay pK
a
cang nho th acid cang manh va baz lien hp cua no
cang yeu, va ngc lai.
b. Mot baz: K
b
cang ln hay pK
b
cang nho th baz cang manh va acid lien hp cua no
cang yeu, va ngc lai.
c. Hang so acid K
a
va hang so baz K
b
ch phu thuoc vao nhiet o.
8. Ngi ta quy c o manh cua acid-baz nh sau:

Tnh acid Manh Trung bnh Yeu
K
a
> 10
1
10
5
10
1
s 10
5

pK
a
1 1 5 > 5

Tnh baz Manh Trung bnh Yeu
K
b
> 10
1
10
5
10
1
s 10
5

pK
b
1 1 5 > 5

5.3.3 Thuyet Lewis
1. Lewis nh ngha acid va baz nh sau:
2. Acid la tieu phan co kha nang nhan oi ien t t do.
3. Baz la tieu phan co kha nang cho oi ien t t do.
4. He qua:
a. Tat ca cac acid Arrhenius va acid Bronsted eu la acid Lewis.
b. Tat ca cac baz Arrhenius va baz Bronsted eu la baz Lewis.
5. V du: - OH
la baz Arrhenius v co nhom OH
,
la baz Bronsted v co the nhan H
+
,
la baz Lewis v co the cho oi ien t t do.
- NH
3
khong phai la baz Arrhenius v khong co nhom OH
.
la baz Bronsted v co the nhan H
+
,
la baz Lewis v co the cho oi ien t t do.
6. Thuyet Lewis co tnh khai quat cao nhng lai khong nh lng c tnh acid-baz.

5.4 pH cua cac dung dch acid, baz va muoi
5.4.1 pH cua dung dch acid manh
1. Cac acid manh phan ly hoan toan trong dung dch. Xet dung dch acid manh HA co
nong o au C
a
.
Ta co:
a
C ] A [ ] H [ = =
+
(5.12)

a
C lg pH = (5.13)
2. V du: Tnh pH cua dung dch acid HCl co nong o 5.10
4
M.
Hoa ai cng
Giai: C
a
= 5.10
4
= 10
3,3

pH = lgC
a
= lg10
3,3
= 3,3

5.4.2 pH cua dung dch baz manh
1. Cac baz manh phan ly hoan toan trong dung dch. Xet dung dch baz manh B co nong
o au C
b
.
Ta co:
b
C ] B [ ] OH [ = =
+
(5.14)
va:
b
C lg 14 pH + = (5.15)
2. V du: Tnh pH cua dung dch baz NaOH co nong o 2.10
5
M.
Giai: C
b
= 2.10
5
= 10
4,7

pH = 14 + lgC
b
= 14 + lg10
4,7
= 14 4,7 = 9,3

5.4.3 pH cua dung dch n acid yeu
1. Cac acid yeu ch phan ly mot phan trong dung dch. Xet dung dch n acid yeu HA co
nong o au C
a
.
Ta co:
a a a a
C lg
2
1
pK
2
1
C lg
2
1
K lg
2
1
pH = = (5.16)
2. V du: Tnh pH cua dung dch acid CH
3
COOH co nong o 10
1
M, pK
a
=4,75.
Giai: 875 , 2 10 lg
2
1
75 , 4
2
1
C lg
2
1
K lg
2
1
pH
1
a a
= = =

5.4.4 pH cua dung dch n baz yeu
1. Cac baz yeu ch phan ly mot phan trong dung dch. Xet dung dch n baz yeu BOH co
nong o au C
b
.
Ta co:
b b
C lg
2
1
pK
2
1
14 pH + = (5.17)
2. V du: Tnh pH cua dung dch baz NH
4
OH co nong o 10
2
M, pK
b
=4,75.
Giai: 625 , 10 10 lg
2
1
75 , 4
2
1
14 C lg
2
1
pK
2
1
14 pH
2
b b
= + = + =

5.4.5 pH cua dung dch muoi
1. Muoi la san pham cua qua trnh trung hoa mot acid bang mot baz. Khi hoa tan vao
nc, muoi se phan ly thanh cac ion.
2. Mot phan cac ion nay co the tng tac vi nc dan en s phan huy nc goi la s
thuy phan.
V du: NH
4
Cl + H
2
O NH
4
OH + H
+
+ Cl
(5.18)
NaCH
3
COO + H
2
O CH
4
COOH + Na + OH
(5.19)
3. Nh vay, trong (5.18) th dung dch se co moi trng acid do qua trnh thuy phan tao
thanh baz NH
4
OH t phan ly va ion H
+
.
4. Con trong (5.19) th dung dch se co moi trng baz do qua trnh thuy phan tao thanh
acid CH
4
COOH t phan ly ion OH
.

Hoa ai cng
5.4.5.1 Muoi c tao thanh t acid manh va baz manh
1. Cac muoi loai nay nh NaCl, K
2
SO
4
, Ba(NO
3
), co cac cation la cac acid rat yeu va cac
anion la cac baz cung rat yeu nen eu khong b thuy phan. Moi trng cua dung dch
se la trung tnh.

5.4.5.2 Muoi c tao thanh t acid manh va baz yeu
1. Cac muoi loai loai nay nh NH
4
Cl ch co cation b thuy phan tao moi trng acid. pH
c tnh theo phng trnh (5.16) nh trong trng hp oi vi trng hp acid yeu
trong muc 5.4.3:

m a m a
C lg
2
1
pK
2
1
C lg
2
1
K lg
2
1
pH = = (5.20)
trong o: pK
a
= 14 pK
b

pK
b
hang so baz cua baz yeu tao muoi
C
m
: nong o cua muoi

2. V du: Tnh pH cua dung dch muoi NH
4
Cl 10
2
M, cho biet NH
4
OH co pK
b
=4,75.
Giai: pK
a
= 14 pK
b
= 14 4,75 = 9,25
625 , 5 10 lg
2
1
25 , 9
2
1
C lg
2
1
pK
2
1
pH
2
m a
= = =

5.4.5.3 Muoi c tao thanh t acid yeu va baz manh
1. Cac muoi loai nay nh NaCH
3
COO ch co anion b thuy phan tao moi trng baz. pH
c tnh theo phng trnh (5.17) nh trong trng hp oi vi trng hp baz yeu
trong muc 5.4.4:

m b
C lg
2
1
pK
2
1
14 pH + = (5.21)
trong o: pK
b
= 14 pK
a

pK
a
hang so acid cua acid yeu tao muoi
C
m
nong o cua muoi

2. V du: Tnh pH cua dung dch muoi NaCH
3
COO 10
1
M, cho biet CH
3
COOH co pK
a
=
4,75.
Giai: pK
b
= 14 - pK
a
= 14 4,75 = 9,25
875 , 8 5 , 0 625 , 4 14 10 lg
2
1
25 , 9
2
1
14 C lg
2
1
pK
2
1
14 pH
1
m b
= = + = + =

5.4.5.4 Muoi c tao thanh t acid yeu va baz yeu
1. Cac loai muoi nay nh NH
4
CH
3
COO co cation lan anion eu thuy phan. pH cua dung
dch se phu thuoc vao o manh cua cac goc acid va goc baz. Cong thc tnh pH cua
dung dch nay nh sau:
) pK pK (
2
1
pH
2 1
+ = (5.22)
trong o: pK
1
pK acid cua cap acid-baz lien hp cua acid yeu
pK
2
pK acid cua cap acid-baz lien hp cua baz yeu

Hoa ai cng
5.5 Chat ch th pH
1. Chat ch th pH la chat co kha nang thay oi mau khi thay oi pH.
2. Cac chat ch th mau thng la cac acid (hoac baz) hu c yeu, c ky hieu la HInd.
S phan ly cua chung nh sau:
HInd H
+
+ Ind

Mau dang acid Mau dang baz
3. Trong o mau cua dang acid HInd va mau cua dang baz Ind
khac nhau.
4. T phng trnh phan ly cua HInd, ta co hang so phan ly:

] HInd [
] Ind ][ H [
K
HInd
+
=
Co the viet:
] Ind [
] HInd [
K ] H [
HInd

+
=
hay:
] Ind [
] HInd [
lg pK pH
HInd

= (5.23)
5. Phng trnh tren cho thay t so nong o cua dang acid va dang baz cua chat ch th co
lien quan en pH cua dung dch. Ngi ta thng chap nhan la se phan biet ro c
hai mau khi nong o cua dang mau nay ln hn cua dang mau kia 10 lan.
a. Khi pH = pK
Hind
th [HInd] = [Ind
], nong o cua hai dang mau bang nhau, dung dch

co mau hon hp cua hai dang mau nay.
b. Khi pH = pK
Hind
+ 1 th [Ind
] = 10[HInd], dung dch co mau cua dang baz do nong

o cua dang mau baz gap 10 lan cua dang mau acid.
c. Khi pH = pK
Hind
1 th [HInd] = 10[Ind
], dung dch co mau cua dang acid do nong

o cua dang mau acid gap 10 lan cua dang mau baz.
6. Nh vay, mau cua chat ch th ch bien oi trong khoang pH = pK
Hind
1 va c goi la
khoang oi mau.

Mau dang acid Khoang oi mau Mau dang baz
pH s pK
Hind
1 pH = pK
Hind
1 pH > pK
Hind
+ 1

7. Moi chat ch th co mot khoang oi mau xac nh. Da vao s oi mau nay ma ta xac
nh c pH cua dung dch.
8. Trong thc te ngi ta thng dung giay pH c tam mot so chat ch th mau cho phep
xac nh c pH cua dung dch (vi o chnh xac t 1pH en 0,1pH). Muon o pH
chnh xac hn, ngi ta s dung may o pH.

5.6 Dung dch em
1. Dung dch em la dung dch co cha ong thi ca hai dang acid va dang baz lien hp
vi no. V du: Dung dch NaCH
3
COOCH
3
COOH, NH
4
OHNH
4
Cl,
2. Xet dung dch em co cha ong thi mot acid yeu HA vi nong o au C
a
va baz lien
hp cua acid o di dang muoi NaA vi nong o au C
m
= C
b
.
3. Thong thng, nong o cua HA va A
rat ln so vi H
+
va OH
nen co the bo qua hai

nong o [H
+
] va [OH
] nay:
pH
Hoa ai cng
Ta co:
m
a
a
C
C
K ] H [ =
+
(5.24)
hay:
m
a
a
C
C
lg pK pH = (5.25)
4. Hoan toan tng t oi vi dung dch co cha ong thi mot baz yeu vi nong o au
C
b
va acid lien hp cua baz o di dang muoi vi nong o au C
m
= C
a
. Ta co phng
trnh tnh pH cua dung dch nh sau:

m
b
b
C
C
lg pK 14 pH + = (5.26)
5. Khi them mot lng acid vao dung dch em th lng acid nay se ket hp vi baz A
.
Ngc lai, khi them mot lng baz vao dung dch em th no lai ket hp vi acid HA. Do
o, dung dch em co pH thay oi rat t khi them mot lng acid hay baz. S thay oi
pH khi them acid hay baz vao dung dch em c tnh bang phng trnh (5.24).
6. V du: Tnh pH cua dung dch em co cha acid CH
3
COOH 10
1
M va muoi NaCH
3
COO
10
1
M, pK
a
=4,75.
Giai: 75 , 4
1 , 0
1 , 0
lg 75 , 4
C
C
lg pK pH
m
a
a
= = =

5.7 Tch so tan
5.7.1 Tch so tan
1. Khi hoa tan mot chat ran ien ly vao mot dung moi th luon luon co hai qua trnh xay ra
ngc chieu nhau la qua trnh hoa tan va qua trnh ket tua.
2. Khi hai qua trnh hoa tan va ket tua can bang vi nhau th nong o cua chat tan trong
dung moi khong tang len na va la mot hang so.
3. Trong trng hp chat tan co o tan rat nho th c goi la chat t tan. V du:
AgCl(r) Ag
+
(dd) + Cl
(dd)
Ta co hang so can bang: ] Cl ][ Ag [ T K
+
= = (5.27)
4. Trong dung dch bao hoa chat ien ly t tan, tch so nong o cua cac ion cua chat
tan la mot hang so va c goi la tch so tan, ky hieu la T.
5. Trong trng hp tong quat, oi vi chat ien ly t tan A
m
B
n
, ta co:

n m m n
B A
] B [ ] A [ T
n m
+
= (5.28)
6. Mot chat ien ly t tan ch co the ket tua khi tch so nong o cac ion cua no trong
dung dch phai ln hn tch so tan.
7. Moi lien he gia tch so tan va o bao hoa cua dung dch ien ly t tan nh sau:

Dung dch cha bao hoa Dung dch bao hoa Dung dch qua bao hoa
n m
B A
n m m n
T ] B [ ] A [ <
+

n m
B A
n m m n
T ] B [ ] A [ =
+

n m
B A
n m m n
T ] B [ ] A [ >
+

5.7.2 o tan
1. Do o tan cua chat ien ly t tan rat nho nen theo nh luat pha loang Ostwald, xem nh
chat tan phan ly hoan toan. Ta co o tan S:
Hoa ai cng

n
] B [
m
] A [
S
m n
B A
n m
+
= = , mol/lt (M)

) n m (
n m
B A
B A
n . m
T
S
n m
n m
+
= (5.29)
Va:
n m
B A
n
S . m ] A [ =
+

n m
B A
m
S . n ] B [ =

n m
B A
n m
B A
n m n m
S . n . m T
+
= (5.30)
2. V du: Tnh o tan cua AgCl trong nc, cho biet T
AgCl
= 1,78.10
10
.
Giai: M 10 . 33 , 1 10 . 78 , 1 T S
5 10
AgCl AgCl

= = =

5.7.3 Anh hng cua nhiet o en o tan
1. Qua trnh hoa tan lam tang cac tieu phan t do nen co AS > 0.
2. Khi tang nhiet o th gia tr T. AS cang am, ngha la AG cang am lam cho can bang
chuyen theo chieu thuan khien cho o tan tang len.

5.7.4 ieu kien ket tua chat ien ly t tan Hieu ng ion chung
1. Mot chat ien ly t tan ch co the ket tua khi tch so nong o cac ion cua no trong dung
dch phai ln hn tch so tan.
2. Ngi ta s dung ieu kien nay e ket tua chat ien ly t tan bang cach them mot lng
ion cung loai vi ion cua chat tan vao dung dch cua chat ien ly t tan. Loai ion nay
c goi la ion chung.
3. Luc o, nong o cua ion chung nay tang len lam cho tch so nong o cua cac ion cua
chat tan ln hn tch so tan khien cho chat tan ket tua. Qua trnh ket tua xay ra cho en
khi tch so nong o cua cac ion cua chat tan bang tch so tan th dng lai.
4. Hieu ng ket tua do them ion chung vao dung dch ien ly t tan nh vay c goi la
hieu ng ion chung.
5. V du: Khi them dung dch Na
2
SO
4
vao dung dch bao hoa CaSO
4
th do hieu ng ion
chung, CaSO
4
se ket tua v tch so cua nong o cac ion Ca
2+
va
2
4
SO ln hn
4
CaSO
T .

5.7.5 ieu kien hoa tan chat ien ly t tan
1. Xet qua trnh hoa tan FeS ran trong dung dch bang cach them acid HCl. Trong dung
dch bao hoa FeS co can bang ong:
FeS(r) Fe
2+
+ S
2-
(5.31)
Luc nay: [Fe
2+
][S
2-
] = T
FeS
Khi them HCl vao: HCl H
+
+ Cl
-

2. H
+
se ket hp vi S
2-
e tao thanh HS
-
va H
2
S t ien ly.
S
2-
+ H
+
HS
-
(5.32)
HS
-
+ H
+
H
2
S (5.33)
3. S
2-
trong dung dch c chuyen thanh HS
-
va H
2
S t ien ly; ngoai ra, H
2
S lai bay i.
Hai loai qua trnh nay lam cho cac can bang (5.31), (5.32) va (5.33) chuyen dch t trai
qua phai, ngha la FeS b hoa tan.
Hoa ai cng
4. Vay, muon hoa tan chat ien ly t tan th phai them vao dung dch mot chat nao o co
kha nang ket hp vi mot trong cac ion cua chat ien ly t tan e tao thanh chat t ien
ly hay chat bay hi sao cho tch so nong o cua cac ion cua chat ien ly t tan nho hn
tch so tan.

Chng 15
ien hoa hoc

6.1 Phan ng oxi hoa-kh
1. So oxi hoa cua mot nguyen t trong chat la ien tch hnh thc cua nguyen t o vi gia
nh la khi lien ket ien t se thuoc ve nguyen t co o am ien hn.
2. Phan ng oxi hoa-kh la phan ng co s thay oi so oxi hoa cua cac nguyen t trong
cac tac chat va san pham.
3. Chat kh la chat cho ien t. V du: Zn.
Chat oxi hoa la chat nhan ien t. V du: Cu
2+
.
4. Qua trnh oxi hoa la qua trnh cho ien t. V du: Qua trnh oxi hoa Zn len Zn
2+
.
Qua trnh kh la qua trnh nhan ien t. V du: Qua trnh kh Cu
2+
ve Cu
0
.
5. Trong qua trnh oxi hoa-kh thong thng, ien t di chuyen trc tiep t chat kh sang
chat oxi hoa. Nang lng cua phan ng oxi hoa-kh chuyen thanh nhiet.
6. V du: Khi nhung thanh kem kim loai vao dung dch CuSO
4
, ion Cu
2+
trong dung dch di
chuyen en thanh ke m e nhan ien t va phan ng toa nhiet:
Cu
2+
+ Zn Cu + Zn
2+

0
298

6.2 Pin Galvani
1. Neu ta tien hanh oxi hoa Zn mot ni va kh Cu
2+
mot ni khac va cho ien t di
chuyen t Zn sang ion Cu
2+
thong qua mot day dan tao thanh dong ien th nang lng
cua phan ng oxi hoa-kh se chuyen thanh ien nang.
2. Mot he nh vay c goi la mot pin Galvani.

Hnh 4.1 S o pin Galvani

3. Pin Galvani la mot bnh cha thanh ong nhung trong dung dch muoi ong CuSO
4
va
thanh kem nhung trong dung dch muoi kem ZnSO
4
.
Hoa ai cng
4. Hai dung dch nay c ngan cach nhau bang mot mang xop nh s xop.
5. Mang xop nay cho phep cac anion di chuyen qua lai e ca n bang ien tch cua dung
dch hai bnh. Nhng no khong cho cac cation di chuyen qua mang xop.
6. Khi noi hai thanh kim loai nay bang mot day dan mach ngoai th se co mot dong ien
t di chuyen t cc Zn en cc Cu theo day dan.
7. ien cc kem c goi la cc am va ien cc ong c goi la cc dng.
8. Tai cc am (anod) co qua trnh nhng ien t (qua trnh oxi hoa) cua Zn e tao thanh
Zn
2+
. ien cc Zn se tan ra.
9. Tai cc dng (catod) co qua trnh nhan ien t (qua trnh kh) cua Cu
2+
e tao thanh
Cu.
10. ien the gia hai ien cc Zn va Cu la ien the chenh lech gia hai lp ien tch kep
cua Zn va Cu.
11. Nh vay, ve toan bo, trong pin xay ra cac phan ng:
Zn 2e
Zn
2+

va: Cu
2+
+ 2e
Cu
12. Ngha la phan ng xay ra tng t nh khi cho Zn phan ng vi dung dch CuSO
4
:
Zn + Cu
2+
Zn
2+
+ Cu
13. Vay pin la mot dung cu cho phep s dung s trao oi ien t trong cac phan ng oxi
hoa e tao ra dong ien.
14. S o cua pin Galvani c viet theo quy c nh sau:
() Zn | Zn
2+
Cu
2+
| Cu (+) (6.1)
6.3 The ien cc
6.3.1 Lp ien tch kep
1. Khi nhung mot thanh kem kim loai vao nc, se co mot so nguyen t Zn kim loai
nhng ien t cho thanh kem va chuyen vao dung dch di dang cation Zn
2+
, luc o
thanh kem se mang ien tch am.
2. Khi qua trnh nay at ti trang thai can bang th gia be mat thanh kem va lp dung
dch xuat hien mot lp ien tch kep vi mot hieu ien the xac nh.
3. o ln cua ien the nay tuy thuoc vao ban chat cua kim loai. Kim loai cang hoat ong
th ien the nay cang ln.
4. Neu nhung thanh kem nay vao dung dch muoi kem th cung xuat hien mot can bang
tng t nh tren.
5. Mot he nh va ke tren c goi la mot ban pin. Thanh kim loai nam trong dung dch
cha mot cap oxi hoa-kh lien hp nh vay c goi la ien cc.
6. Co bon loai ien cc chnh la:
a. ien cc tan: la loai ien cc nh va mo ta, trong o kim loai b tan ra.
b. ien cc kh: gom mot ien cc kim loai tr khong tan nh Pt, vang, hay graphit
hap phu kh bao hoa trong mot dung dch co cha ion cua kh o. V du ien hnh va
quan trong nhat la ien cc hydro.
Phan ng ien cc hydro la:
H
+
(dd) + e
H
2
(k)
Khi nong o cua H
+
la 1M va ap suat cua H
2
la 1atm ta co ieu kien tieu chuan va ien
the cua lp ien tch kep nay c gan bang 0,000V.

Hoa ai cng

Hnh 4.2 S o cau tao cua ien cc hydro tieu chuan

c. ien cc tr: gom mot ien cc kim loai tr khong tan nh Pt, vang, hay graphit
nhung trong mot dung dch co cha mot cap oxi hoa-kh lien hp (v du nh Fe
3+
/
Fe
2+
). ien the cua lp ien tch kep chnh la ien the gia hai dang oxi hoa va kh
cua cap oxi hoa-kh lien hp.
d. ien cc tiep xuc: gom mot ien cc kim loai tiep xuc vi mot muoi t tan cua no va
nam trong dung dch cha muoi tan co cung anion vi muoi t tan. V du nh ien
cc bac phu mot lp AgCl nam trong dung dch KCl.

6.3.2 Sc ien ong The ien cc
1. Sc ien ong cua pin bang hieu so ien the gia ien cc dng va ien cc am.
E = E
+
E
(6.2)
2. Nh vay e tnh sc ien ong cua pin th can phai biet the cua cac ien cc tng
ng. Song khong the xac nh the tuyet oi cua cac ien cc c.
3. Do o, ngi ta phai xac nh the ien cc tng oi bang cach so sanh vi the cua
mot ien cc tieu chuan.
4. ien cc chuan c chon la ien cc hydro T = 25
0
C,
+
H
C = 1M va
2
H
P = 1atm The
cua ien cc nay c gan bang 0,000V.
5. Muon o the cua mot ien cc nao o th ngi ta ghep ien cc o vi ien cc hydro
chuan e tao thanh mot pin roi o sc ien ong cua pin thu c.
6. Dau cua the ien cc tuy thuoc vao viec tch ien dng hay am tren ien cc can o.
ien cc tch ien am th the ien cc mang dau am va ngc lai.
7. The ien cc o c tai T = 298
0
K, P = 1atm va nong o cua ion kim loai la 1M (neu
co) c goi la the chuan cua ien cc o.
8. V du nh sc ien ong cua pin Cu-Zn neu tren ieu kien tieu chuan la:
E = E
+
E
= 0,34 (0,76) = 1,10V

6.4 Chieu cua phan ng oxi hoa-kh
1. Trong phan nhiet ong hoc, chung ta a biet:
AG = A
2. Trong o, cong co ch A la cong chuyen n mol ien t trong ien trng co hieu so
ien the AE:
A = nFAE
Hoa ai cng
trong o: theo quy uc cua nhiet ong hoc, A am khi he sinh cong
F: hang so Faraday, la ien tch cua mot mol ien t = 96500C
AE: the ien cc cua cap oxi hoa-kh, thng c ky hieu la E,
la hieuso ien the gia dang kh va dang oxh
Nh vay: AG = nFAE (6.3)
3. Xet phan ng oxi hoa-kh:
Ox
1
+ Kh
2
Kh
1
+ Ox
2
AG
4. Phan ng nay bao gom hai ban phan ng oxi hoa kh sau:
Ox
1
+ ne
Kh
1
AG
1
(6.4)
Ox
2
+ ne
Kh
2
AG
2
(6.5)
AG = AG
1
AG
2

AG = nF(E
1
E
2
)
5. Phan ng se xay ra theo chieu thuan khi AG am, tc la khi E
1
> E
2
. Trong o chat Ox
1

ong vai tro chat oxi hoa va chat Kh
2
la chat kh.
6. Can lu y la cac gia tr E
1
va E
2
. a c tnh cho s trao oi 1 ien t nen trong trng
hp tong quat co s trao oi n
1
ien t oi vi Ox
1
va n
2
ien t oi vi Kh
2
th ket qua
tren van khong thay oi.
7. e n gian hoa, phan ng se xay ra theo chieu thuan khi xet theo AE:
0 E E E
Kh Ox
> = A (6.6)
trong o: E
Ox
: E cua cap oxi hoa-kh Ox
1
/Kh
1

E
Kh
: E cua cap oxi hoa-kh Ox
2
/Kh
2

8. Trong ieu kien tieu chuan, ta se co:
0 E E E
0
Kh
0
Ox
0
> = A (6.7)

1. V du: Hay xac nh phan ng oxi hoa-kh sau ay co dien ra hay khong trong ieu kien
tieu chuan?
Fe
3+
+ Cu
0
Fe
2+
+ Cu
2+

Cho biet: V 77 , 0 E
0
Fe / Fe
2 3
+ =
+ +
va V 34 , 0 E
0
Cu / Cu
0 2
+ =
+

Giai: V 43 , 0 34 , 0 77 , 0 E E E
0
Cu / Cu
0
Fe / Fe
0
0 2 2 3
+ = + = = A
+ + +

AE
0
> 0 nen phan ng xay ra theo chieu thuan.

6.5 Gian o E
0

1. e so sanh kha nang phan ng cua nhieu cap oxi hoa-kh, ngi ta s dung gian o
E
0
. Mot v du cu the ve gian o E
0
nh sau:

Zn
2+
Fe
2+
H
+
Cu
2+
Fe
3+

Zn
0

0,76
Fe
0

0,44
H
2

+0,00
Cu
0

+0,34
Fe
2+

+0,77

2. Cac cap oxi hoa-kh se c sap xep theo th t E
0
tang dan. Chat oxi hoa pha tren
ben phai se oxi hoa c chat kh pha di ben trai cua no va tao c cac san
pham la cac chat pha ngc lai cua truc gian o.
E
0
(V)
Hoa ai cng

6.6 Anh hng cua nong o en the ien cc
1. T phng trnh (6.3): AG = nFAE
va he thc: AG = AG
0
+ RTlnK
Chung ta co: nFE = nFE
0
+ RTlnK
hay K ln
nF
RT
E E
0
= (6.8)
2. Ap dung cho phan ng (6.45) khi T = 298
0
K, thay cac gia tr bang so cua R va F, va
chuyen ln thanh lg, chung ta c:

] Ox [
] Kh [
lg
n
059 , 0
E E
0
= (6.9)
3. Phng trnh (6.8) la dang tong quat va (6.9) la dang cu the cua phng trnh Nerst.
4. Hai phng trnh nay bieu dien s phu thuoc cua the oxi hoa-kh vao nong o cua
dang oxi hoa va dang kh cua mot cap oxi hoa-kh.
5. E
0
la the oxi hoa-kh chuan cua cap oxi hoa-kh khi T = 298
0
K, P = 1 atm va nong o
cua cac chat tham gia vao qua trnh oxi hoa-kh (chat oxi hoa, chat kh,).
6. Cac gia tr E
0
a c o ac chnh xac va ghi lai trong cac so tay hoa hoc.
7. Trng hp dang kh la kim loai th [Kh] = 1, ta co:

] Ox [
1
lg
n
059 , 0
E E
0
= (6.10)
8. Trng hp co cac ion H
+
hay OH
la tac chat hay san pham cua phan ng oxi hoa-kh

th phai them tha so nong o cua chung vao phng trnh oxi hoa-kh vi luy tha
theo ung he so hp thc.
9. V du: O H 4 Mn e 5 H 8 MnO
2
2
4
+ + +
+ +

8
4
2
0
] H ][ MnO [
] Mn [
lg
5
059 , 0
E E
+
+
=

+ + + OH 6 Br e 6 O H 3 BrO
2 3

] BrO [
] OH ][ Br [
lg
6
059 , 0
E E
3
6
0

=

6.7 Hang so can bang cua phan ng oxi hoa-kh
1. Xet mot phan ng oxi hoa-kh co dang tong quat bao gom hai ban phan ng cua hai
cap oxi hoa-kh sau:
Ox
1
+ n
1
e = Kh
1

] Ox [
] Kh [
ln
F n
RT
E E
1
1
1
0
1 1
=
Ox
2
+ n
2
e = Kh
2

] Ox [
] Kh [
ln
F n
RT
E E
2
2
2
0
2 2
=

6.7.1 Trng hp 1: Phan ng tong quat co n
1
= n
2

n
2
Ox
1
+ n
1
Kh
2
n
1
Ox
2
+ n
2
Kh
1

Hoa ai cng
Vi: AG = n
2
AG
1
n
1
AG
2

= n
2
n
1
FE
1
( n
1
n
2
FE
2
)
= n
2
n
1
F(E
1
E
2
)
1. Khi phan ng at en can bang, ta co AG = 0, ngha la (E
1
E
2
) = 0 hay E
1
= E
2
. Nh
vay, luc can bang ta co:

] Ox [
] Kh [
ln
F n
RT
E
] Ox [
] Kh [
ln
F n
RT
E
2
2
2
0
2
1
1
1
0
1
=
2. Thc hien s chuyen ve cua cac so hang, ta co:

] Ox [
] Kh [
ln
F n
RT
] Ox [
] Kh [
ln
F n
RT
E E
2
2
2 1
1
1
0
2
0
1
=
3. Nhan ca hai ve vi n
1
n
2
roi thc hien cac bien oi toan hoc, ta co:

1 2
1 2
n
2
n
1
n
2
n
1 0
2
0
1 2 1
] Kh [ ] Ox [
] Ox [ ] Kh [
ln
F
RT
) E E ( n n =
4. Bieu thc sau ln chnh la hang so can bang cua phan ng. Do o:

1 2
1 2
n
2
n
1
n
2
n
1
] Kh [ ] Ox [
] Ox [ ] Kh [
K = (6.11)

RT
) E E ( F n n
K ln
0
2
0
1 2 1

= (6.12)
hay:
059 , 0
) E E ( n n
K lg
0
2
0
1 2 1

= (6.13)

6.7.2 Trng hp 2: Phan ng co n
1
= n
2

1. Chu y: Khi n
1
= n
2
, phan ng co dang:
Ox
1
+ Kh
2
Ox
2
+ Kh
1

] Kh ][ Ox [
] Ox ][ Kh [
K
2 1
2 1
= (6.14)
va:
059 , 0
) E E ( n
K lg
0
2
0
1

= (6.15)
2. V du: Tnh hang so can bang cua phan ng:
2Fe
3+
+ Cu
0
Cu
2+
+ 2Fe
2+

Cho biet: V 77 , 0 E
0
Fe / Fe
2 3
+ =
+ +
va V 34 , 0 E
0
Cu / Cu
0 2
+ =
+

Giai:
Ta co: 58 , 14
059 , 0
) 34 , 0 77 , 0 ( 2 1
059 , 0
) E E ( n n
K lg
0
2
0
1 2 1
=

=
=

2 3
2 2 2
0 2 3
2 2 2
58 , 14
] Fe [
] Cu [ ] Fe [
] Cu [ ] Fe [
] Cu [ ] Fe [
10 K
+
+ +
+
+ +
= = =
K 0 nen phan ng xay ra theo chieu thuan.

6.8 Vai nguon ien hoa thong dung
1. Co hai nguon ien hoa thong dung la pin va ac quy. Nhng yeu cau chung oi vi cac
nguon ien hoa la:
Hoa ai cng
a. Sc ien ong cao, cng o dong ln va on nh
b. Cong suat tren mot n v khoi lng va mot n v the tch cao
c. Thi gian s dung lau dai
d. An toan, khong gay o nhiem
e. Gia thanh ha

6.8.1 Pin
1. Thong dung va co ien nhat la loai pin kho, con goi la pin Leclanche. No co anod bang
kem dang ong hnh tru c dung luon lam than pin. Catod lam bang than ch nam
trong mot lp bot MnO
2
. Chat ien ly la hon hp NH
4
Cl va ZnCl
2
hoa trong ho tinh bot.
2. Phan ng xay ra trong pin c bieu dien bang cac phng trnh:
Anod: Zn 2e
Zn
2+

Catod: 2MnO
2
+ H
2
O + 2e
Mn
2
O
3
+ 2OH

Zn + 2MnO
2
+ H
2
O Zn
2+
+ Mn
2
O
3
+ 2OH

3. Ngi ta con lam cac loai pin khac nh: pin kiem, pin nut ao, pin liti, pin nhien lieu,

6.8.2 Ac quy
1. Ac quy cung la mot loai nguon ien hoa hoc nh pin, tc la da tren c s hai ien cc
co ien the khac nhau. iem khac biet c ban la ac quy co the nap ien e dung lai
nhieu lan trong luc pin ch co the s dung mot lan.
2. Co hai loai ac quy pho bien la ac quy ch va ac quy kiem.
3. Ac quy ch gom hai ien cc di dang li nhung trong dung dch H
2
SO
4
: mot ien cc
la bot ch va mot ien cc la bot PbO
2
.
4. S phong ien xay ra khi noi hai ien cc tren. Phan ng tren hai ien cc nh sau:
Anod: Pb + H
2
SO
4
2e
PbSO
4
+ 2H
+

Catod: PbO
2
+ H
2
SO
4
+ 2H
+
+ 2e
PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O
PbO
2
+ Pb + 2H
2
SO
4
2PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O
5. Qua trnh phong ien lam hai ien cc chuyen thanh PbSO
4
. ien the giam dan.
6. Khi muon dung lai th ngi ta nap ien theo chieu ngc lai va hai ien cc se xay
ra cac qua trnh ngc vi qua trnh phong ien tren.

6.9 ien phan
6.9.1 nh ngha
1. ien phan la qua trnh phan ng hoa hoc cua cac chat trang thai nong chay hay
trong dung dch khi co dong ien chay qua. V du:

2
chieu mot ien dong
chay nong
Cl Na NaCl +
NaOH Cl H O H NaCl
2 2
chieu mot ien dong
2
+ + +
2. Ngi ta phan ien phan ra thanh ba loai la ien phan nong chay, ien phan dung dch
va ien phan dng cc tan.

6.9.2 ien phan nong chay
1. Cac chat nh muoi hay oxid khi nong chay phan ly thanh cac cation va anion.
Hoa ai cng
2. Di tac dung cua ien trung ngoai, cac cation chay ve catod e nhan ien t; con
cac anion chay ve anod e nhng ien t e tao thanh cac san pham hai ien cc.
3. V du 2: Qua trnh ien phan NaCl nong chay:
a. Tren catod: Na
+
+ e
Na(r)
b. Tren anod: Cl
Cl
2
(k)
Cac san pham cua qua trnh ien phan la natri kim loai va kh clor.
6.9.3 ien phan dung dch
1. Xet v du cu the khi ien phan dung dch NiCl
2
vi ien cc tr Pt. Trong dung dch co
s dch chuyen sau:
a. Cac cation Ni
2+
va H
+
chay ve catod
b. Cac anion Cl
va OH
chay ve anod
2. Neu the ap vao ien cc u ln th xay ra cac phan ng:
a. Tren catod: Ni
2+
+ 2e
Ni(r)
b. Tren anod: Cl
Cl
2
(k)
3. Cac san pham se bao phu cac ien cc va ket qua la catod tr thanh mot tam Ni
nhung trong dung dch cha Ni
2+
, ngha la tao thanh ien cc Ni/Ni
2+
. Anod tr thanh
tam Pt bao hoa Cl
2
va nhung trong dung dch cha Cl
, ngha la tao thanh ien cc

Pt/Cl
2
,Cl
.

6.9.4 ien phan ien cc tan
1. Khi ien phan vi anod khong tr th anod se b tan. Ngi ta s dung hien tng nay
e tinh che cac kim loai kem hoat ong nh ong, bac, vang,
2. Xet trng hp ien phan trong dung dch CuSO
4
vi anod bang ong co lan tap chat
va catod bang ong tinh khiet. Cac phan ng xay ra nh sau:
- Tren catod: Cu
2+
+ 2e
Cu(r)
- Tren anod: Cu(r) 2e
Cu
2+

3. ong khong tinh khiet anod se tan ra, con san pham ong tinh khiet se bam len
catod. Cac tap chat co ham lng thap nam lai trong dung dch.

6.9.5 Cac inh luat ien phan
1. Faraday nghien cu cac quan he nh lng trong qua trnh ien phan va a tm ra cac
nh luat sau:
2. Khoi lng cua mot san pham c tao thanh catod va anod trong qua trnh ien
phan t le vi ien lng i qua bnh ien phan va vi cac ng lng cua chung:

nF
AIt
m = (6.16)
trong o: m: khoi lng cua san pham thoat ra ien cc, g
A: khoi lng mol cua san pham, g/mol
I: cng o dong ien, A
t: thi gian, s
n: so ien t trao oi trong phan ng ien cc
F: so Faraday, F = 96.490 ~ 96.500

Hoa ai cng
Chng 16
Hoa Keo

7.1 Dung dch keo
1. Cac he dung dch a khao sat la cac he phan tan ong the khong co be mat phan cach
gia pha phan tan va moi trng phan tan, va c goi la dung dch that.
2. Dung dch co pha phan tan co kch thc t 10
7
-10
9
m c goi la dung dch keo.
3. Cac hat cua pha phan tan c goi la hat keo.
4. Do kch thc cua pha phan tan rat nho nen hien tng be mat trong dung dch keo
ong vai tro quan trong.
5. Mot tnh toan n gian cho thay mot khoi lap phng co ca nh la 1mm th dien tch be
mat cua no la 6mm
2
. Khi chia khoi nay thanh nhng khoi nho co canh la 10
3
mm th ta
thu c 1 t khoi nho co tong dien tch be mat la 6.000cm
2
, ngha la dien tch be mat
tang len mot ngan lan.
6. Trong chng trnh, chung ta ch khao sat he keo co moi trng phan tan la pha long.
7. Ngi ta chia cac he keo long ra lam hai loai:
a. Keo a long la keo hap thu cac phan t cua moi trng phan tan. Cac hat keo a
long c bao boc bang mot lp vo solvat. Khi moi trng phan tan la nc th goi
la keo a nc.
b. Keo k long la keo hau nh khong hap thu cac phan t cua moi trng phan tan.
Khi moi trng phan tan la nc th goi la keo k nc.

7.2 Cau tao cua hat keo
1. Mot cach n gian va de hieu, chung ta xet mot hat keo sat (III) hydroxid. Khi thuy
phan FeCl
3
trong nc nong tao thanh ket tua Fe(OH)
3
theo phng trnh phan ng:
FeCl
3
+ 3H
2
O Fe(OH)
3
+ + 3HCl
2. Sat (III) hydroxid nam di dang nhng hat rat mn tao thanh nhan keo:
mFe(OH)
3
[Fe(OH)
3
]
m

Hnh 7.6 S o cau tao cua mixen cua keo sat (III) hydroxid

3. Be mat nhan keo hap phu cac ion Fe
3+
co trong dung dch tao thanh lp ion b hap
phu:
[Fe(OH)
3
]
m
+ nFe
3+
[Fe(OH)
3
]
m
.nFe
3+

Hoa ai cng
4. Cac ion Fe
3+
nam tren be mat nhan keo se hut cac ion Cl
tch ien am lai gan tao

thanh lp oi ion b hap phu:
[Fe(OH)
3
]
m
.nFe
3+
+ xCl
{[Fe(OH)
3
]
m
.nFe
3+
.xCl
}
(3n-x)+

5. Toan bo hat keo luc nay tch ien dng (3n-x). Mot phan cac oi ion Cl
khac cach
xa nhan hn tao thanh lp oi ion khuyech tan, Tat ca cac hp phan nay tao thanh
mixen:
{[Fe(OH)
3
]
m
.nFe
3+
.xCl
}
(3n-x)+
(3n-x) Cl

nhan lp ion lp oi lp oi ion
keo b hap ion b khuyech tan
phu hap phu
hat keo
mixen
6. Nh vay, tnh ben vng cua keo k nc chu yeu la do s tch ien cung dau cua cac
hat keo.
7. oi vi keo a nc, tnh ben vng chu yeu la do lp vo hydrat quyet nh. Lp vo nay
khong cho cac hat keo ket tu lai vi nhau.
8. Ngoai ra, tnh ben vng cua cac hat keo con do chuyen ong nhiet hon loan cua cac
hat keo, song yeu to nay la th yeu.

7.3 Tnh chat cua dung dch keo
1. Hieu ng Tyndall: Khi chieu mot chum tia sang manh qua mot bnh ng dung dch keo
th ta se thay mot hnh non sang rat ro.
a. Hien tng nay xay ra la do hat keo co kch thc nho, khi tia sang cham vao hat
keo th hat keo se tan xa tia sang theo moi phng.
b. Luc nay moi hat keo tr thanh mot iem sang. Do o ta co the quan sat ng i
cua tia sang.
2. Cac tnh chat nh o giam ap suat hi bao hoa, o tang nhiet o soi, o giam nhiet o
hoa ran, ap suat tham thau, cua dung dch keo the hien yeu hn so vi dung dch that.
ieu nay la do vi nong o mol bang nhau th so tieu phan co trong mot n v the tch
cua dung dch that bao gi cung ln hn nhieu so vi dung dch keo.
3. Tnh hoat ong be mat cua hat keo xuat hien la do cac tieu phan tren be mat ch b hut
bi cac tieu phan ben trong hat keo.
a. Hien tng nay tao nen sc cang be mat (hay nang lng be mat).
b. He keo co dien tch be mat ln nen co sc cang be mat ln.
c. Tnh hoat ong be mat cua hat keo quyet nh tnh bam dnh cua cac loai keo dan,
tnh tay ra cua xa phong va chat tay ra, ien tch cua hat keo va nhieu tnh chat
khac.

7.4 S ong tu keo
1. Neu bang mot cach nao o ma ta (1) lam giam hay trung hoa c ien tch cua cac
hat keo k nc hoac (2) pha v lp vo hydrat cua cac hat keo a nc th cac hat keo
se ket tu lai vi nhau tao thanh ket tua. Qua trnh nh vay c goi la qua trnh ong tu
keo.
2. Loai keo k nc khi ong tu se kho ng keo nc theo nen ket tua di dang bot rat mn
hoac dang bong.
Hoa ai cng
3. Ngc lai, loai keo a nc khi ong tu se keo theo mot lng nc tng oi ln tao
thanh ket tua dang nhay. Mot so keo a nc khi ong tu se bien toan bo he thanh mot
khoi nhay goi la hydrogel, v du nh tht ong.

7.4.1 ong tu keo bang chat ien ly
1. Khi cho mot chat ien ly vao dung dch keo th hat keo se hap phu them cac ion ngc
dau nen ien tch cua hat keo giam nhanh lam cho keo ong tu. S hnh thanh cac
chau tho ca song o ra bien la do s ong tu cua keo phu sa bang dung dch muoi
cua nc bien keo dai trong nhieu nam.
2. Cac keo a nc co lp vo hydrat ben vng nen muon ong tu phai s dung mot lng
chat ien ly ln hn nhieu so vi trng hp keo k nc.

7.4.2 ong tu keo bang keo tch ien trai dau
1. Khi tron lan hai dung dch keo tch ien trai dau th cac keo tch ien trai dau se trung
hoa lan nhau va ket tu xuong.
2. V du nh e ket tua cac hat keo at trong nc song tch ien am, khi them phen
nhom KAl(SO
4
)
2
.12H
2
O th Al
3+
trong phen thuy phan tao thanh keo mang ien tch
dung trung hoa vi keo am cua at nen chung ong tu xuong.

7.4.3 ong tu keo bang cach un nong
1. Mot so chat keo khi un nong se b ong tu do khi nhiet o tang th s hap phu ion
giam, do o lam giam ien tch cua hat keo.

7.5 ng dung cua cac dung dch keo
1. Cac ng dung cua dung dch keo rat rong rai cung nh s phong phu va a dang cua
chnh cac dung dch keo.
2. Hau het cac thc pham va cac tieu phan cua c the chung ta (chat beo, protit,
hydratcarbon,) la cac chat keo.
3. Khoi, sng mu, khong kh b o nhiem, nuc t nhien, nc thai cung la nhng he keo.
Do o, viec x ly moi trng cung lien quan en vat ly va hoa hoc cua he keo.
4. Nh vay, viec nghien cu cac he keo co y ngha ca ve phng dien khoa hoc lan thc
tien.

Hóa Đ I Cương - Total

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hóa Đ I Cương - Total

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chng 1 Gii thieu chung 1

, c goi la ion phc tap.

gia tr ien tch tuyet oi cua cation va anion

ban knh cua cation va anion

(mach h): V = 12; h = 0; q = 4 no = 3 nt = 1

co spin song song (||).

cho biet phan bo mat o xac suat co mat cua ien

co the co en 3 cong thc tng ng nhau nh sau:

co 2 lien ket n dai va 1 lien ket oi

la cong thc trung gian gia 3 cong thc

cho biet phan bo mat o xac suat co mat cua ien

co s giam mat o xac suat co mat cua ien t

luon luon cao hn nang lng cua cac van ao AO s

c goi la MO phan lien ket hay o

, amin, se s dung HOMO la MO co cha ien t

] bang nhau va bang 10

giam xuong mot cach tng ng sao cho tch

tang len va nong o H

] trong dung dch HNO

e bieu dien o acid-baz cua dung dch rat bat

co kha nang nhan ion H

la baz v nhan ion H

(cua acid HA).

la baz Arrhenius v co nhom OH

], nong o cua hai dang mau bang nhau, dung dch

] = 10[HInd], dung dch co mau cua dang baz do nong

], dung dch co mau cua dang acid do nong

nen co the bo qua hai

= 0,34 (0,76) = 1,10V

la tac chat hay san pham cua phan ng oxi hoa-kh

, ngha la tao thanh ien cc

tch ien am lai gan tao

You might also like