4

^^

UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH LIBRARY

'o

THIS

BOOK PRESENTED BY

Esther ine C Smith

AN

ENQUIRY
CONCERNING

POLITICAL JUSTICE,
ITS

INFLUENCE
ON
'

-GENERAL VIRTUE AND HAPPINESS.

B Y

WILLIAM GODWIN.
IN

TWO VOLUMES
VOL.
L
II,

IS!

N:

PRINTED FOR

G. G,

J.

AND

J.

ROBINSON, PaTERNOSTER-ROW.

M.DCC.XCUI.

CONTENTS
OF THE

SECOND VOLUME.
B O O K
V.

OF LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE POWER.

BOOK

VI.

OF OPINION CONSIDERED AS A SUBJECT OF POLITICAL INSTITUTION.

BOOK
BOOK

VII.

OF CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS.

VIII,

OF PROPERTY.

CONTENTS
OF THE

FIFTH BOOK.
OF LEGISLATIVE

AND

EXECU'tlVE POWER.
I.

CHAP.
jyETROSPECT of principles
'

INTRODUCTION.
.

already eJlabli/ljed.Dt/lribution

of the remaining fubjedls, Subject of the prefetit book. Forms of government, Method of examination to be adopted.

Page 379

CHAP.

II.

OF EDUCATION, THE EDUCATION OF A PRINCE.

Nature of monarchy delineated.School of adverfty.
fuperfiuity to infpire

Tendency of
benefit

efemivacyto deprive us of the

of

experience. Illufrated in the cafe of princes. Manner in ivhich

they are

addrejfed.lnefficacy of the itiftru5lion befotved upon

_

them.

^3^

^ ^

HA

P.

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
Principles by
control
III.

PklVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

which he
of
is

influenced

irrefponjibility
dijlike

impatience

habits

dijflpation

ignorance
IV.

of truth

of

dijlike

ofjuJiice.'Pitiable ftuation ofprinces.

P^ge 397

CHAP.
Suppofed excellence of
this

OF A VIRTUOUS DESPOTISM.
form of
governme?it controvertedfrom
the narrownefs of human powers.
iion

Cafe of a

vicious adminijlra-

of a

virtuous adminiftration intended to be

to the

frmed,

Monar40
8--

chy not adapted

governnwit of large fates.

CHAP. V. OF COURTS AND MINISTERS.

Syjlematical monopoly of confidence.

dependents, Venality of courts.

Character
VI.

ofminifters

of

their

Univerfaliiy of this principle.

CHAP.
Monarchy founded
in.

OF SUBJECTS.
impofture.

Kings

not entitled to fuperiority

inadequate to the fun5i ions they pojfefs.

pojlure
is

Means

by

which

the im-

maintained i.fpkndour

2. exaggeration,

I'his
'

im-

popura

CONTENTS.
pofiure .generates

i.

indifference io merit

3. artificial dejires

^.

pufiUanlmity Moral

2. indifference to tricth

incredulity oftno-

narchical countries.
tion

Injufiice

of luxury- ofthe inordinate admira-

of wealth.

Page 423

CHAP.

vir.

OF ELECTIVE MONARCHY.
Diforders attendant on fuch an eleSUon.
to

TLletVion

is

intended either

provide a

man of great
the fecond.

or of moderate talents,

Confequences

of

ihefirfi

of

Can

ekSlime and hereditary monarchy be

combined'^

435

CHAP. viir. OF LIMITED MONARCHY.

Liable
to

mofl of the preceding objeSiions

to

farther objeSfions pecu"

that the king
hnpoffibility

liar to itfelf

Refponfbility

conjidered.

can do no vurong.

Fundi

io?is

of a limited monarch.

Maxim,

maintaining the neutrality required.

'Refponjibility

of min'fters

ance
the

its difficulties.

Appeiniment Strength and weaknefs of

ofminiflers, its import-

Of

of

the difniffion

of miniliers.

Recapitulation.

human fpecies.

441

H A
that

P.

IX.

OF A PRESIDENT WITH REGAL POWERS.

^Enumeration of powers

of appointing

to

inferior offices

pardoning

offences

of convoking

of

deliberative affemblies

of

affix-

ing a veto

to their

CONTENTS.
decrees.

Condufion.

T'he title

of king

ejii^

mated. Monarchical and

effects.
^

arijlocraticalJyjiems, Jimilarity

of their

Page 454

CHAP. X. OF HEREDITARY DISTINCTION.

Birth confidered as a phyfical caufe
ileal efimate

as a moral caufe.

Ariftocrathe great.

of the human fpecles.

Education of
XI.

Recapitulation.

461

H A

P.

MORAL EFFECTS OF ARISTOCRACY.

Importance of praEllcal jujilce.
creates.

Species

of Injujilce which arljiocracy

Efimate of

the injury produced.

Examples,

468

CHAP. XII. OF TITLES.

'^helr

origin

and

hlfory.

'Their mlferable

ahfurdlty,

Truth

the

only adequate

reward of merit.

474
XIII.

CHAP.
Intolerance of arlfiocracy

OF THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER,

dependentfor

Its fuccefs

upon the Ignorance

fipport.
:

of the multitude.

Precautions necejfary for

its

Its

Differvirtues

ent kinds of arljiocracy.

Arljiocracy of the Ro?nans

lis

CONTENTS.
Its vices. Artftocratkal
by which
it

difirlbulion

of propertyregulations
it

is

maintainedavarice

engenders. Argument
airs of

againjl innovation
confidfred.

from

Conchfwn.

the prefent happy eftablijhment of

Vzzt 478

CHAP.
Defnition.Suppofed
evils

XIV.

GENERAL FEATURES OF DEMOCRACY.

of
this form

of governmentafcendancy

of

the

ignorant of the craftyinconfancyrafj confidence

groundlefs fufpicion.Merits

and defers of democracy compared,

Its moral tendency. Tendency of truth.Reprefentation, 489

CHAP. XV. OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.

Importance of this
ment.
,

topicExample

in the doSlrine

of eternal punijhthe ?tature

Its inutility

argued from hiforyfrom

of

mind. Second
fyfem.lhis

example: the religious fanBion of a

is,

legiflative

idea

i. in

friSl confru5lion impraaicablez.

principle

injurious. Third example

no
ejfential

ofpolitical order. Vice has

to the

advantage over virtue.Impojiure unnecejfary

caufe ofjujlicenot adapted to the nature

of man.

409,

CHAP. XVI. OF THE CAUSES OF WAR.

Offenfive

war

contrary to the nature of democracy. Befenfive

war
to

exceedingly

rare.Enoneoufnefs of the

ideas commonly

annexed

the-

CONTENTS.
the phrafe, our country.
caufes of war
the

Nature of war
tertnination

delineated.

Tnfufficknt

acquiring a healthful vigorous the putting a upon private public mind

a}id

tone to the

infults

the

menaces or preparations of our neighbours

fequences of concefion.

the

dangerous con-

'Two

legitimate caufes

of war. Page 51

The

repelling

CHAP. XVII. OF THE OBJECT OF WAR. an invader. Not reformation

not reflraijit

not tn~

demnification.

Nothing

can be a fufficieni oijeSi of

it,

war

that

is

not

fufficient caufe

for hegiiining

Refle5lio7is on the bala?ice

ofpower.,

521

OF
Offenfive
:

CHAP. XVIII. THE CONDUCT OF WAR.

operations.

Fortifications.

General

aElion.

Stratagem.

Capture of Military Foreign Military war. Humanity.

contributions.

mercantile

-veffels,

Naval
526

obedience.

pojfejjions.

CHAP.
ji country

XIX.

OF MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS AND TREATIES.

may
look

for

its

defence either to

a funding army or an
latter objeSied

The former condemned. The of immoral Of Of a commander. courage

univerfal militia.
to as

tendency

as Uftnecejfary
_

either

in refpe5l to

or difcipline.

treaties.

534

CHAP.

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
XX.

OF DEMOCRACY AS CONNECTED WITH THE TRANSACTIONS OF WAR.

External chairs are of fubordinate conjtderation.

^application.

Farther objedliom
-'this proved to be
3. too precipitate.

to

democracy

an

excellence

i. // is

incompatible nioithfecrecy

2. its

movements are

iooJl.oiv

Evils of anarchy conjidered.

Page 542

CHAP.
Houfes of ajfembly.

XXI.

OP THE COMPOSITION OF
the proper antidote.
conjidered.

GOVERNMENT.

This

injlitution unjujl.

Deliberate proceeding

Separation of legiflative

and

executive power

Superior

importance (f the

latter.

FunSlions

of

minijlers.

j-jo

CHAP.
^antity of adminijlration necefary
minifiration
I
.

XXIT.

OF THE FUTURE HISTORY OF POLITICAL SOCIETIES.

to be

maintained.

national glory

rivaljhip

of

nations.

Objects

of ad:

Inferences

complication of government unnecejfary

fiiperfiuQUs

police

3. cotflraint, its limitations.

Proje^ of
'

2. cxtcn/ive territory

governinetit:

defence.

558

CHAP.

CONTENTS.
CHAP. XXIII. OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLIES.

They

-produce

a fiSiUous unanimity

an

unnatural uniformity of

opinion.
declfion

Caufes of
by vote

this uniformity. -Confequences of the mode of

-i.

perverfon of reafon

2.

conteMious dlfputes
Society Incapable

-3.

the triumph

of Ignorance and

vice.

of

-acting from Itfelf-

of being well conducted by others.

from

Concltifton.

-Modification of democracy that refults

thefe confderatlons^

Page56S

CHAP.
'

XXIV.

OF THE DISSOLUTION OF GOVERNMENT.

of a national affembly

Political authority

-of jurles.^-Confequenctt

fropi the IVhole.

c^4

BOOIi

CONTENTS.

BOOK

VI.

OF OPINION CONSIDERED AS A SUBJECT OF POLITICAL INSTITUTION.

CHAP.

I.

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

Arguments
in

favour of this fuper'mtendence.

Anfwer. The
i
.

exer^

tions offociety in its corporate capacity are^

unwife

2. inca-

pable of proper

effeSl,

rewards.
in

Of fumptuary

laws, agrarian laws

and

Political degeneracy not incurable.

in fpeculative enquiry

commerce
as

undermimng

intelleSfual capacity
to the

3. fuperfiuous

in morality.

/\..

pernicious

as fufpending intelledlual

improvement

contrary

nature of morality

to

the nature

of inind.Conclufon.

,^ ^^^

^^_
II.

Page 5 8

CHAP.
57^1?/^

OF RELIGIOUS E.STABLISHMENTS.
general tejuicncy.

Effetls on the clergy

:

they introduce,

i.

implicit faith
is vindicated.

2. hypocrify

topics by

which an adherence
Application.

to the'fn

EfeSis

on the laity.
c 2

603

li

P,

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
iir.

OF THE SUPPRESSION OF ERRONEOUS OPINION IN RELIGION AND GOVERNMENT.

Of herejy,
tuous.

viended.

-Arguments by which Ignorance

Anfijoer.

the fupprejjion of herefy

is

recomvir-

not necejfary to

make men

Difference of

opinion not fubverfive

of

public fecurity.

Reafon,

and

not force, the proper correSiive

to rejirain

of fophijtry,

Ab'
of the

furdity of the attempt

thought

to

refrain the freedom

of fpeech.

Confequences that
authority
Iniquity
is

would

refult.

Fallibility

men by whom
government.

exercifed.

Of
to

erroneous opinions in

of the attempt

refrain them.

'Tendency

of unlimited political

difcuJJion>.

Page 6.1a

H A P. IV. OF TESTS.
C
Their fuppofed advantages are attended with
tory .-lllujlration.' Their
injujlice

advantages dif
are

they

enfnare

fecond exampkthey ample

iefs on the latitudinarian

an

ufurpation.

on

the puriji,

are nuga^ of
ex--

Influence

Conclufon,

623

HA

P.

V.

Oaths of

office

OF OATHS. and duty. Their abfurdlty. Their

Iefs atrocious,

immoral

confe^

quences. Oaths of evidence

Oplnionof

the liberal

and

CONTENTS.
and refohed refpedfing them.
veracity falfe
principles

^heir

eJfenUalfeatures', contempt

of

morality.

Their
to

particular fruSiure.

Abjlrail
with
6t,i

ajfumed by them

be triu,

Their

inconjijfency

thefe principles.

Page

CHAP.
O F
Public
libels.

vr.

B E

L
to

S.

Injufiice

of an attempt

prefcribe the method in

Its

which public quefionsfxall

taiions to

be difcuJeJ.
libels.

pufllanmity.

Invi'

tumult.

being fubjedied to refraint.

Private Jnfwer.
effedls

Reafons in favour of their

i. // is

necejfarythe truth

J:ould be

told.

of character.

Salutary
QbjeSfion
not

of

the unrejlrained invefigction

freedom of fpecch would be frodu^ivc

of calumny^
2, It
is

of jujlice.

Anfwer.Future
of a

hiftory

necejfary

men fhould

be taught to be fiticere.
to be injincere.
libel.

the evil

which arifesfom a command

Extent of The mind

of

libel.

fhontaneoujly prinks from

the profecution

Conclujion.

CHAP.
DiliinBion of regulations conjiituent

VIL

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
and
legijlative.:

Suppofed cha-

raUtr of permanence that ought

fiRent

to

be given to the former

the error.

Jhfurdity

with of man. Source of ofthefyflem of permanence.

the nature

Remark.

incon-

Its futility.

Mode

to

he

purfuccl

CO N T
purfued
In framing

NT

S.

conjiitution.

Conflltuent

laws not more

mu

portant than others.

is to

In what manner
'tendency of
the

the confent

of the

dijlrlSls

be declared.

the principle

which

requires this

confent. //

would reduce

number of

confitutional articles
the

parcel out the legijlative

tinSiion

power

of law.

ObjeSlion.

and produce Anfwer.

gradual eX"

Page 652

CHAP. VIII. OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.

Arguments
opinion.
in its

favour.

Anfwer,

i. It

Nature of
government.

produces permanence of
defcribed.

prejudice

and judgment

2. // re-

quires uniformity of
natiojial

operation.

The
C

It

is

the mirror

mid

tool

of

right of punj/lnng not founded in the

previousfunSiion of inftrudiing.

665
P.

HA

IX.

OF PENSIONS
tion

AND SALARIES.
in its ufual acceptaeffeSls

Reafons by which they are vindicated. Labour

and labour for

the public compared.

Immoral

i)i/litutionof falarics.

Source from may

of the

which

they are derived.

Unnecejfaryfor thefubffcnce of the publicfunBionaryfor dignity.

Salaries of inferior
officers

alfo he fuperfeded.

taxation.

Salifications.

Syr

CHAP.

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
X.

OF THE MODES OF DECIDING A QUESTION ON THE PART OF THE COMMUNITY.

Decijion by
lot,
its

founded origin
defertion

in

the fyfiem

of difcretionary

rights implies the

of duty.

Decifion by ballot

incul-

cates timidity- and hypocrify. ^'Decifion by vote^ its

tions.

recommenda-

Page 683

BOOK
OF CRIMES

VII.

AND PUNISHMENTS,
CHAP.
I.

LIMITATIONS OF

THE DOCTRINE OF PUNISHMENT WHICH RESULT FROM THE PRINCIPLES OF MORAUTY.

Definition ofpunijhment.

independent
nature.

and

abfolute

Nature

of crime.

Retributive jujlice not

noi to be vindicated

from

the fyjlem

Deferta

chimerical property.

Conclufon,.

687

6,

CHAP.

t:ONTENTS,
C

HA

P.

II.

GENERAL DISADVANTAGES OF COERCION.

Confclence in

m utters
own

of

religion conjidered

In the conduSi

of life,

Bsjl praSlicable criterion but of our

various
clajfts

of duty underfanding,-

not the decifon of other

'Tendency

of

coercion.

men

Its

confdered.

Page 696

CHAP.
Ntjfure of defence conjidered.
tion.

III.

OF THE PURPOSES OF COERCION.

Coercion for rejiraintfor reformadefeSlive

unnecejfary.

Suppofed

Coercion for
coercion arifes

The nugatory. example

ufes

of adverfty
i.

necejjity

of

political

from

the defeats

of political inflitution,

z. unjuji,

Unfeeling charadier of this pedes of coercion.

705

HA

P.

IV.

OF THE APPLICATION OF COERCION.

Delinquency and coercion incommenfurable.
fubjeSl of criminal animadverfon.
Iniquity of this Jlandard in

External
in

action no proper

How far

capable of proof

a moral and

political

view.

Propriety of a retribution
offender

to

be meafured by the intention

project

of the

confdered. Such a
abolifj coercion.

would overturn
1.

criminal

law

would

Infcrut ability^

of motives.

Doubtcondudl

fulnefs of hifory.

Declarations of fujferers.

2.

of the future

conduSl of the offender

faSis

or the intention,

CONTENTS. of Difadvantages of
uncertainty

evidence

either

of the a
cri-

the defendant in

minalfuit.

Page 7 1

HA

P.

V.

OF COERCION CONSIDERED AS A TEMPORAP.Y EXPEDIENT.

Arguments
in its

favour.

Anfwer.

// cannot fit

men for a

better

order offociety.'The true remedy to private injujlice defcribed

is

adapted

to

immediate praSiice.
individuals,

refpeSl.

Duty of

Duty of

the community in this

of

individual defence,

chy ~ want of fecurity

difadvantages
prejjes the

Difadvantages of anarof progreffve

Application,
enquiry,

Illuflrationfrom the cafe of war

Correfpondent

of defpQtifm.'--Anarchy awakens^

defpotifni

de-

mind,

Final

refult

of anarchyhow

determined.

Suppofed purpofes of coercion

in

a temporary view

reformation

example

reflraint,

Conclufon,

727

CHAP. vr. SCALE OF COERCION.

Its Jphere defcribed,

Death

abfolutely,

political injlitutions

^ poral puni/hment

Its

feveral

claffes,

Origin of this policy

in the inhumanity

Death
in

with

torture.

of

the corruptnefs

of

the infiitutors,

Cortion

Its abfurdity.

Its atrocioufnefs,

Privation of

freedom, Duty of reforming our neighbour an

inferior confdera-

'

ijon in

this cafe.

criminate df

imprifonment.
effects.

Its

moral

Pint.z.

'Tranfportation.

mifcarried frotn
evils.

CONTENTS. Modes of projeB has permanent from

Its

place defined.

reflraint.

In-

Solitary imprifonment.

Its feverity.

Slavery.

Baniflment.

i.

Simple hanifh-

3.

Colonifation,

'This

unlindnefs

qfficioufnefs.

Its

Recapitulation.

Page 745

CHAP. VII. OF EVIDENCE.

Difficulties to

which

this fuhjedi

is

liable

exemplified

in the dif-

tiniion between overt adiions and

intentions.

Reafons

againfi

this difiinSlion.

Principle in which

it is founded.

760^

CHAP. VIIL OF LAW.

Arguments by which
it is

recommended.

Jlnfwer.

l^aw

is,

r.

Endlefs particularly 3. Uncertain.-

in afreeftate.

Caufes of this difadvantage.

Itfiajiced in quefions

of property.

Mode
opinion

in.

which

it

mufl be jiudied.

3. Prete7ids to foret el future events.

haws

are a pedes of promifes

checli the

are deJlruSiive of the principles of reafm.

freedom of
Difloonefiy

of lawyers,
vindicated'

An

honefi

lawyer mifchicvous.

Abolition of

law

on the core

Future hi

commencement.-

from of wifdom of candour Errors y for of gradual

political jtiftice.
Its

the nature

of man. arife

that might
effeuls

in the

progrefs.

Its

on,

criminal

law.

on property^.

764:

CONTENTS.
C

HA

P.

IX.

OF PARDONS.
Their abfurd'ity,
charaSier.

Their origin.

Their abufes,-Their arbitrary

Dejirudlive of morality.

Page 781

BOOK
OF

VIII.

PROPERTY
CHAP.
I.

GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY DELINEATED.

Importance of this topie.Abiifes
Criterion
to

which

it

has been expofed.

of property

jtijlice.

'Entitles-

each

man

to the

fupply
it

of his animal wants as far as the

to the
effects

getter al

means of well being.

on the individual

fock will

afford

Eftimate of luxury. ^Its pernicious

who

partakes of
confidered,

it.

Idea of labour as

the foundation of property

Syjiem of popular morality on thisfubjeSi.

Its

unreafonablenefs.~~-

Defecls of that fyjlem.

787

d 2

CHAP.

CONTENTS.
CHAP.
BENEFITS ARISING
II.

FROM THE GENUINE SYSTEM

confijl'ing

OF PROPERTY.
Contrajled with the mi/chiefs of the prefent fyjiem^ as

Jn a fenfe of dependence,
leading
their

i.

2.

In the perpetual fpeSlacle of injufi'icey

men

ajiray in their defires

and

judgments. The

perverting the integrity of

rich are the true pen/toners,

3. In the

difcouragement of intelleSlual attainments.

tion

4. In the jnultipUca-

of vice

generating

the crimes of the poor

the paffions of the

rich

and

the misfortunes of war.

5. In depopulation.

Page 799

CHAP.

iir.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM THE ADMIRABLE EFFECTS OF LUXURY.

Mature of the
ohjedlion.

Luxury

not necejfary

either to population

or to the improvement of the mi?id.

Its true

chara^er.

%'ijs^

CHAP.

IV.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM THE ALLUREMENTS OF SLOTH.

The
objectionfated.

Such a fate

offociety

by great

intelleSlual

improvement.

The manual

muf have been preceded

labour required

in this fate
d'fiinSlion,

will be extremely fnall,

Univrfality

of the love of
.

Operation of this motive under the Jyfem in quefion

better motive,.

'willfinally befuperfeded by a

818

CONTENTS*
CHAP.
V.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF ITS BEING RENDERED PERMANENT.
Grounds of the
trodudiion
jujlice
objeSi'ion.

lis ferlous

import.

Anfwer.
i. to

'The in-

of fuch a fyfem muf

be

owing,

a deep fenfe of

2. to

clear injight

into the

nature of happinefs

being properly intelleSiual

the pleafures

not conffting in fenfual pleafure

as or

of

delufon,

Irifluence of the pajjions

confdered.

Men

will not accumulate either from

individual forefght

or

from .vanity

Page 829

CHAP.

VL

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM THE INFLEXIBILITY OF ITS RESTRICTIONS.

Nature of the
ed
objection.

Natural and

called.

tnoral independence diftingui/Jj^

the firji

beneficial

the fecond injurious.

firiSiion properly

fo

The genuine fyftem of

common
abfurd

Te?idency of rc-

property not a

fyflem of refriSiions

does not require

labour^ meals or

magazines.

Such

refiriSlions

and

unnecejfary.

of

cooperation.

Its province

may

perpetually be diminijhed.
aEiiviiy

Evils
inIts

Manual
ielleci.

labour
Ideas

legitimate province.

oppofe the

Confequent of future fate of of Evils of and marriage. They are devehpement of our
may
be extinguifoed.
the
cooperation.
Its limits.

cohabitation

otir

faculties

inimical to

hap^nefs.

CONTENTS.
happinefs

and deprave

our underjiand'mgs.

Marriage a
a

branch

of the prevailing fyjlem ofproperty.

Confequences of its abolition.

Education
infltuiion.
affetiion

need not in that fate offockty he afubjei of poftlve

'Thefe principles do not lead to

fullen individuality

Partial attachments confidered.

Benefits accruing from

ajuf

jnaterlally

promoted by

thefe principles.

T^he genuine

fyjlem ofproperty does not prohibit accumulation^'impUes a certain

degree of appropriation

and

dlvifon of labour.

P^ge 839

CHAP.

VII.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM THE

PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION.
"The ohjeSiion fated.
j-efpeEilng

the antidote.

Remotenefs of Omnipotence
its

operation.

of mind.

ConjeSlural Ideas
Illufrations.

Caufes of decrepitude.
clearnefs

Touth

Is

prolonged by chearfulnefs
charadier.
EffeSis

by

of apprehenfon and

a benevolent

T^'he

powers

we pofefs are

efmtially progrejjive.

of

attention,

'T'he

phenomenon of feep explained.

Prefent

utility

of

thefe

reafonings.

Application to the future Jlate offoclety.

860

CHAP.

VIII.

OF THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

Apprehenfons that are cntertair.ed on
this fuhjcEi.

ldea_

ofmajfacre.

Inference we
3

ought

to

make upon fuppftlon of

^

the reality

of

thefe

thefe apprehenjions.

on improvement,

CONTENTS. Mif means Duties under

chief by no

the necejfary attendant

i.

this circumjiance,

Of

thofe

who

are qualified for public infruclors

effeSls

temper

fncerity,

Pernicious
great,

of diffimulation

in this cafe.

2.

Many

Of the

rich

and

ofthe7n

may

be expelled to be advocates

ConduSl which
equality.

of equality,
3.

their inter

friends of equality in general.

of a mild and benevolent proceeding.

Caufe of

equality will perpetually

Of Omnipotence of Importance between and advance. Symptoms

ef as a body prefcribes.
truth,

the

Connexion

liberty

of its progrefsIdea of its future fuccefs,^Conclufion,

Page 873,


A N

ENQUIRY
CONCERNING

POLITICAL JUSTICE.
B O O

V.

OF LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE POWER.

CHAP. INTRODUCTION.
I.

RETROSPECT OF PRINCIPLES ALREADY ESTABLISHED.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE

REMAINING SUBJECTS.
BE ADOPTED.

SUB-

JECT OF THE PRESENT BOOK.

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT.
work
the ground has been

METHOD OF EXAMINATION TO

IN the preceding
explicitnefs
ftitution.

divifions of this

BOOK
CHAP.
*^

v.
I
''

fufficiently cleared to enable us to proceed with confiderable

Retrofpeft of

and
It

fatisfadtion to the praftical detail

of

political in-

principles al-

ready efta-

has appeared that an enquiry concerning the prinIbcial intercourfe is the

blifhed.

ciples

and condudl of
the

moll important

to-

pic

upon which

mind of man can be

ill

exercifed *; that

upon

thofe principles well or

conceived, and the manner in which

they are executed, the vices and virtues of individuals depend'*;

* Book
I.

that

38o

OF LEGISLATIVE AND
V.
I.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
'^

that political Inilitution to be e;ood '^ ^

In the rules of

muft have

its

fole

foundation

immutable juftice*; and that thofe

rules, unlforn^

in their nature^ are equally applicable to the

whole human race f

Dilln'bution

The

different topics

of

political inftitutlon

cannot perhaps be

maining fub-

more perfplcuoufly
heads
:

diftributed

than under the four following;

provlfions for general adminiftratlon

provifions for the

;

intellectual

and moral improvement of individuals

;

provifions

for the adminlftration of criminal juftice

and provifions^for the

it

regulation of property.

Under each

of thefe heads

wift be

our

bufmefs, in proportion as

we

adhere to the great and compre-

henfive principles already eftabliihed, rather to clear

away

abufes

than to recommend farther

and more

precife regulations, rather

all

to fimplify than to complicate.

that

Above

we

(hould not forget,

government

is

an

evil,

an ufurpation upon the private judg-

ment

and individual confcience of

be obliged to admit
us, as the friends
it

mankind

and

that,

however

we may
it

as a neceflary evil for the prefent,,

behoves

of reafon and the

human

fpecies, to

admit

as little

of

it

as poffible,

and carefully to obferve whether,,

in confequence of the gradual illumination of the that

little

human mind,

may

not hereafter be diminifhed.

Subjea of

And

firft

we

are to confider the different provifions that

may

book!'^"

be made for general adminlftration; including under the phrafe

*

Book

II,

Chap.

II.

t Book

I,

Chap. VII, VIII.

Book

Illj'.Chap. VII.

genera!

EXECUTIVE POWER,
eeneral adminiftratlon
all

381

that (hall be

found neceflary of what ^

^

EOOK
CHAP.

v.
I.
*

has ufually been denominated legillatlve and executive power.

Legiflation has already appeared to be a term not applicable to hu-

man

fociety*.

Men

cannot do more than declare and interpret law;

nor can there be an authority fo paramount, as to have the prerogative of

juftice

making

that to be law,
lav,-

which

abftra(fl

and immutable

had not made to be

previoufly to that interpofjtion.

But

it

might notwith {landing

this

be found necelTlu-y, that there

fhould be an authority empowered to declare thofe general principles,

by which the equity of the community

will be regulated,

in particular cafes

upon which

it

may

be compelled to decide.
this neceffity
it

The
is

queilion concerning

tlie reality

and extent of

proper to referve for after confideratioo.

Executive power

confifts of

two very

diftindt parts

general deliberations relative

is

to particular emergencies, which, fo far as practicability

con-

cerned,

may

be exercifed either by one individual or a body of

v.-ar,

individuals, fuch as peace and

taxation f, and the fclecflion

:

of proper periods for convoking deliberative affemblies

ticular functions, fuch as thofe

and par-

of financial

detail,

or minute fu-

perintendence, which cannot be exercifed unlefs by one or at

moft by a fmall number of perfons.

In revievN^ing thefe feveral branches of authority, and confidering the perfons to
* Book
-j-

Forms of government.

whom they may

be moft properly confided,

we

III,

Chap. V.
branch of executive government,
fince
it

I ftate the article of taxation as a

is

not, like law or the declaration of law, a promulgating of fonie general prin-

ciple,

but

is

temporary regulation for fome particular emergence.

cannot

382

OF LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE POWER.

V.
I.

BOOK
CHAP.

cannot do better than adopt the ordinary diftrlbution of forms of r /

government

into

monarchy, arifcocracy and democi-acy.

Under

each of thefe heads

refpetive principles,
their ftanding

we may
firft

enquire into the merits of their

abfolutely,

and upon the hypcthefis of

;

fmgly for the whole adminiftration

and fecondly,
one

in a limited view,

upon the fuppofiticn of

their conftituting
It is

branch only of the fyftem of government.

incident to

ufually alike

them

all

to confide the minuter branches of executive

detail to inferior agents.

One

thing

more it

is

neceffary to premife.

The

merits of each

of the three heads! have enumerated

tively.

are to be confidered negaare the refult of their

The

corporate duties of

mankind

irregularities

and

follies

in
if

their individual capacity.

If they

had no imperfection, or
fufnciently
fociety

men were
funtions.

fo conftituted as to

be

and fufEciently early corrected by perfuafion alone,

ceafe

would

from

its

Of

confequence, of the
that
is

three forms of

government and

their compofitions

the

beft, vv?hich fhall leaft

impede the adivity and application of our

It

intelledual powers.
I

was

in the recolledion of this truth that

have preferred the term

political inftitution to that

of governof rhat
fall,

ment, the former appearing to be

relative form,

fufficiently exprefTive

whatever

it

be, into

which

individuals

would

vrhen there

was no need of force

to direft

them

into their pro-

per channel, and were no refractory members to correct.

4.

CHAP

3^3

CHAP.

II.

OF EDUCATION, THE EDUCATION OF A PRINCE.

SCHOOL OF ADNATURE OF MONARCHY DELINEATED. VERSITY. TENDENCY OF SUPERFLUITY TO INSPIRE EFTO DEPRIVE US OF THE BENEFIT OF EXPEFEMINACY
RIENCE

ILLUSTRATED
IN "WHICH

IN

THE CASE OF PRINCES.

MANNER

THEY ARE ADDRESSED.

INEFFICACY
fuppofe the ^ In this cafe
.

OF THE INSTRUCTION BESTOV/ED UPON THEM.

IRST
we have
guifhed

then of monarchy ^

and we will

firfl:

BOOK V.
CHAP.
"^

fucceffion to the

monarchy

to be hereditary.

-^

II.

the additional
mortal,

advantage of confidering this diftinthus

fet

who

is

over the heads of the

reft

of his

fpecies,

from the period of

his birth.

The

abftradl idea of a

king
;

is

of an extremely momentous

Nature of monarcliy
delineated.

and extraordinary nature

and, though the idea has by the

accident of education been rendered familiar to us

from our

infancy, yet perhaps the majority of readers can recollect the

period,
their

when

it

ftruck

them with aftonifhment and confounded

It

powers of apprehenfion.
fpecies of

being fufficiently evident that

fome

government was

neceflary,

and that individuals

muft

384

OF EDUCATION,
^^'^^ concede a part of that facred
'

ChTp n
'

and important privilege by

''~

which each man

is

conftituted judge of his

it

own words and

requifite to

adions, for the fake of general good,

confider

was next

what expedisnts might be

fubftituted in the

room of

this original claim.

It

One

of thefe expedients has been monarchy.

individuality

was the

intereft

of each individual that his

;

fhould be invaded as rarely as poffible

that

no invafion fhould

be permitted to flow from wanton caprice, from fmlfter and

difmgenuous views, or from the inftigation of anger,

partiality

and paffion
of each
frugality

and that

this

bank, feverely levied upon the peculium

member of
and

the fociety, fliould

It

be adminiftered with
a very

difcretion.

was therefore without doubt

bold adventure to

commit

this precious depofit to the

cuftody of

^ fmgle man.

If

we

contemplate the

human powers whether of

better fuited to the fuper-

body or mind, we

ihall find

them much

intendence of our private concerns and to the adminiftering occafional affiftance to others, than to the accepting the formal truil

of fuperintending the
millions.

affairs

and watching for the happinefs of

and moral equality of
this prinreft

If
it

we

recolledl the phyfical

mankind,

will appear a

very violent ufurpation upon

at fo vaft

ciple to place

one individual

an interval from the

of his

fpecies.

Let us then confider

how

fuch perfons are ufual-

ly educated, or

may

be expedled to be educated, and

this illuftrious office.

how

well

they are prepared for

Sciiool of adverfity.

It is

common

opinion that adveruty

is

the fchool in

which

all

extraordinary

THE EDUCATION OF A PRINCE.

extraordinary virtue mufl be formed.

385
of of of

Henry

the fourth
feries

^29? Tf
*

France and Elizabeth of England experienced a long

calamities before they

'

were elevated

to a throne.

Alfred,

whom

the obfcure chronicles of a barbarous age record fuch fu-

perior virtues, pafled

through the

viciffitudes

of a vagabond and

a fugitive.

Even

the mixed, and

upon

the whole the vicious,

yet accomplifhed, charadlers of Frederic and Alexander, were

not formed without the interference of injuftice and perfecution.

This hypothefis however feems to have been pufhed too

It is

far.

no more reafonable
injuftice,

to fuppofe that virtue cannot be

matured

without

than to believe, which has been another pre-

vailing opinion, that

human

happinefs cannot be fecured with-

out impofture and deceit.

fource, a diftruft of the
cates

Both thefe

eiTors
truth.

have a com.mon
If their' advo-

omnipotence of

had

refiedled

more deeply upon the nature of the human

all

mind, they would have perceived that

our voluntary adlions

that

are judgments of the underftanding, and

adions of the
flow from a real

inoft judicious

and

ufeful nature
truth.

muft

infallibly

and genuine convidion of

But, though the exaggerated opinion here ftated of the ufeful- Tendency
nefs of adverlity be erroneous,
errors, allied to important truth.
it

of

fiipeifluity
-i

it

is,

like

many

other of our

toinfpireef-

feminacy

If adverfity be not neceflary,

is

muft be allowed that profperity

philofophical profperity,

pernicious.
requires

Not

a genuine

and

which

no more than found

health

386

OF EDUCATION,
health with a found intelledt, the capacity of procuring for ourfelves

by a moderate and well regulated induftry the means of

virtue
that

fubfiftence,

and wifdom
is,

but profperity as

it is

ufually

underllood,
caprice of

competence,

provided for us by the

human

inftitution, inviting
;

our bodies "to indolence,^

and our minds to lethargy

and

ftill

more

profperity, as
is,

it is

underftood in the cafe of noblemen and princes, that

fluity

a fuper-

of wealth, which deprives us of

all

intercourfe with our

fellow

men upon

equal terras, and makes us prifoners of ftate,

gratified indeed

with baubles and fplendour, but fhut out from

If truth

the real benefits of fociety and the perception of truth.

be fo intrinfically powerful as to make adverfity unneceflary to

excite our attention to
it, it is

neverthelefs certain that luxury

and wealth have the moft

require

fatal

efFeds in diftorting
energies,

it.

If

it

no foreign

aid to

affift its

we

ought however to

be upon our guard againft principles and fituations the tendency

of wliich may be perpetually to counteract

it.

Nor
virtue

is is

this

all.

One of
It

the moft eflential ingredients of

fortitude.

was the plan of many of the Grecian

all

philofophers, and moft of

of Diogenes, to fhow to mankind

neceflities required,

how

very limited was the fupply that our

little

and how

dependent our

real welfare

and profperity w^ere

upon the

caprice of others.

Among

innumerable incidents upon

a fingle one

record that

illuftrate this principle,

its

may

fuffice

to

fuggeft to our minds

general

fpirit.

Diogenes had a flave

whofe

THE EDUCATION OF
occafion to elope.
Jive

A PRINCE.
"can Menas
without
that

387

whofe name was Menas, and Menas thought proper upon fome

BOOK v.
*

"Ha!"

faid the philofopher,

live

'

without Diogenes, and cannot Diogenes

Me-

nas ?"
is

There can be no

leflbn

more important than

which

thus conveyed.
at the

The man

that does not

know

himfelf not to

be

mercy of other men,

all

that does not feel that

is

he

is

in-

vulnerable to
ftant

the viciffitudes of fortune,

incapable of a con-

and

inflexible virtue.

He,

to

whom

the reft of his fpecies

can reafonably look up with confidence, muft be firm, becaufe

his

mind
J

is

filled

with the excellence of the objedl he pur-

fues

and

chearful, becaufe
to injure

he knows that
If

it is

out of the power

to

of events

him.
is

any one fhould choofe

all

imagine

that this idea

of virtue

ftrained too high, yet

muft allow
trembles at

that

no man can be

entitled to

our confidence,

who

every wind,
exiftence
is

who

can endure no adverfity, and whofe very

artificial

linked to the

charadler he fuftalns.

Nothing
if

can more reafonably excite our contempt, than a

man who,

he were once reduced

to the

genuine and fimple condition of

man, would be reduced

to defpair,

and find himfelf incapable of

fubfiftence.

confulting and providing for his

own

Fortitude

is

a habit of mind that grows out of a fenfe of our

pendence.
If there be a

own

indehis

man, who dares not even

truft

own

imagination with the fancied change of his circumftances,

neceflarily

he muft

be effeminate, irrefolute and temporifing.

He

that loves fenfuality or oftentation better than virtue,

may

be

entitled to our pity, but a

madman

only would entruft to his

difpoCU any thing that was dear to him.

3

Again,

OF EDUCATION,
Again, the only means by which truth, however immutable
in
its

own

nature, can be
inlet

communicated
It
is

to the

human mind

is

through the

of the

fenfes.

perhaps impoffible that a

If

man

fhut

up

in

a cabinet can ever be wife.

we would

acquire knowledge,

we muft open

our eyes, and contemplate

tlie

the univerfe.

Till

we

are acquainted with

us,

meaning of terms
cannot underftand
Till

and the nature of the objedls around

the proportions that

we

may

be formed concerning them.

we
and

are acquainted with the nature of the objedls around us,

we can-

not compare them with the principles

we have

formed,,

underftand the modes of employing them.

There are other

of adver-

ways of
fity,

attaining
is

wifdom and
no vvay of

ability befide the fchool

but there

attaining
is,

them but through the

in

medium of

experience.

That

experience brings
;

the

materials with

which intelled works

for

it

muft be granted that

man

of limited experience will often be more capable than he

;

who

has gone through the greateft variety of fcenes

or rather

perhaps, that one

man may

colled more experience in a fphere

of a few miles fquare, than another

world..

who

has failed round, the

To
long

conceive truly the value of experience

we muft

recoiled

the infinite improvements the

feries

human mind

has received in a
differs

of ages, and

how

an enlightened European

from a

folitary favage.

However multifarious

are thefe improve-

ments, there are but two ways in which they can be appropriated

by any
7

individual

either at fecond

hand by books and

converfation^

THE EDUCATIONOF
converfation, or at
things.
is

A PRINCE.
CHAP.
'

389
v.
II.
*

firft

hand by our own obfervations of men and I500K

in the
firft

The improvement we receive

;

of thefe modes

unlimited
till

but

it

will

not do alone.

We

cannot underftand
treat.

books,

we have
knows

feen the fubjets of

which they

He
in
its

that

the

mind of man, muft have obfcrved

it

it

for
it

himfelf ; he that

knows

rnoft intimately,

muft have obferved

it

greateft variety of fituations.

He

muft have feen

withits

out difguife,
paffions,

when no

exterior fituation puts a curb

upon

and induces the individual

to exhibit a fiudied, not a

Ipontaneous charailer.

He

muft have feen

men

in their

un-

guarded

moments,

when

the eagernefs of temporary refentfire,

ment

tips their

tongue with

when they

are animated and

dilated
deipair,

by hope, when they

are tortured and anatomifed

its

by

when

the foul pours out

Laftly,

inmoft

felf into the

bofom

of an equal and a friend.

he muft himfelf have been an

paffions brought into play,

aftor in the fcene, have had his

own

have

known

the anxiety
feel

of expectation and the tranfport of

as

fuccefs, or

he will

and underftand about

much of wha^

he

fees, as

mankind

in general

would of

the tranfadions of the

vitriolifed inhabitants

of the planet Mercury, or the falamanders

that live

in the fun.

Such

is

the education of the true philo-

fopher,

the

genuine politician, the friend

and benefadlor of

human

kind

What

is

the education of a prince

Its firft quality is

extreme

iikiflrated

i,

tendernels.

the cafe o princes.

J90
5t99S I CHAP. Y;
^~"~"''

O
tendernefs.
'

ED

U C A T I O N,
are not permitted to ^
his lacqueys

The winds of heaven

blow

r.

upon him.
lets.

He

is

drefled

and undrefled by
;

and va-

His wants
effort

are carefully anticipated

his defires without

is

any

of his profufely fupplied.

His health

of too

much

importance to the

community

to

permit him

to exert

any con-

fiderable effort either

of body or mind.
In
all

He
fome

muft not hear the

of
all

voice of reprimand or blame.

things
is,

it is firft

to

be

remembered

that he

is

a prince, that

rare

and precious

creature, but not of human kind.

Manner

As he

is

the heir to a throne,

it

is

never forgotten by thofe

is

which they
arc addreffcd.

about him, that confiderable importance

favour or his difpleafure.

to be

annexed

to his

Accordingly they never exprefs them-

felves in his prefence frankly

and

naturally, either refpedling

him

or themfelves.

They

are fupporting a part.

They
is

play under

a mafk.

Their

own

fortune and

emolument

always upper-

moft in

their minds, at the

fame time that they are anxious to

.fincere.

appear generous, difmterefted and

to be complied with.

All his caprices are

All his gratifications are to be ftudied.

j

They

find

him

a depraved and fordid mortal

they judge of his

appetites

and

capacities

by

their

own and
;

the gratifications they

recommend

ferve to fink

him deeper

in folly

and

vice.

What

is

the refult of fuch an education

Having never expe-

rienced contradidion, the

tuous.

young prince

is

arrogant and prefumpto the Haves

Having always been accuftomed

of neceffity

'

THE EDUCATION OF
fity '

A PRINCE.

391

or the flaves of choice, he does not underftand even the S<^OK v. '

CHAP.U.
'

meaning of the word freedom.

His temper

is

infolent,

and im-

patient of parley and expoftulation.

lieves himfelf fovereignly informed,

Knowing

nothing, he beinto dan-

and runs headlong

ger, not

from firmnefs and courage, but from the moft egregious

and
vanity.

wilfulnefs

Like Pyrrho among the ancient philo-

fophers, if his attendants were at a diftance, and he trufted himfelf alone in

the open
fall

air,

he would perhaps be run over by the

the
firft

next coach, or

down

precipice.

His violence and

prefumption are ftrikingly contrafted with the extreme timidity

of his difpofition.
difficulty feen

The

firft

oppofition terrifies him, the

firft

and underftood appears infuperable.

at the

He
is

trembles
diflblved

at a

fhadow, and
It

very femblance of adverfity

into tears.

has accordingly been obferved that princes are

commonly
Above

fuperftitious

beyond the

rate of

common

mortals.

all,

fimple, unqualified truth

;

is

a ftranger to his ear. It

a gueft fhould

cither never approaches

or

if fo

unexpeded

once

appear,

it

meets with fo cold a reception,

vifit.

as to afibrd little

encou-

ragement to a fecond
to falfhood

The

longer he has been accuftomed

will
it

and

flattery, the

more grating

found.
flattery,

The
the

longer

he has been accuftomed

to falfhood

and

more

terrible will the tafk

appear to him, to change his

taftes

and difcard
dence in
all

his favourites.

He

will either place a blind confi-

men,

or,

having deteded the infincerity of thofe

all

who were

moft agreeable to him, will conclude that

men

are

knavifh

59^

OF EDUCATION,
V.
^

BOOK
*

knavlfh and dcfignlng.

As

a confequence of this laft opinion,

he

will

become

indifferent to

mankind,

callous to their fufferings,

and will believe that even the virtuous are knaves under a craftier
mafk.

Such

is

the education of an individual,

who

is

deftined

to fuperintend the affairs

and watch for the happinefs of millions.

In

this

pidure are indeed contained

all

thofe features

which

naturally conftitute the education of a prince, into the

conduc-

ing of which no perfon of energy and virtue has

by acciden

been introduced.

In

real life

it

will be varioully modified, but

i

the majority of the features, unlefs in very rare inftances, will

remain the fame.

benefactor of

In no cafe can the education of a friend and

kind, as Iketched in a preceding page,

human

by

any

fpeculative contrivance be communicated.

Inefficacy of

Nor

is

there

any

difficulty in

accounting for this univerfal

tionbeftowed

mifcarriagc.

The

wifeft preceptor thus circumftanced

muft

la-

bour under infuperable difadvantages.

unnatural as that of a prince, fo

No

fituation can be fo

difficult to

be underftood by hini

who
The
ture.

occupies
firft

it,

fo irrefiftibly propelling the

mind
and

to miftake.
foporific na-

ideas

it

fuggefts are of a tranquillifmg

It fills

him with

the opinion of his fecretly poffeffing

fome
is

inherent advantage over the reft of his fpecies,

by which he
affure

formed

to

command and

they to obey.

If

you

him of

the contrary,
credit
;

you can exped only an imperfed and temporary

which
in this cafe depofe againft you, fpeak a

for fads,

language

THE EDUCATION
.language

OF A PRINCE.
than words.
If
it

39$
were

more emphatic and

Intelligible

not as he fuppofes,
eager to ferve

why
?

fhould every one that approaches be

fordid and felfifh motives
is

him

The

by which
It

they are really animated he

very

late in detecting.

may-

even be doubted whether the individual,

put the profeffions of others to the teft

who was

never led to

by

his real wants, has ia

little

any inftance been completely aware of the

often due to them.

credit that is

A prince

finds himfelf courted

and adored

long before he can have acquired a merit entitling him to fuch

diftindtions.

By what

arguments can you perfuade him labofo completely fuperfluous

?

rloufly to purfue
-ca;fi

what appears

How

you induce him

to be diflatisfied

with his prefent acquifitions,

that his accomplifliment
fagacity
?

while every oth^ perfon affures

are admirable

him

and

his

mind a mirror of
finds
all

How

wiR

you perfuade -him who

hi^ wifhes anticipated, to enobjciS;

gage in any arduous undertaking, or propofe any diftant

for his ambition
?

But, even fhould you fucceed In

:pe6led to
-is

this, his porfults

may

he ^x^

be either mifchievous or
;

ufelefs.

His underflanding

diftorted

and the

bafis

of

all

morality, the recolledion that

is

other
pated.

men
It

are beings of the

fame order with himfelf,

to expel

extirthing-

would be unreafonable

from him any

is,

generous and humane.

continually propelling
int^^rity

tTnfortunate as he
to vice,

his fituation is

him

and deftroying the germs of

If fenfibility be-

and virtue before they are unfolded.

'

gin

394

OF EDUCATION,
V.
'

BOOK
*

gJn to dlfcover

Itfelf, it is

immediately poifoned by the blighting

feilfuality call

winds of

flattery.

Amufement and

with an imArtificial as
it

perious voice, and will not allow

Is

him time

to feel.

the charader he the

artificial

fills,

even fliould he afpire to fame,

falfe

will be

by

methods of

refinement, or the barbarous ia-

ventions of ufurpation and conqueft, not by the plain and unor-

namented road of benevolence.

Some

idea of the m^ethods vifually purfued, and the

efFe<5ts

prolate

duced in the education of a prince,

publication of the celebrated
gives an account of her

may

be collected from a

madame

de Genlis, in which fhe

own

proceedings in relation to the chil-

dren of the duke d'Orleans.

their difpofition

She thus

defcribes the features

of

and habits

at the

time they were committed to

eldeft) is frequently coarfe

her care.
in his

" The duke de Valois (the

manners and ignoble

in his expreffions.

He

finds a great

deal

of humour
;

in defcribing

mean and common

objedts

by vul-

gar expreflions

and

all this

feafoned with the proverbial fertility

fet

of Sancho Panza himfelf, and

off with a loud forced laugh.

it

His prate

is

eternal,

nor does he fufped but that

muft be an
it ;

exquifite gratification to

any one
jeft

to be entertained with

and

he frequently heightens the

graveft
leaft:

by

a falfhood uttered in the

manner imaginable.

Neither he nor his brother has the

felfifh
is

regard for any body but himfelf; they are

and grafpfor

ing to an extreme, confidering every thing that

as their

done

them

due, and iiuagiaing that they are in no refped obliged

to

THE EDUCATION OF A PRINCE.

to confult the happinefs of others.

395
is

The

flightefl;

reproof

be-

^9PJ^ YCriA.r. II.

^

yond meafure fhocking

ceive at
it

to

them, and the indignation they conitfelf

'
^'

immediately vents

in fullcnnefs or tears.

They

are in an

uncommon

degree effeminate, afraid of the wind or

the cold, unable to run or to leap, or even fo

at a

much

as to

walk

round pace, or for more than half an hour together.

The

duke de Valois has an extreme

as to turn pale

terror of dogs, to fuch a degree

and fhriek out

at

the fight of one."

"

When

the

children of the duke d'Orleans were committed to

my

care, they

had been accuftomed in winter to wear under-waiftcoats, two

pair of ftockings, gloves, muffs,

&c.

The

eldeft,

who was

eight

years of age, never

came down

ftairs
;

without being fupported

by the arm of one or two perfons

to render

the domeftics were obliged

them the meaneft

fervices,

and, for a cold or any

flight indifpofition, fat

up with them

for nights together*."

Madame
*

" M.

de Valois a encore des

le

manures

bien defagreablesy des exprejjions ignobhs.,

qii^U cjl

^
me

de terns en terns

plus mativais ton.

A prcfent

foil

a'lfe

avec mot,

il

debite avec confiance toutes les gentilhjjes qii'on

Iti'i

a apprifes.

Tout

cela ajfaifonne de

tons les proverbes de Sancho, et d'un gros rire force, qui n'eji pas le moindre defes dcfa-

gremens.
vertir
;

En

outre, il ejl tres

bavard, grand conteur, l^

il

meiit fouvent

pour fe di-

avec cela la plus grande indifference pour

les

M.

^ Mde. de Chartres, n'y penfant

jamaii,
la plus

voyant froidement, ne diftrant point

impoliteffe,

les voir.

lis etoient

Pun l^ r autre

de

grande

oui

& non tout court, ou unfigne de

fans
les

the, peu reconnoiffant,

tie les

parce

qtiils croient qu'il n'ejl point defoins, d' attentions, ni

d'egards qu\n

doive.

11 n^ etoit pas pojfible de les reprendre

met ire au

defefpoir; dans ce cas, toujour

le

des

pkurs ou de I'humcur.

lis etoient

trh

douilleis, craignaiit le vent,

froid ne

3 '^ 2

pouvant.

. .

39i5

OF EDUCATION.
Madame
number of
de Genlis, a

woman

of

uncommon
infe<f]lcd

talents

and com*-

prehenfive views,

though herfelf

with a confiderable.

errors, correled thefe defeats in the

young

princes*

But few princes have the good fortune

fo powerful and wife as that of
fafely take

to

be educated by a mind

madame

de Genlis, and

we may

our ftandard for the average calculation rather from

herfelf.
it

her predeceflbrs than

the rule.
it is

She'forms the exception; they

Even were

otherwife,

we

have already feen what'

that a preceptor can

it

do in the education of a prince.

clafs

Nor

fhould

be forgotten that ihefe were not of the

of princea

deftined to a throne.

^ouVant, rwn feulement

plus d'une demi-heure.

m courtr nijatiter,
Et.

mats

meme

tii

marcher

d'tttt

hen pas., Ist

M.

le

due de Valois ayant

tine

peur

affreufe des chiens ait

point de palir i^ de crier quand

il

en voyoit un."
I' habitude

" ^uand on m'a

remls ceux quefai sieves^ Us avoient

de porter en hiver
htiit

des gillets, des doubles paires

e,ns,

de bas, des grands manchonSy iSc.

s' appuyer

L'aine, qui aviit

ne defcendoit jamais un efcalier fans

fur

le

bras d'une ou deux perfonnest.

les plus vils r pour

On

obligeoit des domejliques

de ces enfansaleuv rendre- les fervices

un

rhume^ pour une legere inconmiodite,

ces domefliques paffoient fans ceffe les nuits,

^c."
Brulart

Lepns

d'une Gouvernante a fes Eleves, par

Mde.de

Sillery

(ci-devant comte'e de Genlis.),

Tome

IL.

CHAP,

397

CHAP,

nr;

PRIVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

PRINCIPLES BY WHICH HE
BILITY
IS

INFLUENCED IRRESPONSI IMPATIENCE OF CONTROL^H ABITS OF DISSIPATION IGNORANCE DISLIKE OF TRUTH DISLIKE

OF JUSTICE^PITIABLE SITUATION OF PRINCES.

SUCH
youth,
it

is

the culture

the fruit that

fafhion

conjedlured.

The

... which
it

produces

may

eafily
.

be
,

BOOK V,
CHAP.
^^

III.
'

is

given to the mind in

ordinarily retains in age

is

and

it is

with ordinary cafes

If there

only that the prefent argument

concerned.

have been

kings, as there have been other

particular

men,

in the forming of

whom

have outweighed general

little

caufes,

the recolledtion of

fuch exceptions has

to

do with the queftion, whether moevil.

narchy be generally fpeaking a benefit or an

Nature has
;

no

particular
is

mould of which
certmn]y not J//re

fhe forms the intelleds of princes j

c^ivifio
;

monarchy

and of confequence, whattalents,

ever fyftem

we may

adopt upon the fubjed of natural

the ordinary rate of kings will poffefs at bell but the ordinary
rate of

human

underftanding.
to fay,

In what has been

faid,

and in

what remains
digies,

we

are not to fix our

it is

minds upon pro-

but to think of the fpecies as

ufuully found.

But-,

195

PRIVATE LIFE OF
radler of the future

A PRINCE.

But, though education for the moft part determines the cha-

man,

it

may

not be ufelefs to follow the

is

dif-

quifition a Uttle farther.

Education in one fenfe

the affair of

youth, but in a

ftriter

and more accurate

fenfe the education of

life.

an

intelleiftual

being can terminate only with his

is

Every

in-

cident that befals us

the pai'ent of a fentiment, and either con-

iirms or counteracfts the preconceptions of the mind.

Principles

by
is
.

Now

the caufes that

aded upon kings

in their minority, con-

which he
influenced:

tuiue to al

upon them

in their maturer years.

Every thing

is

carefully kept out of fight that

irrefponfibility:

may remind them

them

they are men.

that they are

Every means

is

employed

that can perfuade

of a different fpecies of beings, and fubjedt to different laws of

exiftence.

"

A king,"" fuch

at

leaft

is

the

maxim of

abfolute
is

monarchies, " though obliged by a rigid fyftem of duties,

countable for his difcharge of thofe duties only to God."
is,

ac-

That

expofed to a hundred fold more feduccions than ordinary men,

like

he has not

them the checks of a

vifible

conftitution of

things, perpetually through the

their

medium of

the fenfes

making

way

to the

mind.

He

is

taught to believe himfelf fupe-

rior to the reftraints that

bind ordinary men, and fubjedl to a

rule peculiarly his

own.
;

Every thing

is

trufted to the motives

of an invifible world

which, whatever

may

be the eftimate to

whicTi they are entitled in the view of philofophy,

mankind
immerged

are

not

now

to learn are
affairs,

weakly

felt

by thofe who

are

in

fplendour or

and have

little

chance of fuccefs in contend-

ing

PRIVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

is

399

ine with the impreffions of fenfe and the allurements of vifible BOO V. ^ CHAP. III.
objects.
^

"

-^

It is
is

maxim

generally received in the world " that every king

impatience

a defpot in his heart," and the

maxim

can feldom

fail

to be

verified in the experiment.

A A

limited

monarch and an

abfolute

monarch, though in many refpedls

points than they feparate.
tation,
is

different,

approach in more

monarch, ftridly without limiAll

to

perhaps a phenomenon that never yet exifted.

countries have pofTeifed

fome check upon defpotifm, which

their deluded imaginations appeared a fufficient fecurlty, for their

independence.

All kings have pofTeffed fuch a portion of luxury

fo far

and
and

eafe,

have been

furrounded with

fervility

and

falfliood, as

to fuch a degree

exempt from perfonal

refponfibillty,

to deftroy the natural

and wholefome complexion of the hufo high, they find but

fecial authority,

man

mind.

Being placed

one

ffep be-

tween them and the fummit of

but eagerly defire to gain that

and they cannot

ftep.

Having

fo frequent occafions

of feeing their behefls implicitly obeyed, being trained in fo long

a fcene of adulation
feel

and

fervility,

it is

impoffible they fhould not

fets limits to
is

fome indignation

at

the honefl firmnefs that

their omnipotence.

But to fay, " that every king

a defpot in
thino- as to

his heart," will prefently be

fay,

Ihown

to be the

fame

that every king

is

by unavoidable

neceffity the

enemy of

the

human

race.

The

400

PRIVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

The
.

principal fource of virtuous

condud

is

to recoiled tke

abfent.

He

that takes into his eftimate prefent things alone,

habits of diffipation:
.^^^\i\ ]jq

the perpetual flave of fenfuality and felfifhnefs.

principle

He

will

,-have

no

by which

to reftrain appetite, or to
purfuits.

employ

himfelf in juft

and benevolent

The

caufe of virtue and

"innocence, iiowevci" urgent, will no fooner ceafe to be heard*

.

than

it

will be forgotten.

Accordingly nothing

is

found more

-favourable to the attainment of moral excellence than medita-

tion

nothing more inimical than ^n uninterrupted fucceffion of

It

.amufements.

would be abfurd

to

exped from kings

It

the re-

coUedion of virtue

in exile or difgrace.
lofs

has generally been

or a favourite they
fo fpeedily fue-

obferved, that even for the

fpeedily confole themfelves.

of a

flatterer

Image

after

image

ceed in their fenforium, that no one of them leaves a durable

impreffion.

A circumftance which

contributes to this moral in-

fenfibility, is the

effeminacy and cowardice which

grow out of

perpetual indulgence.
painful ideas,

Their minds fpontaseoufly Ihrink from

to
efFort;,

from motives that would awaken them

.and refledions that

would demand

feverity of difquifition.

Ignorance

What
ger,

fituation

can be more unfortunate than that of a ftran-

who

cannot fpeak our language, knows nothing of our

.manners and cuftoms, and enters into the bufy fcene of our affairs,

without one friend to advife with or

is

aflift

him.? If any

thing

to be got

by fuch a man, we may depend upon feeing

thim inftantly furrounded with a group of thieves, iharpers and

-extortioners.

PRIVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

extortioners.
ilories, will

401

They ^

will

make him fwallow

article

the moll incredible

BOOKV.
CHAP.
^

III.
'

impofe upon him in every

of his
laft,

neceffities

or

"

his

commerce, and he

will leave the country at

as

unfriended
is

and

in as abfolute ignorance as
;

he entered

it.

Such a ftranger
if

a king

but with this difference, that the foreigner,

he be a

man
this

of fagacity and penetration,

may make
fet

his

way through

crowd of

intruders,

and difcover a
fcarcely in

of perfons worthy of
cafe

his confidence,

which can

any

happen

to a king.

He

is

placed in a vortex peculiarly his own.

it

He

is

furrounded

with an atmofphere through which

is

impoflible for

him

to

difcover the true colours and figure of things.

ai"e

The

perfons that

near
is

him

are in a cabal and conrpiracy of their

own, and

there

nothing about which they are more anxious than to

keep truth from approaching him.

ceffible

The man, who

up

is

not ac*

to

every comer,

who

delivers

his perfon into the

tell,

cuftody of another, and may, for any thing that he can

precluded from
tTiat

be

very intercourfe and knov'ledge

it is

moft
is

important for

him

to poffefs,

whatever name he

may

bear,

in

reality^a prifonei%

Whatever

the arbitrary Inftitutions of

inflitutions

men may

pretend, the
to tranfad

more powerful

of nature forbid one

man

the affairs and provide for the welfare of millions.

king foon

finds the neceifity of entruiling his fundtions to the adminiflration

of his fervants.
and

He

acquires the habit of feeing with their eyes

ading with

their hands.

He

finds the neceffity

of confiding

3 F

404

PRIVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

Jng Implicitly in their
fidelity.

BOOK V.
CriAP*
Ilia
^

Like a

man

long fhut up in a

>

'

dungeon,

his organs are not ftrong

enough

to bear the irradia-

tion of truth.

Accuftomed

to receive information

of the feelings

and fentiments of mankind through the medium of another perfon,

he cannot bear diredtly to converfe with bufmefs and

affairs.

Whoever would
ites,,

detach his confidence from his prefent favourto pafs over again in fcrutiny the principles

and induce him

and data upon which he has already determined, requires of him.

too painful a tafk.

He

haftens

from

his informer to

communi-

cate the accufation to his favourite,

and the tongue that has been

over this

accuftomed to gain
very.
tine of

credit, eafily varnilhes

new

difco-

He

flies

from uncertainty, anxiety and doubt

;

to his rou-

amufements

or amufement prefents

itfelf, is

importunate

to be received,

and prefently

obliterates the tale that overfpread

the

mind with melancholy and

fufplcion.

Much

has been faid

of intrigue and duplicity.

They have been

alledged to intrude

themfelves into the walks of commerce, to haunt the intercourfe

of

men of letters, and to rend

But, wherever
elfe

the petty concerns of a village with

fadlion.

they

may

be ftrangers, in courts

they undoubtedly find a congenial climate.

bearer,
that

The

intrufive taleis

who

carries

knowledge

to the ear

of kings,

within

circle

an objedl of general
his

abhorrence.

The

favourite

marks him for

vidim

and the inaftive and unimpafrefigns

It
is

fioned temper of the

monarch foon

him

to

the vin-

didiive importunity of his adverfary.

in the contempla-

tion of thefe circumftance& that

Fenelon has remarked that

"kings

PRIVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

" kings are the mofl unfortunate and the " man beings*."
_

403all

mod

milled of

hu-

ROOK
CHAP.
^^

v.
III.
'

But

In reality
it

were they In
to

pofleflion of purer fources of in-

DiHike of
truth
:

formation,
lies itfelf

would be

little

purpofe.

Royalty inevitably
it

al-

to vice.

Virtue, in proportion as
is

has taken poflef-

fion of

any character,

juft, confiftent

and fmcere.

But kings,

debauched by
endure an

their education, ruined

by

their fituation, cannot

intercourfe

with thefe
errors

attributes.

Sincerity,
their

that

would
ardice
;

tell

them of their

and remind them of

cow-

juftlce, that,

uninfluenced by the trappings of majefty,

at

would

eftlmate the

man

his true defert

its

confiftency, that
;

no

temptation would Induce to part with

principles

are odious

and
to

Intolerable in their eyes.

From

fuch Intruders they haften

men
falfe

of a pliant charader,

who

will flatter their mlfl^akes, put

varnlfh on their ations, and be vilited

by no Impertinent
There
Is

fcruples in affifling the indulgence of their appetites.

fcarcely In
flattery

human

nature an Inflexibility that can

refifl:

perpetual

and compliance.

The
foil

virtues that

grow up among us
artificial

are cultured in the

open

of equality, not In the

as

climate of greatnefs.

We

need the winds to harden,

much

as

" Lcs

plus malheureux bf

les

phis averrgles de taus

les
is

homines"

Telemaque,

Liv. XIII.

More

forcible

and imprefTive defcription

evils infeparHble

fcarcely any

where

to

be found, than that of the

from monarchical government,

contained in this and the following book of Fenelon's work.

F 2

the

404

PRIVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

V.
III.
^

BOOK
CHAP.
*

iiiQ Jiea^t

(Q cherifh

vis.

Many '

a mind, that promifed well in ' ^

teft

ItS"

outfet, has

been found incapable to ftand the

of perpetual

indulgence and eafe,

calamity to flop
it

without one fhock to waken, and one

its

in

fmooth

career.

didike of
jullicc.

Monarchy
kind have

is

in reality fo unnatural an inftitution, that

all

man-

at.

times ftrongly fufpedled

it

was unfriendly

to their happinefs.
is

The

power of truth upon important topics.

fuch, that

it

may

rather be faid to be obfcured than obliteas not toits

rated;

and fallhood has fcarcely ever been fo fuccefsful,

relllefs

have had a
votaries.
fiftence,

and powerful antagonift in the heart of

with
difficulty

The man who

earns his fcanty fub-

cannot behold the

viiited

oftentatious

fplendour

of a king,,
inevitably-

without being

by fome

fenfe of injuflice.

He

queftions in his

mind

the utility of an officer

price.
is is

whofe

fervices are

hired at fo

enormous a

If he confider the fubjed: with,

led to perceive,

any degree of accuracy, he

and that with

fufficient furprife, that a king

nothing more than a

common

mortal, exceeded
fite

by many and

equalled

by more

in every requi-

of llrength,

capacity and virtue.

He

feels therefore

that

nothing can be more groundlefs and unjuft than the fuppofing.

that

one fuch

man

as this

is

the

fitteft

and moft competent in-

ftrument for regulating the affairs of nations,..

Thefe reflexions are

fo unavoidable

that

kings

themfelves

have often been aware of the danger to their imaginary happlnefi:

PRIVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

nefs with

405
v.
III.
'

J ^ CHAP. alarmed with the progrefs of thinking, and oftener regarded the v ^
<=>

which they

are pree-nant.

They have fometimes been BOOK

^

eafe

and profperity of

their fubjedls as a fource of terror

and
of

apprehenfion.

They

juftly confider their

fuccefs of

fundions

as a fort

pubUc exhibition, the

lity

which depends upon the credu-

of the fpedlators, and which gpod. fenfe and courage would

fpeedily bring to a termination.

Hence
is

the well

known maxims

of monarchical government, that eafe

the parent of rebellion,

and

that

it is

neceflary to keep the people in a ilate of poverty

in order to render

and endurance

them

fubmiffive.

Hence

it

has been the perpetual complaint of defpotifm, that " the

reftive

knaves are overrun with

faction*.''

eafe,

and plenty ever

is

the nurfe of

Hence

it

has been the leffon perpetually read to

fubjefts profperous,

monarchs

" Render your

;

and they will

fpeedily refufe to labour

they will become llubborn, proud, unIt is

fubmiffive to the yoke, and ripe for revolt.

impotence and
froiTi

mifery that alone will render them fupple, and prevent them
rebelling againfl the dictates of authority f."

It is a
is

common and

vulgar obfervation that the

ftate

of a king
in with

Pitiable fitu^

greatly to be pitied.

" All his adtions are

III.

hemmed

pr'iuccs.

*Tragedy
]

of Jane Shore, Aft

inettez,

"

Si

vous

les

pcuples dans Pabcndance,

ils

tie

travallleront plus.
:

Us

deviendrontjiersy indocilts, et feroiit toujoiirs prks a fe revoltcr

et la mi/ere

il n'y

a que la foible[fe

qui les rerident foiiples^ ct qui les empechent de refifter a rautorite."

Tetemaque, Liv. XIII.

anxietj-

4o6

P
in.
'

RIVATE L
He

FE

OF A PRINCE,
. . .

BOOK V.
CHAP.
* ^

ni^xlety ^

and doubt.

cannot, like other men, indulge the Q;ay '

;

and

carelefs hilarity

of his mind

but

is

obUged,

if

he be of an
neceffary

honefl and confcientious difpofition, to confider

the time, which he
is

how

thoughtlefsly giving to amufement,

j

may
how

be to the reUef of a worthy and opprefled individual

many

benefits
;

might in a thoufand
a guilelefs

inftaiices refult

from

his in-

terference

how many

and undefigning heart might

kings
is

be cheared by his

juftice.

The conduct of

the fubjedt

of the fevereft criticifm, which the very nature of their fituation

difables

them

to encounter.

A
their

thoufand things
participation
as
is

are
j

done in

their

name

in
fo

which they have no

difguifed
to
;

a thoufand truth

ftories are

ear

to

render the

abfolutely undifcoverable

and the king

all

the general fcape-goat,

loaded with the offences of

his dependents."

No
which

pidiure can be
is

more

juft, judicious

and humane than that

thus exhibited.

Why

then ftiould the advocates of

antimonarchical principles be confidered as the enemies of kings?

They would

relieve

them from "

a load
exalt

would

fink a navy, too

much honour*."

They would

them

to the

happy and

enviable condition of private individuals.

In reality nothing can

be more

iniquitous and cruel

It

than to impofe upon a

is

man

the

unnatural office of a king.

liim that exercifes
it,

not

lefs

inequitable towards
are fubjeded to
it.

than towards them

who

* Shakefpeare

Henry

the Eighth,

Ad

III.

Kings,

PRIVATE LIFE OF A PRINCE.

Kings,
if

407
firfl

they underftood their

own

interefts,

would be the

BOOK
CHAP.
*

v.
III.
^:

to efpoufe thefe principles, the

moft eager to

liften to

them, the
under-

<

mod

fervent in exprefling their efteem of the

men who

take to imprefs

upon

their fpecies this important truth.

CHAP,

4o8

HA

P.

IV.

'

OF A VIRTUOUS DESPOTISM.
SUPPOSED EXCELLENCE OF THIS FORM OF GOVERNMENT

CONTROVERTED
POWERS.

FROM

THE NARROWNESS OF HUMAN

CASE

OF A VICIOUS ADMINISTRATION

OF

VIRTUOUS ADMINISTRATION INTENDED TO BE FORMED.

MONARCHY NOT ADAPTED TO THE GOVERNMENT

OF LARGE STATES.
a principle frequently maintained upon this fub , r. -- ject, which IS well entitled to our impartial conlideration. I 1
Is
. .

BOOK V.
CHAP.

''

^HERE
^

IV.
-J

Suppofed excellence of
this

It Is

granted by thofe

who

efpoufe

It,

" that abfolute monarchy,

it

form of

government
controverted:

from the Imperfedllon of thofe by

. _

whom
^

is

adminiftered,

is

moil frequently attended with

the
beft

evil

but they

affert,

"

that

it is

and moft
It

defirable
Is

of

all

forms under a good and

virtuous prince.
all

expofed," fay they,

"to the

fate

of

excellent natures,

and from the

beft thing frequently, If corIs

rupted, becomes the worft."

This remark

certainly not veiy

fhall

declfive of the general queftlon, fo long as

any weight

be

attributed to the arguments

which have been adduced

to evince

what

fort

of character and dlfpofitlon

It

may be

ordinarily expefted
create In

in princes. the

may however
of

be allowed,

If true, to

mind a

fort

partial retrofpeft to this

happy and

perfedt

deljpotlfm

OF A VIRTUOUS DESPOTISM.
defpotlfm
;

409

and, if

it

can be fliown to be

falfe,

it

will render
as
it is

BOOK
^-

v.
'

the argument for the abolition of monarchy, fo

cerned,

f.ir

con-

more

entire

and complete.

Now, whatever

difpofitions

any man may

polTefs in favour

f"^ ^^^ naiTownefs

of the welfare of others, two things are neceflary to give them "^we" I can promote the welfare of validity ; difcernment and power.
a few perfons, becaufe
circumftances.
I
I

can be fufficiently informed of their

can promote the welfare of

it is

many

in certain

general articles, becaufe for this purpofe

I

only neceflary that

as fuch,

fhould be informed of the nature of the

human mind

not of the perfonal fituation of the individuals concerned.

for

But

one

man

to undertake to adminifter the affairs of millions, to

'

fupply,

not general principles and perfpicuous reafoning, but

particular application,

and meafures adapted

undertakings the

to the neceflities

of

the

moment,

is

of

all

mod

extravagant and

abfurd.

The moft man

natural and obvious of

all

proceedings

is

for each
If the

to be the fovereign arbiter of his

own

concerns.

imperfedion, the narrow views and the miftakes of human

beings render this in certain cafes inexpedient and impradticable,
the next refource
is

to call in the. opinion of his peers, perfons

who from

their vicinity
cafe,

may
and

be prefumed to have fome general

knowledge of the

who

have

leifure

and means minutecannot reafonably

ly to inveftigate the merits of the queftion.

It

3G

be

410

OF A VIRTUOUS DESPOTISM.
V.
'

BOOK
^

be doubted, that the fame expedient which

their civil

men employed

in

and criminal concerns, would by uninftruded mortals

be adopted in the afleffment of taxes, in the deliberations of

commerce, and in every other

interefts

article in

which

their

common

were involved, only generalifmg the

deliberative aC-

fembly or pannel in proportion to the generality of the queftion

to be decided.

Monarchy,

inflead of referring every queftion to the perfons

it

concerned or their neighbours, refers

to a fmgle individual

placed at the greateft diftance poflible from the ordinary

bers of the fociety.

membe

Inftead of diftributing the caufes to

parcels as they

judged into

as

many

would conveniently admit

for the fake of providing leifure

tion,
it

and opportunities of examina-

draws them to a fmgle centre, and renders enquiry and

examination impoflible.
is

A defpot,

however virtuoufly

difpofed,

obliged to at in the dark, to derive his knowledge from other

men's information, and to execute his behefts by other men's

inftrumentality.

Monarchy feems

to be a fpecies of
j

government

profcribed

by the nature of man

and thofe perfons,

who

furniihed their defpot with integrity and virtue, forgot to add

omnifcience and omnipotence, qualities not

lefs

neceffary to
,

fit
-

him

for the office they

had provided.

Cafe of a
vicious ad-

Let US fuppofe
:

thIs

honeft and incorruptible deipot to be ferved

miniftration

^y

miuifters, avariciQUS, hypocritical

and

interefted.

What will
the

OF A VIRTUOUS DESPOTISM.
the people srain ^ ^
will

411

eood intentions of their monarch ? by the mean them the greateft benefits, but he will be
'

^OOK He CHAP.
alto*

v. IV.
'

gether unacquainted with their fituation, their

their wants.

charader and

The

information he receives will frequently be

truth.

found the very reverfe of the

individual
is

He

will be taught that

one

highly meritorious and a proper fubjed of reward,

is

whofe only merit

the profligate cruelty with which he has

ferved the purpofes of his adminiftration.

that another
is

He
who

will be taught
is

the peft of the community, fteady virtue with

indebted for
traverfed

this report to the

which he has

and defeated the wickednefs of government.

greateft benefits to his people
;

He

will

mean

the

but

when he
fcrvants

prefcrlbes

fomething

calculated for their advantage, his

under pretence of
the reverfe.

complying

fhall in reality perpetrate diametrically

Nothing

will

be more dangerous than to endeavour to remove

the obfcurity with which his minifters furround him.

The man,

who

attempts fo hardy a tafk, will

become the

inceflant objedl

of their hatred.
juft,

Though

the fovereign fhould be ever fo feverely

his

the time will

come when

obfervation will

be laid

afleep,

while malice and revenge are ever vigilant.

ftate,

Could he

unfold the fecrets of his prifon houfes of

he would find

men committed

in

his

name whofe
of,

crimes he never knew,

whofe names he never heard

and
efteemed.

perhaps
hiftory

men whom
of the

he honoured

Such

is

the

benevolent and
;

philanthropic defpots

whom memory
is,

has recorded

and the
exifts,

conclufion from the whole

that,

wherever defpotifm

there

412

OT A VIRTUOUS DESPOTISM.
V. there IV.
1

BOOK
CHAP.
V
^

it

will always ^

be attended with the

_

evils

of defpotifm, > r

capricious meafures

and arbitrary

Inflition.

of a virtuous adminilbation intoided

" But wlll not a wife king take care to provide himfelf with. of
o-Qod
_

and virtuous fervants

?"

Undoubtedly he
;

will effect a part

_

tobcfomied.

this,

but he cannot fuperfede the

eflential

natures of thingsi
it

He

that executes

any

office as

a deputy ,will never difeharge

in the fame perfedlion as if he

were the

principal.

Either the
carries into

minifter mull be the author of the plans

cffed:,

which he

and then

it is

of

little

confequence, except fo far as re-

lates to his

integrity in the choice of his fervants,

flaall
it is

what

fort

of

mortal the fovereign

nate part, and then

be found

or he muft play a fubordi-

impoffible to transfufe into his

mind

the perfpicacity and energy of his mafter.

exifts,
it

Wherever delpotifm

cannot remain in a fingle hand, but muft be tranfmitted

entire

whole and

through

all

the progreffive links of authority.

it

To
that

render defpotifm aufpicious and benign

is

neceflary, not

only that the fovereign fnould poflefs every

all

hupan

excellence, but

his officers Ihould

be
fall

men

of penetrating genius and un-

fpotted virtue.

If they

fhort of this, they will, like the

miniflers of Elizabeth, be fometimes fpecious profligates *,

and

fometimes men, who, however admirably adapted for bufinefs,

confult

on many occafions exclufively

their private

advantage,

worfhip the rifmg fun, enter into vindidive cabals, and cuff

Dudley

earl of Lciceft^r,

down

OF A
down new
^

VIRTUOUS DESPOTISM.
Wherever
all

41.^

fledeed merit *.
^

the continuity
-^

Is

broken,
'

BOOK v.
CHAP.
^

the flood of vice will bear

down

before

it.

One weak

or difIt is

IV.
'

ingenuous

man

will be the fource

of unbounded mifchief.

the nature of

monarchy under

all its

forms to confide greatly in

the difcretion of individuals.

It

provides no refource for main-

taining and difFufmg the fpirit of juftice.

Every thing

refts,

upon
virtue.

the

permanence and extent

of

influence

of perfonal

Another

pofition, not lefs generally aflerted than that

is,

of the Monarchy
not adapted
is * ^^^ s-

defirablenefs of a virtuous defpotifm, a fpecies

" that republicanifm

ftate,

vernment of

of government pradticable only in a fmall

is

while

'^''^^ ^^tes.

monarchy

beft fitted

to embrace the concerns of a

reverfe of this, fo
fiir

vafl;

and

flourilhing empire."
to

The
at

at leaft as-relates

monarchy, appears

firfl:

fight to be the truth.

The comby a purer

In

petence of any government cannot be meafured

ftandard, than the extent
this refpe(fl

and accuracy of
in
all

its

information.
to

monarchy appears
it

cafes
it

be

wretchedly

deficient

but, if

can ever be admitted,

muft furely be in

thofe
leaft

narrow and limited inftances where an individual can with

abfurdity be fuppofed to be acquainted with the affairs and

Interefts

of the whole.

* Cecil earl of Saliftury, lord treafurer

adiTiiral,

Howard

earl of

Kottingluim, luid

&c.

CHAP.

4U

CHAP.

V.

OF COURTS AND MINISTERS.

SYSTEMATICAL MONOPOLY OF CONFIDENCE.
OF MINISTERS

OF

THEIR DEPENDENTS.

CHARACTER VENALITY OF

COURTS.

UNIVERSALITY OF THIS PRINCIPLE.

be better enabled to judge of the dlfpofitions
is

TT7E
are

fliall

^ ' with which information

executed
in

communicated and meafures

if

monarchical countries,

we

refledft

upon

another of the

evil

confequences attendant upon this fpecies c

government, the exiftence and corruption of courts.

SyftematJcal
confidence,

The

chara(fler

of

this, as

well as of every other

human

inflitu-^

tion, arifes out

of the circumftances with which

it is

furrounded.

Minifters and favourites are a fort of people

prifoner in their cuftody, the

who

have a

ftate

whole management of whofe uneafily engrofs.

derftanding

and adions they can

This they

completely effedl with a weak and credulous mafter, nor can

the moft cautious and penetrating entirely elude their machinations.

They

unavoidably defire to continue in the adminiftrait

tion of his fundions, whether

be emolument, or the love of

homage, or any more generous motive by which they are

attached

OF COURTS AND MINISTERS.

attached
to
It.

415
by the BOOK v. ' CHAP. V.
;
'

But the more they are confided ^

permanence of

in

fovereign, the greater will be the

their fituation

/-*

and the more exclufive

is

their pofleifion of his ear, the

more

implicit will be his confidence.

The

wifeft of mortals are liable

to error

the moft judicious projcds are open to fpecious and

objetions
;

fuperficial

and

it

can rarely happen but a minifter

as

will find his eafe

and fecurity in excluding

much

as pofllble

other and oppofite advifers, whofe acutenefs and ingenuity are

perhaps additionally whetted

office.

by a

defire

to

fucceed to his

Minlfters

become a

fort

of miniature kings In their turn.

Charafterof
'"'

Though

they have the greateft opportunity of obferving the imit.

potence and unmeaningnefs of the charader, they yet envy

It is their trade

perpetually to extol the dignity and importance

;

of the mafter they ferve

and men cannot long anxioufly endea-

vour to convince others of the truth of any propofitlon without

becoming half convinced of

dependent for
arbitrary will
failing parent
all

it

themfelves.

They
defire
is

feel

themfelves
this

that they

moll ardently

upon

man's

but a fenfe of inferiority

perhaps the never

affimilate themfelves

of emulation or envy.

They

therefore of choice to a
are confiderably fimilar.

man

to

whofe circumftances

their

own

In reality the requifites, without which monarchical govern-

ment cannot be preferved

in exiftence, are

by no means s

of their dc ^^" ^""

fuffi-

ciently

4i6

OFCOURTS
V.
"

BOOK
"

CHAP. V.

ciently fupplied ft
7

by the mere intervention of 1

minifters.
roll

There
of fub-

mufl: be the minifters of minlfters,

and a long bead

ordinatlon defending

by

tedious and complicated fteps.

minifter, as

Each
on the

of thefe

lives

on the fmile of the

he

lives

fmile of the fovereign.

Each of

thefe has his petty interefts to

fervility.

manage, and

his

empire to employ under the guife of

Each

imitates the vices of his fuperior,

is

and exads from others

the adulation he

obliged to pay.

It

has already appeared that a king

is

neceflarily

and almoft

unavoidably a defpot in his heart.

thofe things only
it is

He

has been ufed to hear

which were adapted

to give

him

pleafure

and

with a grating and uneafy fenfation that

fort.

he. liftens to

com-

munications of a different
ting compliance; and
lation
it is

He

has been ufed to unhefita-

with

difficulty

he can digeft expoftu-

and oppofition.

Of

confequence the honeft and virtuous

are
clear

charadler,
qualified

whofe
for
his

principles

and unfhaken,
explain

is

leaft

femce; he muft
principles, or

either

away the

feverity
crafty

of his

he muft give place to a more

and temporifing

politician.

The temporifmg

politician

expeds the fame

and the
fault

pliability in others that

leaft

he exhibits in himfelf j
is

which he can

forgive

an

ill

timed and

inaufpicious fcrupulofity.

Expeding

this

compliance from

all

the coadjutors and inftnifet it

ments of his defigns, he foon comes to

up

as a ftandard

by

AND MINISTERS.
hj which
to

417

judge of the merit of

but that

all

other men.
fitnefs

He
for

Is

deaf to
fecret

every recommendation
fervice of

of a

the

government, or a tendency to promote

his intereft

and
this

extend the fphere of his influence.

The

worft

man

with

argument
the beft

in his favour will

feem worthy of encouragement

man who

has no advocate but virtue to plead for

It Is

him

will be treated

with fupercilloufnefs and negledl.

true the

genuine criterion of
reverfed.

human

defert can

never be fuperfeded and

But

it

will appear to be reverfed,

reality.

and appearance will

obtain

produce
will be

many

of the effeds of

To

honour

it

thought neceflary to pay a

fervile court to adminiflration,

to bear with unaltered patience their

flatter

contumely and fcorn, to

their vices,

and render ourfelves ufeful to their private

obtain

gratification.

To

honour

it

will be thought neceflary

by

afllduity

and intrigue to make

to ourfelves a party, to procure

the recommendation of lords and the good

pleafure

word of women of
it

and

clerks

in

office.

To

obtain honour

will

be

thought

neceflliry to merit difgrace.

The whole

fcene confiflis

in hollownefs,
fair to

duplicity

and

falfliood.

The

minifter

fpeaks

the

man he

defpifes,

and the

flave pretends a

generous
interefl:.

attachment, while he thinks of nothing but his perfonal

That

thefe principles are interfperfed

under the
it

worfl:

governfolly to

ments with occafional deviations into better

would be

deny

that they

do not form the great prevailing features whereit

ever a court and a monarch are to be found

to
aflTert^

would be madnefs

The

4i8

OF COURTS
The fundamental
is,

difad vantage of fuch a

form of government

that

it

renders things of the moft effential importance fubjed

through fucceffive gradations to the caprice of individuals.

fuffrage of a

The

body of eledors

will always bear a refemblance

more or

lefs

remote to the public fentiment.

The

fuffrage of

an

individual will depend

upon

caprice, perfonal convenience or

pecuniary corruption.

If the king be himfelf inacceffible to

injuftice, if the minifter difdain a bribe, yet the

fundamental

evil

remains, that kings and miniflers,

a thoufand occafions depend

fallible

themfelves, muft

upon

upon the recommendation of others.

all

Who
ftate

will

anfwer for thefe through

their claiTes, officers

of

and deputies of department, humble friends and

wives and daughters, concubines and confeffors
?

officious

valets,

Venaliiy tf

It is

fuppofcd by many, that the exlftence of permanent herediis

tary diftindlion

neceflary to the maintenance of order

among

beings fo imperfect as the

all,

human

fpecies.

But
is

it is

allowed by

that

permanent hereditary

diftindlion
truth.

a fidtion of policy,
it

not an ordinance of immutable

Wherever

exifts,

the

human mind,
from
fettling

fo far as relates to political fociety,

is

prevented

upon

its

true foundation.

There

is

a perpetual

ftruggle between the genuine fentiments of underflanding,

tell

which

us that

all this is

an impofition, and the imperious voice of

us,

government,

which bids

Reverence and obey.

In this

unequal conteft, alarm and apprehenfion will perpetually haunt

the minds, of thofe

who

exercife ufurped power.

In this

artifi-

cial

AND MINISTERS.
clal ftate

419

of

man

powerful engines muft be employed to prevent

It is

BOOK
*

v.
'

him from

rifing to his true level.

the bufinefs of the goit is

vernors to perfuade the governed, that

flaves.

their intereft to be

They have no

other

means by which

to create

this

fititious intereft,

but thofe which they derive from the perverted

underftandings and burdened property of the public, to be

returned in
titles,

ribbands and bribes.

Hence

that lyftem
exift.

of

univerfal corruption without which monarchy could not

It

has fometlmes been fuppofed that corruption

Is

particularly

Uinverfality
^ipie.

incident to a

mixed government.

" In fuch a government the

;

people poffefs a certain portion of freedom

place as well as prerogative
;

privilege finds

its

a certain fturdinefs of manner and

confcioufnefs of independence are the natives of thefe countries.

The

country gentleman will not abjure the dictates of his judgconfideration.

;

ment without a valuable

than one road to fuccefs

There
is

is

here

more

popular favour

as fure a

means of

advancement
people

as

courtly patronage.
like fheep
;

In defpotic countries the

may

be driven

however unfortunate

is
it

their
as

condition, they
inevitable

know

of no other, and they fubmit to

an

calamity.
all

Their

charadleriftic

feature

is

torpid

duUnefs in which
a.

the energies of

man

are forgotten.

But

in

country calling

itfelf

free the minds of the inhabitants are in a

ftate,

perturbed and

reftlefs

and extraordinary means muft be

It

employed to calm
to

their

vehemence."

has fometlmes happened

the
love

men whofe

hearts have been pervaded with

of

virtue.

4SO

OFCOURTS
V.
^

BOOK
* .

virtue,

of which pecuniary proftitution

is

the moft odious corrup-

tion, to prefer, while

they have contemplated this pidlure, an

ftate

acknowledged defpotifm to a
liberty.

of fpecious and imperfeta:

But

this plbure is

not accurate.

As much of

It

as relates to

a mixed'' government muft be acknowledged to be true.

the features

But

of defpotifm

are

much

too favourably touched.

conftitutlon
force.

Whether

privilege be conceded

by the forms of the

its

or no, a whole nation cannot be kept ignorant of

No
one
equal

people were ever yet fo funk in ftupidity as to imagine

man, becaufe he bore the appellation of a king,

to a million.

literally

In a whole nation, as monarchical nations at lead

to be conftituted, there will be nobility

muft be expeded

and
their

yeomanry,
fituation,

rich

and poor.

There

will be pferfons

who by

or their wealth, or their talents,

form a middle rank

between the monarch and the vulgar, and

federacies

who by
no

their con-

and their intrigues can hold the throne in awe.

be bought or defied.

Thefe

men muft

There

is

dlfpofitlon that

clings fo clofe to defpotifm as inceflant terror

elfe

and alarm.

What
ftate

gave byrth to the armies of fpies and the numerous

prlfons under the late

government of France

The eye of

the

tyrant

is

never clofed.

How
he

numerous
?

are the precautions

and

jealoufies that thefe terrors dictate

No man
The

can go out or
prefs

come

into the country but

that

is

watched.

muft

ifliie

no productions

have not the imprimatur of government.

All

AND MINISTERS.
All coffee
attention.

421
are objeAs of
'

houfes

and places of public

refort

^.^^p
"

Yr'

Twenty

people cannot be colledted together, unlefs

it is

for the purpofes of fuperftition, but

that they

immediately fufpeted
Is
it

may

be conferring about their rights.

to be

fuppofed, that, where the means of jealoufy are employed, the

means of corruption
cafe

will be forgotten

Were

it

fo indeed, the

would not be much improved.

no Hate of mankind more
is

No

pidure can be more

difguftful,

depreffing, than that in

which a whole nation

tion of fear, in

held in obedience by the mere operathat

is

which

all

moft eminent among them, and

reft,
its
is

that fhould give example to the

fevereft

prevented under the

fentiments, and

penalties

from expreffing

real

by

neceflary confequence from forming any ientiments that are

worthy

to be exprefled.

But

in reality fear

was never employed

fo unfocial as to
edifice will

for thefe purpofes alone.

No

tyrant

was ever

have no confederates in his

guilt.
all

This monftrous

always be found fupported by

perverting
the

the various inftruments for

feverity,
this
it

human
and

character,
bribes.

menaces, blandishis

ments, profeffions

To

in a great degree
It
is

owing

that

monarchy

is

fo

very coftly an eftablifliment.

the bufmefs of the defpot to diftribute his lottery of fedudtion

into as

many

prizes as poflible.

Among

the confequences of a the foremoft,

that

pecuniary polity thefe are to be reckoned

every

man

is

fuppofed to have his price, and that, the corrupin an underhand manner,

tion being

managed

many

a man,

who

422

OF COURTS AND MINISTERS.

V.
*

BOOK
^
V

y^}iQ

appears a patriot,
virtue itfelf
folly
is

may

be really a hireling
difcredit,
is

by whigh

means
as

brought into
or

either regarded

mere

and romance,
the
cloke

obferved

with

doubt

and

fufpicion,

as

of vices which are only the more

are concealed.

humiliating the

more they

CHAP.

423

CHAP.

VI.

OF SUBJECTS.
MONARCHY FOUNDED
IN IMPOSTURE.

TITLED TO SUPERIORITY
TIONS THEY POSSESS.
IS

KINGS NOT EN INADEQUATE TO THE FUNC

MEANS BY WHICH THE IMPOSI. SPLENDOUR 2. EXAGGERATHIS IMPOSTURE GENERATES TION. I. INDIFFERENCE TO MERIT 2. INDIFFERENCE TO TRUTH 3. ARTIFICIAL
TURE

MAINTAINED

DESIRES
OF

4.

PUSILLANIMITY.

MORAL INCREDULITY
INJUSTICE OF LUXURY

MONARCHICAL COUNTRIES.

OF THE INORDINATE ADMIRATION OF WEALTH.

LET
And
is

US proceed to confider the moral effeds

which the

in-

BOOK

V.
'
-.

ftitution

of monarcliical government

is

calculated to proit

duce upon the inhabitants of the countries in which

here
it

flouriflies

founded

muft be

laid

down
It

as a

firfl

principle that monarchy-

founded in impofture.

is

falfe that

kings are entitled to

Kfnfrs not

the eminence they obtain.

They
line

poflefs

no

intrinfic fuperiority fupeiiority

is

over their fubjeds.

The

of diftindtion that

drawn

is

the

offspring of pretence, an indired

certain purpofes,

means employed
truth.

for effeding
It

and not the offspring of

tramples
fupport

upon the genuine nature of ^

things, and depends for

its

upon

424
CHAP.
*

OF SUBJECTS.
this

BOOK V. uDon
VI.
'

aro-iiment,

"

that,

were
.

it

not for Imporitlons of a

,,

fimilar nature,

mankind would be

miferable.

inadequate to the functions they

pofTefs.

Secondly,
royalty.
'
'

it is

falfe that

kings can difcharge the fundions of

affairs

They

pretend to fuperintend the

of millions^
affairs.

and they are

neceflarily unacquainted

with thefe

The
They

fenfes of kings are conftruded Uke thofe of other

men, they can

neither fee nor hear

what

is

tranfaifted in their abfence.

pretend to adminifler the

affairs

of milUons, and they poffefs no

a.

fuch fupernatural powers as

diftance.

fhould enable them to act at

They

are nothing of
is

what they would perfuade us

to

believe them.

The king
by

often ignorant of that of

which half

the inhabitants of his dominions are informed.

His prerogativea
clerk in
office, is

are adminiftered

others,

and the loweft

frequently to

this

and that individual more

effedlually

the

fovereign than the king himfelf.

is

He

knows nothing of what

folemnly tranfaded in his name^

Means by
kipofture
{3

To condud
over to
:

this

impoilure with fuccefs

ears.

it is

neceflary to bring

its

party our eyes and our

all

Accordingly kings are

i?fpkndour

always exhibited with

the fplendour of ornament, attendance

and equipage. and

this

They

live

amidfl a fumptuoufnefs of expence

not merely to gratify their appetites, but as a neceffary

inftrument of policy.

The moft

fatal
is

opinion that could lay

that kings are but men,.

hold upon the minds of their fubjeds

Accordingly they are carefully withdrawn from the profanenefs

O
of vulgar infpedlion
;

E C

S.

425
it is

and,

when

they are exhibited,

with
"^

BOOK
v

v.
'

every
itient.

artifice

that

may

dazzle our fenfe and miflead our judg-

The impofture
itfelf to

does not flop with our eyes, but addrefles

'.'

^^^aggera-

our

ears.

Hence

the inflated ftyle of regal formality.

itfelf

The name

of the king every where obtrudes

as
if

upon

us.

It

would feem
houfes,

every thing in the country, the lands, the

the furniture and the inhabitants

were

his

property.

Our

eftates are the king's

dominions.

Our

bodies and minds

are, his fubjedls.

Our

reprefentatives are his parliament.

Our

courts of law are his deputies.

All magiftrates throughout the

realm are the king's

place in
criminal.
all ftatutes

officers.

His name occupies the

forem.oft

and

decrees.

He

is

the profecutor of every

He

is

" Our Sovereign Lord the King."

die, live,"

Were

it

poffible that

he fhould

" the fountain of our blood,

the

means by which we

would be gone
It is

every

political

fundion would be fufpended.

therefore one of the funda-

mental principles of monarchical government that " the king

cannot die."

Our moral
:

principles

accommodate themfelves
political

to

our veracity
(the

and accordingly the fum of our

all

duties

moft important of
the king
;
;

duties)

is

loyalty

to be true
it

and

faithful to

to

honour a man,
;

whom
to
.

may

be

We

ought to defpife

and to obey

that

is,

acknowledge no

immutable criterion of juftice and

injuftice.

3 I

What

4i6

OF SUBJECTS.
V. VI.
'
^

BOOK
CHAP.
'

be the effeds of this machine upon the moral , -n 1 principles of mankind ? Undoubtedly we cannot trifle with the

What muft

This impofturegenerates, i. in-

principles

of morality and truth with impunity.

impofturc

However
rr>

difference to

merit:

^rravelv the J t,

may

be carried on,

it is

impoflible but

that the real ftate of the cafe fhould be ftrongly fufpeded.

Man
thefe,

in a ftate of fociety, if

undebauched by falfhoods
is

like

which confound the nature of right and wrong,

of what
is
it is

not ignorant

in

which merit

confifts.

He knows
he
is

that

one

man

not fuperior to another except fo far as

wifer or better.

Accordingly thefe are the diftindions to which he afpires for

himfelf.

Thefe are the

qualities

he honours and applauds in

feelings of each

another, and

which therefore the

man
is

inftigate

his neighbour to acquire.

But what

a revolution

introduced
arbi-

among

thefe original

and undebauched fentiments by the

?

trary diftintions

which monarchy engenders

it

We
it

ftill

retain in

our minds the ftandard of merit, but

daily

grows niore
is

feeble
leal

and powerlefs, we

are perfuaded to think that

of no
it

ufe in the tranfadions of the world, and prefently lay

afide as

Utopian and

vifionary.

2.

ndiffe-

Confequences equally injurious are produced by the hyperbolical pretenfions of

rence to

uuth

monarchy.

There

is

a fimplicity in truth

that refufes alliance with this

impudent myfticlfm.

No man
may

is

entirely ignorant of the nature of man.

He

will not indeed

be

incredulous to a degree of energy and reditude that

the ftandard of his preconceived ideas.

exceed

But for one man to

pretend

OF SUBJECTS.
pretend to think and at for a nation of his fellows
terous as to fet credibility at defiance.>
Is
Is

427
fo prepof^

^^^]^ v
-^

he perfuaded that the

'

Impofit'on

Is

falutary

He

willingly aflumes the right of introaffairs.

ducing iimilar falfhoods into his private

convinced that veneration for truth
errors
to
Is

He
as

becomes

to be clafled

among our
it

and prejudices, and

in
all

that, fo far
It

from being,
lead,
If

pretends

be,

cafes

falutary.

would

ingenuouHy

praftlfed, to the deftrudlon of

mankind.

Again,

if

kings were exhibited fimply as they are in them-

3- artificial

defire

felves to the Infpedtion

of mankind, the falutary prejudice, as

to

it

has

been

called,

which teaches us
:

venerate them,

would

fpeedily be extlnd

it

has therefore been found necelTary to

Tlius are luxury and

furround them with luxury and expence.

expence made the ftandard of honour, and of confequence the

topics of anxiety

and envy.

However

fatal this
it

fentiment
is

may
In
elfe-

be to the morality and happinefs of mankind,

illufions

one of thofe

which monarchical government

Is

eager to cherifh.

reality, the firft principle

of virtuous feeling, as has been

where

faid, is

the love of Independence.

He

that

would be

juft

muft before
true value.

all

things ellimate the objedts about

In regal ftates has

him

at their

But the principle

been to think

your father the wifeft of

men

becaufe he

is

your father *, and

your
* "
to

The

perfons

whom

you ought

to love infinitely

more than me,

are thofe
to regu-

whom

you are indebted for your exiftence."

3 I 2

" Their conduft ought

late

,428

PHAP CHAP.

BOOK V.
VT VI.

your king the foremoft of

JO
To

OF SUBJECTS.
his fpecies becaufe r
is

he

is

a kinsr. D
his

The
title.

rtandard of intelledual merit

no longer the man but

be drawn in a coach of
all

ftate

by

eight milk-white horfes

is

the hlgheft of

human

claims to our veneration.

The fame
and

principle inevitably runs through every order of the ftate,

men

defire

wealth under a monarchical government, for the

llxme reafon that

under other circumftances they would have

defired virtue.

Let us fuppofe an individual

fcanty fubfiftence, to

who by

fevere labour earns a

curiofity a fpeftator

become by accident or
Is
it

of the

pomp

of a royal progrefs.

poffible that

he fhould

not mentally apoftrophife this elevated mortal, and afk, "

has

What
pafs

made

thee to differ from

it is

me

?"

If

no fuch fentiment

through his mind,

fociety

a proof that the corrupt inftitutlons of

all

have already divefted him of

direct
is

fenfe of juftice.

The

more fimple and

his character, the

more

certainly will

thefe fentiments occur.

What

anfwer

fhall

we

return to his

enquiry

That the well being of

fociety requires

men
?

to be

treated otherwife than according to their

intrinfic merit

Wheto

lite yours

and be the ftandard of your fentiments."

is

" The

refpefl

we owe

our father and mother

*'

a fort

of

ivorjijip,

as tlie phrafe Jilial piety

ce font ceiix

impHes."
a qui vous

Ce que vous devez aimer avantmoi fans aucune compnraifon^

devez la vie."

" Leur

conduite doit regler la voire et fixer voire opinion."

noire pere et a noire tnere
efi

" Le
le

^fpeB que nous devons a

mot piete
filiale."

un culte, comme I'exprime

I.

Lemons d'unc Gouvermnte, Tome

ther

E CT

S.

429

ther he be fatisfied with this anfwer or no, will he not altire to ^

^

BOOK
^

V.
'

CHAP.vr.
^

poflefs

that

(which in

this

inftance

is

wealth)

to

which the
?

policy of

mankind has annexed fuch high

diflindtion

Is

it

not
this

indifpenfible, that, before he believes

inftitution, his original

in the i^edlitude

of

feelings of right

and wrong fhould be

let

wholly reverfed

If

it

be indifpenfible, then

the advocate of

the monarchical fyftem ingenuoufly declare, that, according to

that fyftem, the intereft of fociety in the
firft

inftance requires

the total fubverfion of

all

principles of moral truth

and

juftice.

With

this

view

let

us again recolledl the

maxim adopted
"

in

monarchical countries, " that the king never dies."

true oriental extravagance
live for ever !"

Thus with

we

falute this imbecil mortal,

?

O king,

Why do we

this

Becaufe upon his exiftence the

In his

exiftence of the ftate depends.

are opened.

name

the courts of law

If his political capacity be fufpended for a

all

moment
In

the centre to which

public bufinefs
Is

is

linked,

is

deftroyed.
is all,

fuch countries every thing

the fubftance nothing.

uniform

the

ceremony

and

In the riots in the year 1780 thq mace

of the houfe of lords was propofed to be fent into the paflages

by the
was

terror of

its

appearance to "quiet the confufion

but

it

obferved that, if the

the

mace

fliould

be rudely detained by the

Bufinefs

rioters,

whole would be thrown into anarchy.

would be
legiflative

at a ftand, their infignia,

and with their infignia their

and deliberative fundlions be gone.

Who

can expedt
is

firmnefs and energy in a country,

where every thing

made

to

depend

430
rHA^P vT
'^^PS'"'^ ^'^^
'

OF SUBJECTS.
upon
juftice, public intereft
?

and reafon, but upon a

''

piece of gilded
there be

wood

What

confcious dignity and virtue can

if

among

a people,

who,

deprived of the imaginary

guidance of one vulgar mortal, are taught to believe that their

faculties are

benumbed, and

all

their joints unftrung

4. pufiUani"-

Laftly,

one of the moft

is

eflential
;

ingredients in a virtuous

mity.

charadter

undaunted firmnefs

and nothing can more powermonarchi-

fully tend to deflroy this principle than the fpirit of a

cal

government.
leflbn

The

firft

leflbn

of virtue
is.

is,

Fear no

man

the
firft

firft

of fuch a conftitution
is,

Fear the king.

firft

The

lefTon of virtue
is,

Obey no man

*; the

leflbn

of monarchy

Obey

the king.
all

The

true intereft of

mind demands the

;

annihilation of
infeparable

faditious and

imaginary diftindions

it

is

from monarchy

to fupport

and render them more

palpable than ever.

He

that cannot fpeak to the proudeft defpot

is

with a confcioufnefs that he

determination to yield
qualifications
virtue.

man

fpeaklng to a man, and a

him no

fuperiority to
is

which

his inherent

do not

entitle

him,

wholly incapable of fublime

chy?

How many fuch men are bred within the pale of monarHow long would monarchy maintain its ground in a
men
?

nation of fuch

Surely

it

would be the wifdom of

fociety,

inftead of conjuring
error, inftead

up a thoufand phantoms

to induce us into

of furrounding us with a thoufand fears to deprive

* Book

III,

Chap. VI.

us

OF SUBJECTS.
tis

431

of true energy, to remove every obftacle and fmooth the path ' ' '^

book v.
CHAP.
*

VI.
'

of improvement.
Virtue was never yet held in

much honour and

efteem in a Moral

Incredulity of mo-

monarchical country.
courtiers

It

is

the inclination and the intereft of

it

narohicai
countries.

and kings

to bring

into difrepute

and they are but

their conception
It
it
is

too fuccefsful in the attempt.

Virtue

is

in

arrogant, intrufive, unmanageable and ftubborn.

an

af-

fumed

outfide,

by which

thofe

who

pretend to

intend to

gratify their rude tempers or their fecret views.

circle

Within the

of monarchy virtue

is

always regarded with difhonourable

incredulity.

The

philofophical fyftem
all

which

affirms felf love to

falfity
is

be the

firft

mover of

our adions and the

thefe countries *.
fpirit
is

of
it

human
that the

virtues, is the

growth of

Why
thus.

language of integrity and public

conftantly regarded
It

among

us as hypocrify

It

was not always

was not

till

the ufurpation of Csefar, that books were written

by the tyrant

and

his partifans to

prove that Cato was no better than a fnarling

pretender f

There

is

farther

confideratlon,

which has feldom been

injurtice

of

adverted to

upon

this fubjedl:,

but which feems to be of no in-

* Maximes, par
Humaines, par

M.

le

Due

de la

Rochefoucault

De

la

Faujfctc dcs

Vcrtiis

M.

Efprit.
;

t See Plutarch's Lives

Lives of Cccfar and Cicero

Cicrronis Epifola

ad

Attkum, Lib. XII.

Eplfl.

XL, XLI.
confiderable

432

OF SUBJECTS.
confiderable importance.
that our debt to our fellow

BOOK V.
CHAP.
VI.

In our definition of juftice

it

appeared

men extended
and
all

to

all

the efforts

we could

make

for their welfare,

the relief

we

could fupply to

their neceffities.

Not

a talent

do

we

poflefs,

not a

moment of

time, not a

fliilling

of property, for which

we

are not refponfible

at the tribunal

of the public, which

we are not

obliged to pay into

the general bank of

common
But

advantage.
is

Of
beft,
is

every one of thefe

things there

is

an employment which

and

that beft juftice

obliges us to feleft.
this principle with

how

extenflve

the confequence of

refped: to the luxuries

and oftentation of

human
the
teft,

life

Are there many of

thefe luxuries that will ftand

to

and approve themfelves upon examination

?

be the beft
it

objects

upon which our property can be employed

to be true, that

Will

often

come out

hundreds of individuals ought to be

fubjedled to the fevereft and moft incefTant labour, that one

man

may fpend
leifure,

in idlenefs

what would
?

afford to the general mafs eafe,

and confequently wifdom

of the inordinate admiration of wealth.

"Whoever frequents

the

habitation

of the

luxurious

will

fpeedily be infedted with the vices of luxury.

The

minifters

and attendants of a fovereign, accuftomed

magnificence, will turn with
difdain

to the trappings

of
is

from the merit

In vain

that

obfcured with the clouds of adverfity.

in vain

may virtue plead,

may

talents folicit diftinition, if

poverty feem to the

faftidious fenfe of the

man

in place to envelop

them

as it w;ere

with

'

OF SUBJECTS.
with
Its

433

noifome efHuvia.

The very

lacquey knows

how

to

BOOK
CHAP.
>

V. VI.

repel unfortunate merit

from the great man's door.

Here then we

are prefented with the leffon

all

which

is

loudlv

and perpetually read through

the

haunts

of monarchy.

Money
atone.

is

the great requifite for the

want of which nothing can

are to

Diftindion, the

homage and efteem of mankind,

be bought, not earned.

to invite them, they

The

rich

man need

not trouble himfelf

come unbidden
is

to his furly door.

Rarely

indeed does
expiate,

it

happen, that there

any crime

that gold cannot

any bafenefs and meannefs of

charaifler that wealth canis

not cover with oblivion.

Money
it

therefore
little

the only objedt

v/orthy of your purfuit, and

finifter

is
it

of

importance by what

and unmanly means,

fo

be but obtained.

It is true that virtue

afli fiance,

and

talents

do not ftand
if

In need of the

great man's

and might,
jufl:

they did but

know
pity.

their

worth,

repay his fcorn with a

and enlightened

But

unfortunately they are too often ignorant of their ftrength, and

adopt the errors they fee univerfally efpoufed in the worJd.

it

Were

otherwife, they would indeed be happier,

but the general

general manners

manners would p,obabIy remain the fame.

are fafliioned

The

by the form and

fplrit

of the national government

and, if in

extraordinary
It.

cafes

they become difcordant, they

fpeedily fubvert

The

evils

indeed that

arlfe

out of avarice, an inordinate admi3 K.

ration

434

OF SUBJECTS.
V.
'

BOOK
"^

CHAP. VI.

radon of wealth and an intemperate purfuit of r

1^

it,

are,

fo obvious-, >

that they have conftituted a perpetual topic of lamentation and

complaint.
are extended
is,

The

objel in this place

is

to confider

how

far

they

and aggravated by a monarchical govenrment, that

by

conftitution the very effence of

which

is

to

accumuthe

late

enormous wealth upon a fmgle head, and

of fplendour the chofen
objecSl

to render for

oftentation

inftrument
is

fecuring
in

honour and veneration.

degree the luxury of

The

to

confider

what

courts,, the

effeminate foftnefs of favourites,

the fyftem, never to be feparated from the monarchical form, of

putting men's approbation and good

word

at a price,

of individuals

buying the favour of government, and government buying the

favour of individuals,
is

injurious to the moral

improvement of
is

mankind.

As long

as the

unvarying, pradice of courts

is

cabal,

and

as

long as the unvarying tendency of cabal

to bear

down
in the

talents,

and difcourage
fincerity,

virtuej to
fervile

recommend cunning
difpofition

room of

and fupple

in

pre-

ference to firmnefs and inflexibility, a convenient morality as

better than a ftrid one,

and the ftudy of the red book of promoT

ftudy of general welfare, fo long will

tion

rather

than the

monarchy be the

bittereft

and moft potent of

all

the adverfaries

of the true intereils of mankind.

GHAP.

435

H A

P.

VII.

OF ELECTIVE MONARCHY.
DISORDERS ATTENDANT ON SUCH AN ELECTION.

ELEC-

TION

IS

INTENDED EITHER TO PROVIDE A MAN OF

GREAT OR OF MODERATE TALENTS.

THE FIRST

CONSEQUENCES OF
CAN ELECTIVE ANO

OF

THE SECOND.

HEREDITARY MONARCHY BE COMBINED?

AVING
Is

confidered the nature of

to

monarchy
far
its

In general.

It

BOOK V.
CHAF.Vir.

incumbent on us

examine

how

mifchiefs may-

be qualified by rendering the monarchy elective.

One

of the moft obvious obje(lions to this remedy

attends

Is

the

difficulty that

upon the conduit of fuch an eledion.

mighty
for the

There
to

are machines that are too

;

human hand

condud

there

ai'e

proceedings that are too gigantic and

Inftitutlons

unwieldy for

human

to

regulate.
Is

The
fo

diftance

between the mafs of mankind and a fovereign

immenfe,

the truft to be confided fo ineftimably great, the temptations of the object to be decided on fo alluring, as to fet every paffion
that can

vex the mind in tumultous

conflid:.

Eledion

will

therefore either dwindle Into an

empty form, a covge a

at full

Hire with

the fuccefsful candidate's

name

length in the conclufion,

3 K. 2

an

436

OF ELECTIVE MONARCHY.
V.
-'
jjj^j

BOOK

CHAP. VII.

perpetually cOxntinued in the eleftion f f J

;

fame family, perhaps j:> r r

in

^V

the fame lineal order of defcent

or will

become the

fignal of a

thoufand calamities, foreign

cabal

and domeftic war.

Thefe

evils have been fo generally underftood, that eledive monarchy

in the ftrid fenfe of that appellation has very

few advocates.

RoufTeau,
to be

who

in his advice to
that
is,

the Polilli

nation appears

one of thofe few,

one of thofe

who

without

loving monarchy
ferable to

conceive an eledive fovereignty greatly pre-

an hereditary one, endeavours to provide againft the

diforders of an eledion
tion*.

by introducing

into

it

a fpecles of fortiit

In another part of the prefent enquiry

will be

our

bufinefs to

examine

how

far

chance and the decifion by

lot are

compatible with the principles either of found morality or fober

reafon.

For the prefent

it

will be fufficient to fay, that the profall

ject of RoufTeau will probably

under one part of the follow-

ing dilemma, and of confequence will be refuted by the fame

arguments that bear upon the mode of eledion in

obvious idea.

its

moft

The
of

defign

The

defign with which eledion can be introduced into the

01 a
r

eleftion is

either to provide an officer of great

conftitution

monarchy mult
r r
i

n-ii-i of either be that

i
.

r-

raifing to the

kingly ofBcc a
,

man

of fuperlative talents and

r

uncommon

genius,

or of moderate talents,

or of providing a moderate portion of wifdom and good intention for the difcharge of thefe fundions,
*
Coiifideratioiis fur !e

and preventing them

C/m/>.

Gouvernement de Pologne,

Fill.

from

OF ELECTIVE MONARCHY.
from
the
falling to the lot

437

of perfons of notorious imbecility.

it

BOOK To CfiAI v.
that
^:;

firft
is

of thefe defigns

will be objected

by many, "
its

.VII.
'

genius

frequently nothing

more

in the

hands of

pofieffor q^-^nfesof

than an inftrument for accomplifhing the

tions."

mod
is

pernicious inten-

And, though

in this aflertion there

it

much

partial

and

miftaken exaggeration,
fuch as
is

cannot however be denied that genius,

we

find

it

amid ft the prefent imperfections of mankind,

eflential
forts

compatible with very ferious and

errors.

If then

genius can by temptations of various

miftake,
efFedt

be led into pradical

may we

not reafonably entertain a fear refpeding the

all

of that fituation which of

?

others

is

moft pregnant with

to mif-

temptation

If confiderations of infei-ior note be apt

lead the mind,

what

fhall

we

think of this moft intoxicating

all

draught, of a condition fuperior to reftraint, ftripped of

accidents

thofe

and

viciflitudes

from which the morality of human

beings has flowed, with no falutary check, with no intellectual

warfare where mind meets mind on equal terms, but perpetually

furrounded

with

fycophants,

fervants

and dependents

To

fuppofe a mind in which genius and virtue are united and per-

manent,

is alfo

undoubtedly to fuppofe fomething which no

cal*

culation will teach us to expedl fhould offer

upon every vacancy.

imagine to ourfelves

And,

if

the

man

could be found,

we muft

electors almoft as virtuous as the eleCted, or elfe error and pre-

judice, faction and intrigue will render his eleCtion at leaft precarious, perhaps improbable.

Add

to this that

it is

fufficiently

evident from the unalterable evils of

monarchy already enumerated.

438

OF ELECTIVE MONARCHY,
V.
'

BOOK
'

rated,

and which
firft

I fhall

cHAP.vir.

prefently have occafion to recapitulate, f J

-V

that the

ad

of fovereignty in a virtuous monarch, v\^hofe

virtiie,

difcernment was equal to his

conftltution,

would be

to annihilate the

which had

railed

him

to a throne.

ofthefecond.

But we

Will fuppofe the purpofe of inftituting

an eledive

monarchy not

to be that of conftantly filling the throne

with a

man of fublime genius,

but merely to prevent the fovereignty from

falling to the lot of perfons

is

of notorious mental imbecility.

it

Such
be

the ftrange and pernicious nature of monarchy, that

this

may

doubted whether

be a benefit.

Wherever monarchy

exifts,

courts and adminiftrations niuft, as long as

men

can fee only

its

with their eyes and

attendants.

ad

only with their hands, be

conftant

But thefe have already appeared to be inftitutions

one of the greatefl
injuries that

fo mifchievous, that perhaps

can

be done to mankind

is

to

perfuade them of their Innocence.

Under the moft virtuous defpot favour and intrigue, the unjuft
exaltation of one
exift.

man and

depreffion of another will not

fail

to
is

Under

the moft virtuous defpot the true fpring there

in mind, the defire to poffefs merit,

and the confcioufnefs that

it,

merit will not

fail

to

make

itfelf

perceived by thofe around

and through their efteem to

off ;

rife to its

proper fphere, will be cut

fubftituted in
is

and mean and faditious motives be

is it

its

room.

Of what confequence

that

my

merit

perceived

by mortals
fliut

who
his

have no power to advance

it ?

The monarch,

up

in

fanduary and furrounded with

formalities, will never hear

of
it

OF ELECTIVE MONARCHY.
It.

439

in the

How

fhould he

Can he know what

?

is

paffiae;

T^OOK v.

CHAP. VII
"

remote corners of his kingdom

bloffbms of genius and virtue
their
?

Can he

trace the

firil

timid

'

The

people themfelves will lofe

difcernment of thefe things, becaufe they will perceive

their difcernment to

be powerlefs in effeds.

The

offspring of

mind

is

daily facrificed

by hecatombs

to the genius

of monarchy.

The
in

feeds of reafon

and truth become barren and unprodudlive

climate.

this

unwholefome

And

the example

perpetually

exhibited of the preference of wealth and craft over integrity and

talents,

produces the moll: powerful

effedts

upon

that mafs of

mankind,

who

at

firfl:

fight

may

appear lead concerned in the

mifchief,.

objedts of generous ambition.

This

to

whatever

it

amounts, becomes more ftrongly faftened upon us under a good

monarch than under

reflrains

a bad one.

In the

latter

cafe
it

it

only

our

efforts

by

violence, in the former

feduces our

underltandings.

To
is

palliate

the

defeats

and fkin over the

is

deformity of what

fundamentally wrong,

certainly very

perilous, perhaps very fatal to the

bed

interefls.

of mankind..

queftion has been flarted, ^

whether
'

it

be pofFible to blend Can

the
conftitution

elcflfve

and heredi-

eledlive

and

hereditai-y '
cited as

monarchy,

and

of 'f y '"O""!-cliy be corn'^'"'^-

England has been

an example of
at

this pofTibllity.

What
when They
fill

was
they

it

that the parliament effecfted

the revolution, and

?

fettled the fucceflion

upon the houfe of Hanover

eleded not an individual, but a

throne of thefe kingdoms.

new

race of

men

to

the

They gave

a pradical

inftance of
their.

440

OF ELECTIVE MONARCHY.
V.
'

BOOK
' .

ti^elr

power upon extraordinary emergencies

At
the fame time
it

to

change the

fucceffion.

however

that they efFeded this in

adion, they denied

in words.

They employed

the ftrongeft

expreffions that language could

heirs

furnifli to

bind themfelves, their

and pofterity for ever

to

adhere to this fettlement.

They

confidered the prefent as an emergence, which, taking into the

account the precautions and reflritlions they had provided, could

never occur again.

In

reality

what

fort

of fovereignty
?

is

that

which

is

partly

hereditary and partly elective

race of

That the

accefFion of a family or

men

fhould originally be a matter of eledion has nothing

it.

particular in

All government
fort

is

founded in opinion

and

undoubtedly fome

of election,

made by

a body of electors
eftabliihment.

more or
^

lefs

extenlive, originated every

new

To
and

whom

in

this

amphibious government does the fovereignty

firft

belong upon the death of the

defcendants.
is

poflefTor

To

his heirs

What
a

fort

of choice

fhall that

be confidered, which
?

made of

man

half a century before he begins to exift

?

By
of

what defignation does he fucceed

hereditary defcent.

Undoubtedly by

that

A king of England therefore holds his crown

it

independently, or, as

has been energetically exprefled, " in con*.

tempt" of the choice of the people

* This argument
is

ftated

with great copioufnefs and

irrefifllble

force of

teafoning by Mr. Burke towards the beginning of his Reflelions on the Revolution in France.

CHAP..

441

CHAP.

viir.

OF LIMITED MONARCHY.
LIABLE TO MOST OF THE PRECEDING OBJECTIONS

FARTHER OBJECTIONS PECULIAR TO

SIBILITY CONSIDERED.

ITSELF.

TO RESPON-

DO NO WRONG.
QUIRED.

MAXIM, THAT THE KING CAN FUNCTIONS OF A LIMITED MONARCH.

IMPOSSIBILITY OF MAINTAINING THE NEUTRALITY RE-

OF THE DISMISSION OF MINISTERS. RESPONSIBILITY OF MINISTERS. APPOINTMENT OF MINISTERS,

ITS

IMPORTANCE

ITS

DIFFICULTIES.

RECAPITULA-

TION.

STRENGTH
to
it

AND WEAKNESS OF THE HUMAN

SPECIES.

PROCEED

confider monarchy,
is

not

as

it

exlfls

In
*

BOOK
CHAP.

V.
'

VIII.

countries where
it

unlimited and defpotic, but, as in cer-

tain inftances

has appeared, a branch merely of the general

conftitution.

Here

it

is
it

only neceflary to recoiled the objeftions which

its

Liable to

applied to

in

unqualified

ftate, in

order to perceive that they

if

preceding'

^'"'

bear upon

'""'*

it

with the fame explicitnefs,

poffible

not with equal force,

the

under every

modification.

Still

government

is

founded

442

OF LIMITED MONAPvCHY.
V.
'

BOOK
*

CHAP.VIU.
^

founded in falfhood, affirming that a certain individual ' '^

is

emi-

nently qualified for an important fituation, whofe qualifications

are pei-haps fcarcely fuperior to thofe of the meaneft

member of

the community.

Still

the government
for a

is

founded

in injuftice,

becaufe

it

raifes

one

man

permanent duration over the heads

of the
tion he

reft

of the community, not for any moral recommendabut arbitrarily and by accident.
Still it

pofTelTes,

reads

a conftant and powerful leffon of immorality to the people, at

large, exhibiting

pomp and

fplendour and magnificence inftead

of virtue,
individual
unfitted

as the
is,

index to general veneration and efteem.

lefs

The

not

than in

the moft abfolute monarchy,

either refpedlable or ufeful.

by

his education to

become

He

is

unjuftly and cruelly placed in a fituation that engenders

ignorance, weaknefs and prefumption, after having been ftripped.

in his infancy of
all

the energies that fhould defend

him

againft

the inroads of thefe adverfaries.

that of a train of courtiers

Finally, his exiftence implies

feries

and a

of intrigue, of

fervility,

fecret influence, capricious partialities

and pecuniary corruption.

that

So true

is

the obfervation of Montefquieu,

"

we muft

not

exped under

monarchy

to find the' people virtuous*."

to farther
plijeStions

gut

if

wc

coufider the queftion

more narrowly, we
abfurdities

fhall

peculiar to
itfelf.

perhaps find, that limited

vices
*

monarchy has other

its

and

which
// n'e/I

are peculiarly

own.

In an abfolute fovereignty
tnais il ejl

'

pas rare quit y

que

ait des princes

vertueux

,-

tres

difficile

dans

m monarchie

le pexiple lefoit."

Efprit des Loitt, Liv. Ill, Chap, F.

the

OF LIMITED iMONARCHY.
the king

44.3
II-

may

if

he pleafe be his

own

minifter

but in a

BOOK v.
CHAP.
'

V'l'U.
'

mited one a miniftry and a cabinet are

conftitution.

eiTential parts

of the

In an abfolute fovereignty princes are acknow-

ledged to be refponfible only to

is

God

but in a limited one there

nature.

a refponfibility of a very

different

In

limited

monarchy

there are checks,

one branch of the government

counterading the exceffes of another, and a check without

refponfibiliry
is

the moft flagrant of

all

contradidlons.

There

is

no

fubjedl that deferves to be

more maturely conis

Rtfponfi"

fidered than this of refponfibility.

liable

To

be refponfible

to be

(ide/ed."

to be called into

an open judicature, v/here the accufer

their

and the defendant produce

equal
terms.
that

allegations
is

and evidence on
mockery.

Every thing
to

fhort of this
either
is

Every

thing

would give

party

any other influence

than that of truth and virtue

of
juflilce.

fubverfive of the great ends

He

that

is

^arraigned of

any crime muft defcend

If

a private individual to the level plain of juftice.

bias the fentiments of his judges by his poffeflion

he can

of power,
or

or
the

by any compromife previous

mere fympathy excited
in
left

to

his

refignation,

by
not

his

fucceffors,

who

will
j.l

be fevere in their cenfures,

feverity in return,
all.

they fhould be
faid to

treat

with

he cannot truly be

be refponfible at

From

the honeft infolence of defpotifm w^e

efl'efts,

may

perhaps
dif-

promlfe ourfelves better

than from the hypocritical

claimers of a limited government.

nicious than falfhood,

Nothing can be moi-e per-

and no falfhood can be more palpable

3

than

444

OF LIMITED MONARCHY.
VII
r. '

BOOK -v.
CHAP.
'

than that which pretends to put a weapon into the hands of the r I r
general intereft,

which conftantly proves blunt and powerlefs in

the very

aifl

to ftrike,

Maxim,
tlie

that

It

was a confufed

feeling of thefe truths, that introduced into

king can do no wrong,

limited monarchies the

principle "that

the king can

do no

wrong."

Obferve the peculiar confiftency of this proceeding.

it

Confider what a fpecimen

nefs

affords us of plain dealing, frank-

and unalterable fmcerity.

with the moft

An

individual

is firfl

appointed,

and endowed
it is

momentous

prerogatives, and then

pretended that, not he, but other

men are

anfwerable for the

abufe of thefe prerogatives.

to

This pretence

may

appear tolerable

men

bred

among
from
it

the fiftions of law, but juflice, truth and

virtue revolt

with indignation.

Functions of a limited

Having

lirft

invented this fition,

it

becomes the bufinefs of

realife
it.

monaich.

fuch conftitutions as nearly as poflible to

A
;

miniilry

muft be regularly formed

they muft concert together

and the

meafures they execute muft originate in their

own

difcretion.

The king muft

far as

be reduced
to

as

nearly as poflible to a cypher.

fo,

So

he

fails

be completely

the conftitution muft be

imperfet.

"What

fort

of figure
I

is it

that this miferable wretch exhibits in

is

the face of the world

Every thing
affumes
all

with great parade tranf-

aded

in his

name.

He

the inflated and oriental ftyle

which

has been already defcribed,

and which indeed was upon

that

OF LIMITED MONARCHY.
that occafion tranfcribed

445
monarchy. BOOK " ;
CHAP.
*'

from the pradlice of a limited ^

v.
Vlli. ^

We

find

him

like

Pharaoh's frogs " in our houfes and upon our

beds, in our ovens and our kneading troughs."

Now

obferve the

man

himfelf to

whom

all

this

importance

is

annexed.

To

be

idle is

the abftradt of

all

his

duties.
eat,

He

is

paid an immenfe revenue only to dance and to

fcarlet

to

wear a

robe and a crown.

He may

not choofe any one of his

meafures.

He

muft

liften

with docility to the confultations of

aflent

his minifters,

and fanlion with a ready

muft not hear any other
conilitutional counfellors.

whatever they
for tliey are

determine.
his

He

advifers,

known and
any man

He

muft not exorefs

fmifter and

to

his opinion, for that

interference.

would be a

un-

conftitutional

To

be abfolutely perfedl he muft

have no opinion, but be the vacant and colourlefs mirror by

which

theirs

is

reflected.
;

He

fpeaks, for they have taught

him

what he fhould fay

he

affixes his fignature, for

they inform

him

that

it is

neceifary and proper.

limited
J
.

monarchy
,

in the articles I
!
1 1

have defcribed might be

r

Impofflbillty

executed with great tacihty and applaufe,

o
. .

r-

if a

king were what

a mere pupi)et

of maiiUaining the neutrality re-

fuch a conititution endeavours to render him,

regulated

quired.

by

pullies

and wire^.

But

it

is

perhaps the moft

egregious and palpable of

all political

miftakes to imagine that

ftate

we

can reduce a

human

being to

this

of neutrality and
adlivity, but

torpor.

He
6

will not exert

any

ufeful

and true

he
will

446

OF LIMITED MONARCHY.
will be far
^

B30KV,
'^

from

pafTive.

The more he

Is

excluded from that

energy that charadlerifes wifdom and virtue, the more depraved

and unreafonable
vacant, and do
it

w^ill

he be in his caprices.

Is

any promotion

we

expert that he will never think of bellowing

on a favourite, or of proving
that

by an

occafional eleftion of his

own

he

really exifts

This promotion

may happen
;

to
;

be of

the utmofl importance to the public welfare

or, if not

every
will

promotion unmeritedly given

an upright minifter
fail

is

pernicious to national virtue, and

it.

will refufe to affent to

king does not

to hear his
at

power and prerogatives extolled, and he

wifli to eiTay their reality in

no

doubt

fome time

an unprovoked

war

againft a foreign nation or againft his

own

citizens.

To

fuppofe that a king and his minifters fliould through a

period of years agree in their genuine fentiments

public topic,
is

upon every
authorifes.

what human nature

king

in

no degree

This

is

to attribute to the

talents equal to thofe

leaft

of the moll

enlightened ftatefmen,

or at

to

imagine him capable of

all

underllanding
views.
It is to

all

their projeds,

and comprehending

their

fuppofe

him

unfpoiled

by

education, undebauched
difpofed to receive the

by rank, and with a mind ingenuoufly

impartial lefTons of truth.

Ofthedifmiffion of
mlnlilers.

But,
'\^q
{\^^\i

if

they difagree, the king can choofe other minifters.'*

prefently have occafion to confider this prerogative in

;

a general view

let

us for the prefent examine

it

in

its

applica-

tion

OF LIMITED MONARCHY.
tion to the differences that
his fervants.
It is

447

occur between the fovereisrn and I^OOK v. ^ CHAP. viir. ^ an engine for ever fufpcnded over the heads

may ^

'

''

of the

latter to

perfuade them to depart from the flernnefs of

their integrity.

The compHance
at firft

that the king

;

demands from

them

is

perhaps
thinks
it

but fmall

and the miniftcr, flrongly

prefTed,

better to facrifice his opinion in this inferior

office.

point than to facrifice his

leads

One compliance of

this fort

on

to another,

and he that began perhaps only with the

for diflindiion ends with the
this point, the

preference of an

unworthy candidate

moft atrocious political guilt.

greater will
its

The more we confider

It will

magnitude appear.

rarely

happen but that

the minifter will be

more dependent

for his exiftence

on the king,

than the king upon his minifter.

When it is

othervvife, there will be

a mutual compromife, and both in turn will part with every thing
that
is

firm, generous, independent

and honourable in man.

And

in the

mean time what becomes of

refponfibility

The

meafures are mixed and confounded as to their fource, beyond

the

Rcfponfibf'"""'
fto-s!

power of human ingenuity

impoffible.

to unravel.

Refponfibility

is

in

reality

"Far otherwife,"
:

cries

the

advocate

of

monarchical government

"

it is

true that the meafures are partly

thofe of the king and partly thofe of the minifter, but the minifter is refponfible for all."

Where

is

the juftice

of that

It

were better

to

leave

guilt

wholly without cenfure, than to

condemn
cafe the

man

for crimes of

which he

is

innocent.

In this

grand criminal efcapes with impunity, and the feverity

of

448

OF LIMITED MONARCHY.
of the law
falls

wholly upon his coadjutors.

The

coadjutors
all

receive that treatment

which

confiitutes the eflence of

bad

policy

punifhment
is

is

profufely

menaced

againft them,

and

antidote

wholly forgotten.

They

are propelled to vice

by

irrefiftible
it
;

temptations, the love of

power and the

defire to retain

and then cenfured with a rigour altogether difproportioned

to their fault.
injuftice,

The

vital principle

of the fociety

is

tainted with

and the fame negledt of equity and

itfelf

partial refpet

of

perfons will extend

over the whole.

Appointnitteis, its

proceed to confider that prerogative in limited monarchy,

is

which, whatevcr others [may be given or denied,

infeparable

importance.

/-./-in from fubitance,

Its

the prerogative

rii* or the king

to

nominate to
this

public

offices.

If

any thing be of importance, furely

mull

be of importance, that fuch a nomination be made with wifdom

and

integrity, that the fitted perfons

be appointed to the higheft

trufts the ftate has to confer, that

an honefi: and generous ambifhall

tion be cherifhed, and that

men who

moil ardently qualify

themfelves for the care of the public welfare be fecure of having

the
largefi:

fhare in

its

fuperintendence.

Its diffituU
'''^^"

This nomination

is

a moft arduous tafk,

It

and requires the

wariefl circumfpetion.

approaches more nearly than any

other affair of political fociety to the exercife of difcretion.

In

all

other cafes the line of redlitude feems vifible and diftind.

Juflice in the contefts of individuals, juftice in queftions of peace

and

OF
and war, withdraw
enquirer.
fcattered
;;

L [MI T.ED

MONARCHY.
of law, will not obftlnatelv
^

449

juftlce in the ordination

itfelf

BOOKV.
CHAP.
viir.
'

from the refearch of an impartial and judicious ^~^'

to

But

obferve

the

various

portions

of capacity

through a nation, and minutely to decide of innumerable pretenders,

among
all

the

.qualifications

muft

after

our

accuracy be committed to fome degree of uncertainty.

The

firfl

difficulty

that

occurs

is

to

difcover thofe

whom
to

genius and ability have

office.

made

in the bell fenfe candidates for the

;

Ability

is

not always intrufive

talents

are

often

be found in the remotenefs of a

garret.

village, or the obfcUrity

of a

And, though

felf confcioufnefs

and

felf poiTeffion are to

a certain degree the attributes of genius, yet there are

"things befide falfe modefty, that

many
fhun

may

teach

its

pofleflbr to

the air of a court.

Of

all

men

a king

is leaft

qualified to penetrate thefe recefTes,

and difcover merit in

he cannot mix

its

hiding place.

Encumbered with forms,

of his fpecies.

at large in the fociety

He

is

too

much

engrofled with the femblance of bufinefs or a fucceffion of

to

amufements

have

leifure

for

fuch

obfervations as fhould

afford a juft eftimate of

men's charadlers.

In reality the tafk

benefit can

Is

too mighty for any individual,

fecured by the

and the

only be

mode of elelion.
this prerogative

Other difadvantages attendant on

3

of choofing
his

450

OF LIMITED MONARCHY.
V.
'

BOOK
'

I^^Js

CHAP.VIII.

own

mlnifters

it

is

needlefs to enumerate.

If

enough have

not been already

faid to explain the

charader of a monarch as
is

growing out of the fundions with which he

laboured
repetition in this place

invefted,

would be both tedious and

vain.

If there be

any dependence

to be placed

upon the operation of

found

mor?.l caufes,

a king will in almoft every inftance be

among

the mofl undifcriminating, the mofi:

leail heroically

deceived, the leaft

informed and the

difmtereiled of mankind..

ReeapltulatlOIU

Such then

is

the genuine and uncontrovertible fcene of a

mixed monarchy.
edifice, the

An

individual placed at the

fummit of the

centre

and the fountain of honour, and

who

is

neutral, or
his

mull feem neutral in the current tranfadtions of

This
is

government.

the

firft

leiTon of

honour, virtue and

its-

truth,

which mixed monarchy reads

to

fubjeds,

Next
;

to the king

come
by

his adminiftration

and the

tribe

of courtiers

men
venal

driven
;

a fatal neceffity to be corrupt, intriguing and,

feleded for their truft by the

;

moft ignorant and

folely

ill

informed of their countrymen

made

accountable
;

for

meafures of which they cannot folely be the authors

ened,
if difhoneft,

threatj

with the vengeance of an injured people

and, if honeft,
difpleafure.

with the furer vengeance of their fovereign's

reft

The

of the nation, the fubjeds

at large

Was

ever a

name
?

fo fraught

with degradation and meanne{s

as

this of fubjeds

am,

it

feems, by the very place of

my

birth

become

OF LIMITED MONARCHY.
become a
fubjedl.
^

451

Of

what, or
_

whom

Can an

honefl;

man BOOK
*

v.
'

cuAP.viri.
'

confider himfelf as the fubjed of any thing but the laws of juftice?

Can he acknowledge
his

a fuperior, or hold himfelf

bound

to fubmit

judgment

to the will
?

of another, not

lefs

liable

than himfelf

to prejudice and error

Such

is

the idol that

monarchy worfhips

in lieu of the divinity of truth

and the facred obligation of

whether

public

good.

It

is

of

litde

confequence

we vow

fidelity to the

king and the nation, or

to the nation

and the king,

fo

long as the king intrudes himfelf to tarnifh and undermine

the true fimplicity, the altar of virtue.

Are mere names beneath our no

fmifter influence

notice,
?

and will they produce

upon

the

mind

May we

bend the knee

?

before the fhrine of vanity and folly without injury

vdfe.

Far other-

Mind had

its

beginning in fenfation, and

its

it

depends upon

words and fymbols

for the progrefs of

aflbciations.

The

true

good man muft not only have a heart

eredt.

refolved,

but a front

We

cannot pradife abjedion, hypocrify and meannefs,

without becoming degraded in other men's eyes and in our own.

We
calls

cannot "

bow

the head in the temple of

Rimmon," without

in fome degree apoftatifing from the divinity of truth.

a king a

He

that

man,

will perpetually hear

is

from

his

own mouth
:

the leffon, that he

calls

unfit for the truft repofed in

him
fafl:

he that
into the

him by any fublimer

appellation,
erroi-s.

is

haflening

moll palpable and dangerous

M3

But

452

OF LIMITED
V.

MONARCHY.

But perhaps mankind are fo weak and imbecll, that it is in ' ^ ^ CHAP. VJJI. < vain to expert feom the chane:e of their inftitutions the improver r o
Strength and
ji

BOOK

"

:*

weaknefsof
the

human

j^gnt of their charader."

Who

made them weak and

imbecil

pccies.

Previoufly to
defedl.

human

inftitutions

they had certainly none of this

is

Man

confidered in himfelf

merely a bejng capable of

impreffion,
abftrat

a recipient of perceptions.

What

is

there in this
?

charader that precludes him from advancement

faint difcovery in

We

have a
nature

individuals at prefent of
fit

what our

is

capable

why

fhould individuals be
?

for fo

much,

and the

fpecies for nothing

Is there

any thing
?

in the ftrudiure

of the globe that forbids us to be virtuous

If no, if nearly all

our impreffions of right and wrong flow from our intercourfe

with each other, v/hy
modification and

may

not that intercourfe be fufceptible of

?

amendment

It is

the

moft cowardly of

all

fyftems that would reprefent the difcovery of truth as

ufelefs,.

and teach us

that,

when

difcovered,

it

is

our wifdom to leave

the mafs of our fpecies in error.

There

is

not in reality the fmalleft

room
is

for fcepticlfm refped:--

ing the omnipotence of truth.

Truth

the pebble in the lake

circles

and however flowly in the prefent cafe the

other, they will infallibly

fucceed each

go on

till

they overfpread the furface.

the.

No

order of mankind will for ever remain ignorant of

principles of juftice, equality

and public good.

No

fooner will,

they underftand them, than they will perceive the coincidence

of virtue and public good with private intereft:

nor will any

erroneous

OF LIMITED MONARCHY.
erroneous
eftablifhment

453Itfelf

be

able

efFedlually ^

to

fupport ^^

BOOK v.
CHAP. VIU.
^

againfl general opinion.

In this contefl fophiftry will vanifh,

quietly into negledl.

'

and mifchievous
will bring

inftitutions fink
all

Truth

down

her forces, mankind will be her army, and

oppreffion,

injuftice,

monarchy and

vice

will

tumble into a

common

ruin.

CHAP.

454

CHAP.

IX.

OF A PRESIDENT WITH REGAL POWERS.

ENUMERATION OF POWERS
INFERIOR OFFICES

THAT

OF APPOINTING TO

OF PARDONING OFFENCES

OF

CONVOKING DELIBERATIVE ASSEMBLIES

A FETO TO THEIR DECREES.
OF KING

OF AFFIXING CONCLUSION. THE TITLE

AND ARISTO-

ESTIMATED.

MONARCHICAL

CRATICAL SYSTEMS, SIMILARITY OF THEIR EFFECTS.

BOOK V.
CHAP.
^
V

IX.
'

Q\ TILL monarchy ^

^^ ^

it

feems has one refuge

left.

"

We

will

not,"

fay fome
to

men, " have an hereditary monarchy, we

be an enormous
injuftice.

acknowledge that

We

are not

contented with an elective monarchy,

a limited one. tenure be for

we

are not contented with

if

We

admit the

office

however reduced,
But

the

life,

to be

an intolerable grievance.
magiftrates and
?

why

not

have kings,

as

we have

legiflative

aflemblies,

renewable by frequent eletions

holder of the
office as often as

We may

then change the

we

pleafe."

Enumeration of

Let US not be feduced by a mere

plaufibility

of phrafe, nor
their

powers:

employ words without having refleded

on

meaning.

What

OF A PRESIDENT WITH REGAL POWERS.

What
rr1

455

are

we

to underftand
.

by the
r

appellation, a kinc;
r

If the

BOOK V.
CHAP.
*

office

have any meaning,

it,

IX.
'

it

leems realonable that the

man who

holds
certain

fhould poflefs the privilege, either, of appointing to

at his

employments

own
or

difcretion, or of remitting the

decrees of criminal juftice,

of convoking and

difmifling-

popular afTemblies, or of affixing and refufing his fandtion to the

decrees of thofe afTembfies.

Mofl of thefe privileges may claim a

refpedable authority in the powers delegated to their prefitlent

by

the United States of America.

Let us however bring thefe ideas to the touchflonc of reafon.

that of ap'"

Nothing can appear more adventurous than the repofing, unlefs

in cafes of abfolute neceffity, the decifion of

infe"'"^ tenor
offices r

any

affair

of import-

ance to the public, in the breafl of one man.

will fcarcely be alledged in

But

this neceffity

any of the

articles jufl

enumerated.

What
of

advantage does one

in

man
?

poflefs over a fociety or council

men

any of thefe

refpe^Ss

The

difadvantages under which

he labours are obvious.

eafily mifled.

He

is

more eafdy corrupted, and more

He

cannot pofFefs fb

many

advantages for obtainliable to the

ing accurate information.

attacks of paffion

He

is

abundantly more

and

caprice, of

unfounded antipathy

to

one

man and
idolatry.

partiality to another,

of uncharitable cenfure or blind

;

He
in

cannot be always upon his guard

there will be
is

moments
fiirprife.

which the moft exemplary vigilance

are placing the fubjed in

liable to

Meanwhile we
"

much

too

favourable-

456

"OF
IX.
'

A
We

PRESIDENT
are

BOOKV.
CHAP.
*-

favourable a lieht. ^

fuppofine o rr

his
^

Intentions

to

be

upright and juft

the truth.
are

but the contrary of this will be more frequently

"Where powers beyond the capacity of

human

nature

intrufted, vices the difgrace of

human

nature will be en-

gendered.

Add

to this,' that the

it

fame reafons, which prove that

fhould be directed by the fenfe
that,

government, wherever
of the people
at

exifts,

large,

equally prove

wherever public

officers are neceffary, the fenfe

of the whole, or of a body of

men moft

nearly approaching in fpirit to the whole, ought to

decide on their pretenfions.

of pardoning

Thcfc objelIons are applicable to the moft innocent of the

privileges above enumerated, that of appointing to the exercife

of certain employments.
fider the other privileges.

The

cafe will be
fhall

ftill

worfe

if

we

con-

"We

have occafion hereafter to

offences, confidered inde-

examine the propriety of pardoning

pendently of the perfons in
the

whom

that

power

is

vefted

but, in

mean

time,

can any thing be more intolerable than for a

fmgle individual to be authorifed, without affigning a reafon,

or affigning a reafon

upon which no one

is

allowed to pronounce,

to fuperfede the grave decifions of a court of juftice,

of con-

founded

upon
af-

a careful and public examination of evidence

Can any

beradve

thing be morc unjuft than for a fmgle individual to affiime the

fundion of informing a nation when they

are to deliberate,

and

when they
1

are to ceafe

from deliberation

The

WITH REGAL
The
remaining privilege
is

POWERS.

457

of too iniquitous a nature to be an

not in the compafs of credibility to
fpe(flators,
fet

objed: of

much

terror.

It is

conceive, that

any people would remain quiet

while
againfl

the fenfe of one

man was

openly and undifguifedly

the fenfe of the national reprefentative in frequent affembly, and

fufFered to

overpower

it.

Two

or three diredl inftances of the

fail

exercife of this negative could not

to annihilate
exift,

it

for ever.

Accordingly, wherever

it is

fuppofed to

we

find

it

foftened
;

and

nouriflied

by the

genial

dew of pecuniary

corruption

cither

rendered unneceflary beforehand by a

frailty

finiller application to

the

of individual members, or difarmed and made palatable in

the fequel

by a copious effufion of venal

it

emollients.

If

it

can in \
]

any

cafe

be endured,

mufi: be in countries
pofleffes the
is

where the degenepublic,

] j

rate reprefentative

no longer

fympathy of the

and the haughty prefident

exalted anceftry

made

facred,

by

the blood of an

which flows through

his veins, or the

holy

oil \
hi-s

which the
head.

reprefentatives of the

Moft High have poured on

by

common

mortal,

periodically feleted

his fellow- (

/
/
/

^7 ^
i^U^

citizens to poflefs this

watch over

their interefts, can never be fuppofed. to ,/

flupendous yirtue.

If there be
that there are

any truth

in thefe reafonings,

it

inevitably follows

Conclufio*.

no important fundlons of general fuperintendence

If the office of

that can juftly be delegated to a fingle individual.

a prefident be neceflary, either in a deliberative aflembly or an

adminiftrative

council, fuppofing fuch a council

to

exift,

his

employment

458

OFAPRESIDENT
V. IX.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
*

employment
-^
"^

will

have relation to the order of their proceedins;s,

_

and by no means

confifi:

in the arbiu-ary preferring

and carrying

into effedl his private decifion.

A king,

if

unvarying ufage can

lingle

have given meaning to a word, deiigns a

difcretion

man upon whofe

is

fome

part of the public intereft

made

to

depend.

What

ufe can there be for fuch a

?

man
its

in an unperverted

and

well ordered Hate

With

refpedl to

internal affairs certainly

none.

How

far the ofEce

can be of advantage in our tranfac-

tions with foreign

governments

we

fhall hereafter

have occafion

to decide.

The

title

of

L^^ ^s bcware by an unjuflifiable perverfion of terms of con-

the kingeftimated.

founding the
the well
if there

common

underftanding of mankind.

king

is

known and

ftanding appellation for an office, which,

be any truth in the arguments of the preceding chapters,

has

been the bane and the grave of

is

human
entitled

virtue.

Why

endeavour to purify and exorcife what

tion
?

only to execra-

Why

not fuffer the term to be as well underftood and as

cordially detefted, as the once honourable appellation of tyrant

afterwards was

among

the Greeks

Why

not fuffer

it

to reft

a perpetual

monument of the
?

folly, the

cowardice -and mifery of

our fpecies

Monarchical and ariftoeraticai

proceeding from the examination of monarchical to that ... ~, of aniiocratical government, it is impoffible not to remark that
/

IN

there

WITH REGAL POWERS.

there are feveral difadvantages
is

^-g
thefe

common
The

to both.

One of

BOOK
CHAP.
^

v. IX.
'

the creation of a feparate intereft.

benefit of the

governed

fyftems, fimiis

made

to lie
It

on one
is

fide,

and the benefit of the governors on

to fay that individual intereft to

i^^'tyoftiieir

the other.

to

no purpofe

accurately underftood will always be found

general, if
it

coincide

with

appear in pradice, that the opinions and errors of

mankind

are perpetually feparating

them and placing them

in

oppofition to each other.

in a fphere diftinl
this

The more

the governors are fixed

will

and

diftant

from the governed, the more

in

error

be cheriOied.

Theory,

order to

produce

an

adequate effel upon

the mind, fhould be favoured, not countei-

aded, by pradice.

What

principle in

human
is,

nature

is

more

univerfally confeffed than felf love, that

than a propenfity to

think individually of a private intereft, to difcriminate and divide

objedts

which the laws of the univerfe have

unlefs
it

indiflblubly united

None,

be the

ejprit

de corps, the tendency of bodies of

a
fpirit,

men

to

aggrandife

themfelves,
is ftill

which, though

lefs

ardent than felf love,

the
accidents

more

vigilant,

and not expofed to

of

fleep,

indifpofuion

and mortality.

Thus

it

appears that,
thofe afforded

of

all

Impulies to a narrow, felf-interefted

condud

by monarchy and

ariftocracy are the greateft.

Nor muft we be

too hafty and undiftinguifliing in applying

the principle, that individual intereft accurately underftood will

always be found to coincide with general.

viduals confidered as

Relatively to indi-

men
3

it

is

true

relatively to individuals

confidered

45o

OF A PRESIDENT
V.
-'

WITH REGAL POWERS.

it is falfe.

BOOK
'^'

CHAP. IX.
o

confidered as lords and kings ^

The man

will be ferved
intereft,

by

the facrifice of

all

his little

peculium to the public

but the king will be annihilated.

The

firft

facrifice that juftice

is

demands

at

the hand of

monarchy and

ariftocracy,

that

of

their immunities

and prerogatives.

Public intereft dictates the

laborious difTemination of truth and the impartial adminiftration of juftice.

Kings and lords

fubfift

only under favour of

error and oppreflion.

They
;

will therefore refift the progrefs

of

knowledge and illumination

their occupation
is

the

moment the

deceit

is difpelled,.

gone.

In thus concluding however

ariftocracy will be
as

we

are taking for granted that

inftitutioHj

found an arbitrary ^and pernicious

to be.
It
is

monarchy has already appeared

is

time that WCL

cafe*.

ihould enquire in what degree this

adually the

CHAP.

46r

H A

P.

X.

OF HEREDITARY DISTINCTION.
BIRTH CONSIDERED AS A PHYSICAL CAUSE
CAUSE.
SPECIES.

AS

A.

MORAI,

ARISTOCRATICAL ESTIMATE OF THE HUMAN

EDUCATION

OF

THE GREAT.

RECAPITULAmonarchy
but moft
n
v

TION.

A
.

PRINCIPLE
1

deeply Interwoven with both

.

BOOK
^

and anftocracy in
^

-n

their

moft nourifhing

r,

n
flate,

CHAP.X.
^

w
a.

Birth con-

deeply with the

,

latter,

Is

that of hereditary preheminence.

No
HaS'
?

fidcred as

phyfical

principle can preient a deeper iniult

upon realon and

juftice^

caiife^

Examine

the

new born

fon of a peer and a mechanic.

nature defignated in different lineaments their future fortune

Is

one of them born- with callous hands and an ungainly form

trace in the other the early
?

Can you

promife of genius and

underftanding, of virtue and honour

that " nature will break out *,"

We

have been, told indeed,

and that
tower

" The

eaglet of a valiant nsft will quickly

to the region of his fire * ;"

Up
and the
tale

was once

believed.

But mankind

will not

foon

again be perfuaded, that one lineage of

human

creatures produces

beauty and virtue, and another vice.

* Tragedy of Douglas, Adl

iii.

4U3

or
An
if ^ve

HEREDITARY DISTINCTION.
and unfounded
will quickly be refuted
is

BOOK V.
CHAP.
s
-.

affertioa thus bold

X. -^

confider the queftion a priori.

;

Mmd

the creature of

fenfation

we have no
mind

other inlet of knowledge.

What

are

the fenfations that the lord experiences in his mother's

womb,
?

bv which
Is there

his

is

made

different

from

that of the peafant

any variation

in the finer reticulated fubftance of the

is

brain,

by which the

lord

adapted to receive clearer and ftronger

the fmith
?

impreflions than the

hufbandman or

" But
veins."

a generous blood circulates in his heart

and enriches
?

his

What

are

we

to underftand

by

this hypothefis

Men's

adions are the creatures of their perceptions.

hends moll ftrongly will acl moft intrepidly.

He
He,

that apprein

whofe
its

mind

truth
is

is

moft diftindly impreffed, who, underftanding

aware of
its

nature,
felt

beft

value, will fpeak with the moft heartgreateft brilliancy

perfuafion,

and write with the

and energy.

By

intrepidity and firmnefs in action we muft

either underftand

the judicious and deliberate conftancy of a Regulus or a Cato,

or the brute courage of a private foldier, which

is

ftillan affair
affords

of mind, confifting in a

flight eftimate

of

life

which

him

few

pleafures,

and a thoughtlefs and ftupid oblivion of danger.

?

What

has the blood to do with this

cafes the prerequifite
itfelf is a

Health

is

undoubtedly in

moft

of the beft exertions of mind.

difeafe.

But

health

mere negation, the abfence of

man

muft have experienced or imagined the inconveniences of fick-

.6

nefs, before

he can derive pofitive pleafure from the enjoyment of

'

OF
of health.

HEREDITARY DISTINCTION.
Again, however extravagant
. ,

463
efti*

we may

be in our

BOOK
v-

v.

CriAP. X,
true in fadl that the lord enjoys

mate of the benefit of health,

is it

a more vigorous health, experiences a more uniform chearfulnefs,

and

is

lefs

a prey to wearinefs and

languor than the

as a

ruftic

High

birth

may
it

infpire

high thoughts

moral caufe

but

is it

credible that
is

fhould operate inflindively and

when

its

exiftence
affift,

unknown,

while, with every external advantage to

the
Into

nobleft families fo often produce the moft degenerate fons

its

value then as a moral caufe

let

us proceed to enquire.

Tke

perfuafion of

its

excellence in this refpedl

is

an opinion

as a moral
caufe.

probably as old as the inftitution of nobility

itfelf.

The very '

form of
or

etymology of the word '

expreffiftj? X

this
It
is

particular 1

Anftocratical ft'ate of
tl^g

human

government

is

built

upon

this idea.
[apiq^oi].

called ariftocracy

^P"'^''^'^-

the government of the bell

In the writings of Cicero

and the fpeeches of the

Roman

fenate this order of

men

is

ftyled

the " opt'imates" the " virtuous," the " liberal," and the " honeft."
It is

taken for granted, " that the multitude

is

an unruly beaft
intereft

with no fenfe of honour or principle, guided by fordid

or not
unjuft."
lefs

fordid appetite, envious, tyrannical, inconllant

as a confequence,

and
" the

From hence they deduced

neceflity of maintaining

an order of men of liberal education and

fhould either engrofs the government
clafs

elevated fentiments,

who

of the humbler and more numerous

incapable of governing

themfelves, or at leaft ihould be placed as a rigid guard

their
excefles,

upon

with powers adequate to their corredion and

reftraint."

^V'^l

4^54

OF HEREDITARY DISTINCTION.
X.
'

jQOOK V.

CHAP.
^
V

The greater part of thefe reafonings will fall under o r b our examination v;^hen we confider the difadvantages of demoreftraint."

cracy.

So much

as relates to the excellence

of ariftocracy

it is

iieceflary at prefent to difcufs.

The whole
iliould not, as

proceeds upon a fuppofition that,

its

"

if

nobility

hereditary conftitution might feem to imply,

it is

be found originally fuperior to the ordinary rate of moitals,

at leaft rendered eminently fo

by the power of education.

Men,

who grow up

in unpolifhed ignorance

and barbarifm, and are

neceffarily be

chilled with the icy touch of poverty,

muft

expofed

to a thoufand fources of corruption, and cannot have that delicate fenfe of reditude

and honour, which

It is
is

literature

and manly

refinement are found to beftow.

under the aufpices of

engendered.
firft

indulgence and eafe that civilifation

nation

mull have furmounted the difadvantages of a

eftablifhment,

and have arrived at fome degree of leifure and profperity, before

the love of
letters

can take root

among them.

It is

in individuals
;

as in large bodies of

men.

few exceptions

will occur
'

but,

bating thefe,

it

can hardly be expected that men,

who

are

com-

pelled in every

day by laborious corporal

of the day, fhould arrive

efforts to
at great

provide for

the neceffities

expanfion of

mind and comprehenfivenefs of thinking."

Education of 'g'a'

I" Certain parts of this argument there

rpj^g
j.^^j

is

ccnfiderable truth.

philofopher will be the

lafl:

man

to

deny the power

and

OF
that

HEREDITARY DISTINCTION.
It
is

465

and Importance of education.

a

therefore neceflary, either

BOOK
*

V.
-*

/
fyflem fhould be difcovered
for

CHAP. X.
v

fecuring leifure and

profperity to every

member

of the community, or that a parato the

liberal

mount

influence

and authority Ihould be given

ilUterate

and the wife over the

and ignorant.

Now, fuppofmg
is

for the prefent that the former of thefe meafures

impoffible,

it

may

yet be reafonable to enquire whether ariftocracy be the

latter.

moft judicious fcheme for obtaining the

be collected on this fubjeft from

Some hght may

what has already appeared

refpedling education under the head of monarchy.

Education
the
leafl

is

much, but opulent education

Is

of

all
is

Its

modes
be

efficacious.

The

education
is

of words

not to

defpifed, but the education of things

on no account

to be dif-

penfed with.

The former
latter
;

is

of admirable ufe in inforcing and

taken alone,
foul.
is
it is

developing the

but,

when

pedantry and

not learning, a body without a

abilradt perfedion of which mind

Whatever may be the

capable,

we feem
the

at prefent

frequently to need being excited, in the cafe of any

effort,

uncommon
individual.

by motives that addrefs themfelves to

lower

But

fo far as relates to thefe motives, the

clafTes

of man-

kind, had they fufhcient leifure, have greatly the advantage of

the higher.

The

plebeian mufl he the

maker of his own fortune J

plebeian muft expeiSt to
Is

the lord finds his already made.

The

lind himfelf negleded and defpifed in proportion as he

remlfs In

466

OF HEREDITARY DISTINCTION.
V.
'

BOOK
*
'

in cultivating the objeds of efteem

the lord will always be fur-

rounded with fycophants and

flaves.
;

The

lord therefore has

to roufe

no

motive to induftry and exertion

the lethargic,

no ilimulus

him from

" oblivious pool," out of which every

It

finite intellect

originally rofe.

muft indeed be confeffed, that truth does not

need the

alliance

of circumftances, and that a

man may

arrive at

the temple of fame

-

by other pathways than

thofe of mifery

and

diftrefs.

But the lord does not content himfelf with excluding

the fpur of adverfity: he goes farther than this, and provides

himfelf with fruitful fources of effeminacy and error.

Man cannot

offend with impunity againft the great principle of univerfal good.

He that accumulates to himfelf luxuries and titles and wealth to the

injury of the whole, becomes degraded from the rank of

man j
by

and, however he

may

be admired by the multitude,

is

pitied

the wife and wearifome to himfelf.

elet

Hence
to eled:

it

appears, that to
to a poft of

men

to the rank of nobility

is

them

moral danger and a means of depravity ; but that to conftitute

them

hereditarily noble

is

to preclude
all

them, bating a few extra-

ordinary accidents, from

virtue.

the caufes that generate ability and

Rccapitulation.

The

rcafonlngs

we have

here repeated upon the fubjed of

obvious, that nothing can be a
inftilled

hereditary diftintion are

ftronger inftance of the

fo

power of prejudice

in early

youth, than the fat of their having been at any time called in
queftiona

OF HEREDITARY DISTINCTION.
queftion.
legiflator,

467

If

we

why

an hereditary ^ ' not an hereditary moralift or an hereditary poet * ?

can in this manner produce

BOOK
*
-,

v.
'

CHAP.X.

In reality an attempt in either of thefe kinds

rational

would be more

and

feafible

than in the other.

little

From

birth as a phyfical
:

caufe

it

fufEciently appears that

it is

can be expedted

and, for
eafy to

education,

pradlicable in a certain degree, nor

is it

fet limits to that

degree, to infufe poetical or philofophical

emu-

lation into a youthful

mind

but wealth

is

the fatal blaft that

deftroys the hopes of a future harveft.

There was once indeed

feizing the fenfes,

a gallant kind of virtue, that,

by

irrefiflibly

feemed to communicate extenfively to young

men

of birth, the
;

mixed and equivocal accomplifhments of chivalry

but, fince

the fubjedts of moral emulation have been turned from perfonal

prowefs to the energies of

intellect,

and

efpecially

fmce the

field

of that emulation has been more widely opened to the

the
lifts

fpecies,

have been almoft uniformly occupied by thofe, whofe

to ambition, or

narrow circumftances have goaded them

undebauched habits and
fituation in life

whofe

have refcued them from

the poifon of flattery and effeminate indulgence.

* See Paine's Rights of

Man,

H A P.

468

HA

P.

XI.

MORAL EFFECTS OF ARISTOCRACY.

IMPORTANCE OF PRACTICAL
THE INJURY PRODUCED.
BOOKV.
CHAP.
XI.
Importance
of praaical

JUSTICE.

JUSTICE WHICH ARISTOCRACY CREATES.!

SPECIES OF IN ES-TIMATE OF
reft,

EXAMPLES.
of importjufiice.

r^pHERE
I

is

one thing, more than aU the

ance to the well being of mankind,

Can

there

^c any thing problematical or paradoxical in

principle, that
all

this

fundamental

injuftice is injury

and a thoufand times more

injurious

by

its

effeds in perverting the underftanding and over-

turning our calculations of the future, than by the immediate

calamity
it

may

produce

All moral fcience

may

be reduced to

this

one head, calculation

of the future.

We

cannot reafonably expedl virtue from the

if

multitude of mankind,
the condudors of
intereft to

they be induced by the perverfenefs of

affairs to believe that it is

human

not their

be virtuous.

But

this is
is

not the point upon which

elfe

the queftion turns.

Virtue,
is

nothing

but the purfuit of

difcriminates the

'general good. yjuftice,

the ftandard

which

advantage ,of the

many and

of the few, of the whole and a parto

If

MORAL EFFECTS OF ARISTOCRACY.

If this
firft

469

and moft important of

Ihall

all

fubieds be involved in

BOOKV.
CHAP.

obfcurity,

how
The

the well being of mankind be fubftantially ^

xr.
'

promoted-?

mofi: benevolent of

our fpecies will be engaged

in p'tifades of error;

while

the cooler and

more phlegmatic

^edators,

difcerning no evident clue that fhould guide

fit

them

amidft the labyrinth,

down

in felfifh neutrality,

and leave the

complicated fcene to produce

its

own denouement.

It is

true that

human

affairs

can never be reduced to that

ftate

of depravation
always be the

as to reverfe the nature

intereft

of

juftice.

Virtue will

of the individual as well as of the public.

beneficial to the prefent age, as

Immediate virtue will always be

well as to their poflerity.
rife to this excefs,
it

But, though the depravation cannot

will be

abundantly

fufficient to obfcure

the

underftanding, and miflead the condudl.

Human

beings will
juftice be

never be fo virtuous

as

they might eafily be made,

till

the fpecStacle perpetually prefented to their view, and injuftice be

wondered

at as a prodigy..

Of all

tl^e

principles of juftice there

as

is

none
that

fo material to the Species of in juftice which

moral rectitude of mankind

diftinguiftied but

this,

no

man

can

be

ariftocracy
creates..

by

his perfonal merit.

Why

not endeavour to
?.

reduce to pradice fo fimple and fublime a leflon

When

man
has

has proved himfelf a benefactor to the public,

already by laudable perfeverance

when he

cultivated in himfelf talents

to bring

which need only encouragement and public favour

2.

them.
tOi

470

MORALEFFECTS
to maturity, let that

BOOKV.
*

man

be honoured.
are

In a
it

ftate
is

of fociety

-^

where

fiditious diftindions

unknown,

impoffible he

fhould not be honoured.

But

that a

man

fhould be looked up to

with ferviUty and awe, becaufe the king has beftowed on him a
fpurious name, or decorated
fliould

him with

a ribband

that another

wallow

in luxury, becaufe his

anceftor three centuries

ago bled in the quarrel of Lancafter or

York

do we imagine
?

that thefe iniquities can be pradifed without injury

Eftimate of the injury

Lgj; thofe

who

entertain this opinion converfe a

little

with the

produced.

lower Orders of mankind.

nate wretch,
ble

They

will perceive that the unfortu-

who

with unremitted labour finds himfelf incapa-

adequately to feed and clothe his family, has a fenfe of

injuftice rankling at his heart.

" One
Is

he

whom diftrefs has Cpited with the world, whom tempting fiends would pitch upon
men
who
could do them*."

To

do fuch deeds, as make the profperous

Lift

up their hands and wonder

Such
of

is

the education of the

human

fpecies.

Such

is

the fabric

political fociety.

But
than

let

us fuppofe that their fenfe of injuftice were

lefs

acute

it is

here defcribed, what favourable inference can be drawn

?

from

that

Is

not the injuftice real

If the

minds of men be

fo

* Tragedy of Douglas, AQ.

iii.

withered

OF ARISTOCRACY.
withered and ftupefied by the conftancy with which
that they
it is

4^1
pradlifed,
*

BOOK
v

v.
'

do not

feel

the rigour that grinds

?

them

into nothing,

how

does that improve the pidure

Let us for a moment give the reins no reflexion, and endeavour

accurately to conceive the flate of

mankind where

juftice fhould

form the public and general principle.

feelings

In that cafe our moral

would alTume

a firm

and wholfome tone, for they would

not be perpetually counteradled by examples that weakened their

energy and confounded their cleamefs.

becaufe they would

Men

would be

fearlefs,

know

that there

were no

legal fnares lying

in wait for their lives.

They would

be courageous, becaufe no

man would

be prefTed to the earth that another might enjoy

immoderate luxury, becaufe every one would be fecure of the

juft

reward of his induftry and prize of his exertions.

ceafe, for

Jealoufy
injuftice.

and hatred would

they are the offspring of

Every man would fpeak truth with

his neighbour, for there

would
its

be no temptation to falihood and deceit.

level,

Mind would
to

find

for there

would be every thing

encourage

and

to

animate.
ftanding
fatuus,

Science would be unfpeakably improved, for under-

would convert

into a real power,

no longer an

igms-

fhining and expiring

by

turns,

and leading us into

fpecious
miftake.

floughs of fophiftry^ falfe fcience and

All

men would

be difpofed to avow their difpofitions and adions

to fupprefs the juft

none would endeavour

neighbour,
for,

eulogium of his
the

fo

long as there were tongues to record,

fuppreflioa

472

MORAL EFFECTS
V.
'

BOOK
'-^

fuppreffion

CHAP. XI.

--

^^

would be impoffible ^

none
,

fear to

deted the mif-

condud: of his neighbour, for there would be no laws converting

the fincere exprefTion of our convidions into a
libel.

Examples.

Let US

fairly confider for a

moment what

is

the
I

amount of

Injuftice included in the inftitution of ariftocracy.

am

born,

fuppofe, a

Polifli

prince

with an income of ^("300,000 per

annum.

You

are

born a manorial ferf or a Creolian negro, by

foil,

the law of your birth attached to the

and transferable by
In vain
fhall

barter or otherwife to twenty fucceffive lords.

be

your moft generous

efforts

and your unwearied induftry

to free

yourfelf from the intolerable yoke.

birth to wait at
fleep
fleeps

Doomed by

the law of your

the gates of the palace you muft never enter, to

under a ruined weather-beaten roof, while your mafter under canopies of

is

ftate,

to feed

on putrefied

offals

while

the world

ranfacked for delicacies for his table, to labour with-

out moderation or limit under a parching fun while he baflcs in

perpetual floth, and to be rewarded at
lafl

with contempt, repriis

mand,
this. I

flripes

and mutilation.
all

In fat the cafe

worfe than

could endure

that injuftice or caprice could inflidt,

provided
looking

I poifeiTed in the refource

of a firm

mind

the

power of
I

down

with pity

on

my

tyrant,

and of knowing that and

had

that within, that facred character of truth, virtue

forti-

tude,

which

all

his injuflice could not reach.

But a

flave

and a

ferf are

condemned

to flupidity

and

vice, as well as to calamity.

Is

OFARISTOCRACY.
Is all this nothiii"; ^
civil
?

473

Is all this neceirary for

order

Let

it

be recollected that for this diftindtion there

....

the maintenance of
is

BOOK V. CHAP. XL
^^

'

not the fmalleft foundation in the nature of things, that, as

we

have already
of
lords,

faid, there is

no

particular

mould for

the conflrudtion

and that they are born neither better nor worfe than
It is this ftrudture

the pooreft of their dependents.

in
all
its

of ariftocracy
reafon and

fandtuaries

and fragments againft

w^ar.
It is alike

v^'hich

philofophy have declared

confider
it

unjuft,

whether we

in the cafls of India,

the villainage of the feudal

fyftem,

or the defpotifm of the patricians of ancient

Rome

dragging their debtors into perfonal fervitude to expiate loans

th^y could not repay.
degree
virtuous and

Mankind
happy,
till

will never be in

an eminent
poffefs

each

man

fhall
is

that
his

portion of diftindion and no more, to

perfonal
iatereil

which he

entitled
i^

by

merits.

The

diffolution of ariftocracy

equally the
will be

of the oppreffor and the oppreffed.

The one

delivered

from the

liftlefTnefs

of tyranny, and the other from the

brutalifing operation of fervitude.

How
is

long

fhall

we

be told

in vain, " that mediocrity of fortune

the true rampart of

perfonal happinefs

,?"

-,

CHAP.

474

CHAP.

XII.

OF TITLES.
THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY.
DITY.

THEIR

MISERABLE ABSUR-

TRUTH
cafe

THE ONLY ADEQUATE REWARD OF

MERIT.

THE
Their origin
andhiflory.

of mere

titles is

fo abfurd that

It

would deferve ta

be treated only with

mlfchlefs
it

ridicule,

were

it

not for the ferious fyftem was a

that the friend

Impofcs OH mankind.

The
it

feudal

ferocious monfter devouring wherever

came

all

of humanity regards with attachment and

titles

love.

The

fyftem of
length

appears under a different form.

The monfter

is at

deftroyed,

and they

who

followed In his train,

and fattened

upon the

carcafles
it

of thofe he flew, have fluffed his Ikin, and by

ftill

exhibiting

hope

to

terrify

mankind

into patience

and

pufillanimity.

The

fyftem of the Northern invaders, however

titles.

odious, efcaped the ridicule of the fyftem of

When
it

the

feudal chieftains alTurned a geographical appellation,

was from

fome place

really

fubjed to their authority

and there was no

more

abfurdity in the ftyle they afTumed, than in our calling a

at prefent the

man
.

governor of Tangiers or the governor of

In chief or the fovereign did not

Gibraltar.

The commander

then

OF TITLES.
eive an empty then

475

name

he conferred an earldom or a barony,

.

book
CHAP,
^

v.
'

XII.

fubftantial trat of land,

with houfes and men, and producuig

but the privilege of
called Will
is
;

a real revenue.
calling yourfelf

He now grants nothing Tom who were beforetime

and, to

add

to the abfurdlty,

your new appellation

borrowed from

fome place perhaps you never faw, or feme country you never
vifited.

The

ftyle

however

is

the fame

we

are

ftill

earls
forts,

and

barons, governors of provinces and commanders of

that with the

and

fame evident propriety

ftyles

as the

eledor of Hanover

and arch treafurer of the empire

himfelf king of France.

Can

there be

any thing more

St.

ludicrous, than that the

man,

ThciVmiferable abfurdity.

who

was yefterday Mr.

John, the moft eloquent fpeaker of

thinker,

the Britifh houfe of

commons, the moft penetrating

the umpire of maddening parties, the reftorer of peace to bleed-

ing and exhaufted Europe, fhould be to-day lord Bollngbroke

In what

is

he become greater and more venerable than he was

In the pretended favour of a ftupid and befotted woman,

who

always hated him, as fhe uniformly hated talents and virtue,

though

for her

own

intereft fhe

was obliged

to endure him.

The

friends of a

man upon whom

title

has recently been

partiality

conferred,

muft either be wholly blinded by the

of

friendfhlp not to feel the ridicule of his fituation, or completely

debafed by the parafitical

feelings.

fpirit

of dependence not to betray their

Every time they

ellay to fpeak, they are in danger

of

3 P 2

blundering

476

O "*

TI TL E

S.

BOOKV, blundering upon

*

the inglorious appellations of Mr. and Sir*.

Y^ftvf time their tongue faulters with unconfirmed pradice, the

queftion rufhes

upon them with

;

irrefiftible force,

"

What change
better,

has

my

old friend undergone

?"

in

what
firll

is

he wifer or
a

happier or more honourable

perpetual
di(!iates

The

week of

new
the

title is

war of the

feelings in every fpeclator^

genuine

of

common

fenfe

againft the arbitrary inftitutions of

fociety.

To make
will

the farce

more

perfect thefe

titles

are fubje(3:
earl

to perpetual fluctuations,

and the

man who

is

to-day

of
all

Kenfmgton,

to-morrow refign with unblufhing effrontery

appearance of character and honour to be called marquis of Kew.

Hiftory labours under the Gothic and unintelligible burden

mortal patience can connedl: the different ftories of to-day lord Kimbolton, and to-morrow
earl

no.
is'

him who
;

of Manchefter

to-

day earl of Mulgrave, and to-morrow marquis of Normanby and duke of Buckinghamfhire.

Truth the
enly adequate reward of
Bient.

The

ablurdity of thefe

titles -ftrikes

us the more, hecaufe they

are ufually the

reward of intrigue and corruption.

But, were

it

otherwife,

flill

they would be unworthy of the adherents of'

reafon and juftice.

When we

fpeak of Mr.

St.

John,

as

of the

man, who by

his

eloquence fwayed contending parties,

fuffering France,

who,

withdrew the conquering fword from

and gave:

* In

reality thefe appellations are little lefs abfurd

than thofe by which

they,'

are fuperfcded..
'

forty

OF TITLES.
forty years of peace

477
arts

and calm purfult of the

of

life

and

^^^^ ^'
*

wifdom

to

mankind,

we

fpeak of fomething eminently great.

?

"

'

Can any

title

exprefs thefe merits

juflice
?

Is

not truth the confecrated

and fmgle vehicle of worth

all

Is

not the plain and fimple truth

?

the cunning fubftitutions in the world

Could an

oaken garland or a gilded coronet have added one atom to his

real greatnefs
?

Garlands and coronets

may

be beftowed on the
Till

unworthy and
fatisfied
till

proftituted to the intriguing.

mankind be

with the naked ftatement of what they really perceive^

they confefs virtue to be then

mod

illuftrious

when

fhe mofl

difdains the aid of ornament, they will never arrive at that

juftice

manly
arrive.

of fentiment,

at

which they

are deftined one

day to

By

this

fcheme of naked truth, virtue will be every day a gainer

juftice,

every fucceeding obferver will more fully do her

vice, deprived of that varnifh

while

with which fhe delighted to glofs

her adions, of that gaudy exhibition which

may

be made ahke

by

every pretender, will fpeedily

fmk

into

unheeded contempt:.

CHAP,

478

HA

P.

XIIL

OF THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER.

INTOLERANCE OF ARISTOCRACY DEPENDENT FOR ITS SUCCESS UPON THE IGNORANCE OF THE MULTITUDE.
PRECAUTIONS NECESSARY FOR
ITS SUPPORT.

DIFFEROF THE

ENT KINDS OF ARISTOCRACY.

ARISTOCRACY

ROMANS
IT
IS

ITS VIRTUES

ITS

DISTRIBUTION OF PROPERTY

VICES. ARISTOCRATICAL REGULATIONS BY WHICH

MAINTAINED AVARICE IT ENGENDERS. ARGUMENT AGAINST INNOVATION FROM THE PRESENT HAPPY ESTABLISHMENT OF AFFAIRS CONSIDERED.-^CONCLUSION.

A'
Intolerance
efariftocracy;

RISTOCRACY
neither
lefs

in

its

proper fignification
d

implies

nor

more than

fcheme

for

rendering

j^orc permanent and vifible

ftitution the inequality

by

the interference of political inAriftocracy, like

of mankind.

monar-

chy,

is

founded in falfhood, the offspring of

art foreign to the

real nature

of things, and mull therefore, like monarchy, be fupartifice

ported by

and

falfe

pretences.

Its

empire however

is

founded in principles more gloomy and unfocial than thofe of

monarchy.

OF THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER.

monarchy.

479

The monarch

often thinks

it

advifable to

emnlov ^ J
;

BOOK
*
^'

v. CHAP. xni.
'

blandiihments and courtfhip with his barons and

the lord deems
it

officers

but

fufficient to rule

with a rod of iron.

Both depend for

they, Hke

their perpetuity

upon ignorance.

Could

dependent for
its

fuccefs

Omar,

deftroy the productions of profane reafoning, upon

the \g.

and perfuade mankind that the Alcoran contained every thing

norance of the multitude.

which

it

became them to fludy, they might then renew

But here again ariftocracy difplays
certain degree of
its

their leafe

of empire.
nefs.

fuperior harfh-

Monarchy admits of a
its

monkifh learning
ftriCler

among

followers.

But ariftocracy holds a

fociety

hand.

Should the lower ranks of

taught to write and read,
its

once come to be generally

at

power would be

an end.

To make
them,
with,

men

ferfs

and

villains
is

it

is

indifpenfibly neceflary to

make

brutes.

This

a queftion

which has long been canvafled

great eagernefs and avidity.

The

refolute advocates of the old

fyftem have with no contemptible forefight oppofed this alarming innovation.

In their well

known

obfervation,

"

that a fer-

vant

who

has been taught to WTite and read ceafes to be any

is

longer a paffive machine,"

it

contained the embryo from which

the whole philofophy of

would be eafy

to explain

human

fociety.

And who

is

there that can

refle61:

with patience upon the ma-

Precautions
its

levolent contrivances of thefe infolent ufurpers, contrivances the

fupport!'

end of which

is

to

keep the

human

fpecies in

ftate

of endlefs
?

degradation

48o-

OF THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER.

V.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
'

Xllt.

de"-radadon

It is in

the fubjeds

we

are here for

examining that
,,

the celebrated the real

ration,
teft.

maxim

of "

many made

one

is

brought to

Thofe reafoners were no doubt wife

ago conceived alarm

in their gene-

who two centuries

at the

blafphemous
of the

dodrine, " that government was

governed, and,
better than
if it

inftituted for the benefit

itfelf

propofed to
It

any other objea, was no

an ufurpation."

will perpetually be found that the

rhen,

who

in every age have been the earliefl to give the alarm

of innovation, and have been ridiculed on that account as bigoted

and timid, were

ment,

in reality perfons of

more than common

difcern-

who

law, though but imperfedly, in the rude principle the

inferences to

which

it

inevitably led.

It is

time that
:

men of
either to

re-

flexion fhould choofe between the

two

alternatives

go

back

fairly
;

and

without refen^e to the primitive principles of ty-

ranny

or,

adopting any one of the axioms oppofite to thefe,

it

however

neutral

may

at firft
its

appear, not feebly and ignorantly

to fliut their eyes

upon

countlefs hofl of confequences.

DifFerent

It is
ari-

not necefTary to enter into a methodical difquifition of the

kinds of
fiocracy.

different fpecies of ariftocracy, fince, if the

above reafonings have

all.

any force, they are equally cogent againft

them

Ariftocracy

may
land

vefl
;

its

prerogatives principally in the individual, as in Po-

or entirely reflridt

them

to the nobles in their corporate

will be

capacity, as in Venice.

The former
more

more tumultuous
and fevere.

and

diforderly

the latter

jealous, intolerant

The

raagiftrates

may

either recruit their

body by eledion among

themfelves,

OF THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER.

themfelves, as In Holland
j

481
cHAP^xm
'
'

or

by

the choice of the people, as in

ancient

Rome.

The

ariftocracy

of ancient

Rome was

incomparably the moll

Ariftocracyr
'"^"'^

venerable and illuftrious that ever exifted

earth.
It

upon the

face of the

'

"*
s

virtues

may

not therefore be improper to contemplate in them

the degree of excellence to

which

ariftocracy

may

be raifed.

They

included in their inftitution fome of the benefits of democracy, as

generally fpeaking no

man became

member of the

fenate, but in

confequence of his being elected by the people to the fuperior

magiftraeies.
It

was reafonable therefore

poffefs

to expedl that the

ma-

jority of the

members would
modern

fome degree of

capacity.
as-

They were

not like

ariftocratical aflemblies, in v.hich,

primogeniture and not feleftion decides upon their prerogatives^

we

fhall

commonly

feck in vain for capacity, except in a

few of

the lords of recent creation.

As

the plebeians were long re-

flrained from looking for candidates except among- the patricians,

that

is,

the pofterity of fenators,

talents

it

was reafonable

to fuppofe

that the moll eminent

would be confined

to that order.

circumflance which contributed to this was the

monopoly of

liberal

education and the cultivation of the mind, a

art
all

monopoly
Aceither

which the
cordingly

of printing has

at

length fully deftroyed.

the great literary ornaments of

Rome

were

patricians, or of the equeftrian order, or their

ents.

immediate depend-

The

plebeians,

though in

their

corporate capacity they

poffefled for

fome centuries the

3

virtues of fmcerity, intrepidity,,

Q^

love

482

OF THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER,

V.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
"

](3ye

xiir.

iuftice and of the public, could never boaft of any of thofe of > J r '

individual charadters in their party that reflect luftre

on mankind^

except the two Gracchi

lerius,

while the patricians told of Brutus, Va-

Coriolanus, Cincinnatus, Camillus, Fabricius, Regulus, the

Fabii, the Decii, the Scipios,

LucuUus, Marccllus, Cato, Cicero,

this retrcfpedt continually

and innumerable
gefted to their

others.
it

With

fug-

minds

was almoft

venial for the ftern heroes of

Rome

and the

laft illuftrious

martyrs of the republic to entertain

ariftocratical fentiments.

Let us however confider impartially

this ariftocracy, fo

incom-

parably fuperior to any other of ancient or modern times.

the
firft

Upon

inftitution of the republic, the people poffeffed fcarcely

any authority except

in the election of magiftrates,

and even here

their intrinfic importance

was eluded by the mode of arranging

in the richer claffes

the aflembly, fo that the

whole decifion vefted

magiftrates of
patricians.

of the community.
eledled

No

any

defcription

were

but from among the

All caufes were judged

appeal.

by

the patricians, and from their

patricians intermarried

judgment there was no

The

among

themfelves, and thus formed

a republic of narrow extent in the midft of the nominal one,

which
v/hich

was held by them

in a ftate of abjed fervitude.

The idea

purified thefe ufurpations in the minds of the ufurpers, was, " that

the vulgar are eflentially coarfe, groveling and ignorant, and that
there can be

no

fecurity for the empire of juftice

and confiftency

but in the decided afcendancy of the liberal."

Thus, even while

they

O? THE ARISTOGRATICAL CHARACTER.

they oppofed the
effentlal interefts
fpirit
iefs

4S3

of mankind, they were anivir-

mated with pubUc

tue.
terefts

and an unbounded enthufiafm of

But

it

is

not

true that they did oppofe the eflential in-

of mankind.

What

can be more extraordinaiy than the

ftyle, at

declamations of Appius Claudius in this

once for the

moral greatnefs of mind by which they were didlated, and the

cruel

intolerance

they were

intended to inforce
virtue

It

is

inex-

preflibly painful to fee fo

much

through fucceffive ages

employed

in

counteraiiing the julleft requifitions.

The

refult

was, that the patricians, notwithftanding their immeafurable fuperiority in abilities,

fions to

were obliged

to yield

one by one the excluIn the interval they

which they

fo obftinately clung.

were

led to
;

have recourfe to the moft odious methods of counter-

adion

and every

man among them

contended

who

fhould be
If

loudeft in applaufe

of the nefarious murder of the Gracchi.

diftinguiflied

the
as

Romans were

for

fo

many

virtues, conftituted

they were, what might they not have been but for the iniquity
ariftocratical ufurpation
?

of

The

indelible bleniilh of their hif-

tory, the love of conqueft, originated in the

fame

caufe.

Their

wars, through every period of the republic, were nothing

more

than the contrivance of the patricians, to divert their countrymen

from attending

to the fentiments of unalterable truth,

by leading

them
art,

to fcenes of conqueft

and carnage.

They

underftood the

common

to

all

governmenrs, of confounding the underftand-

ings of the multitude,

and perfuading them

3

that the

moft un-

0^2

provoked

4S4
cfiAP^ui
'
*-

OF THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER.

P'^o'^o^sd
hoftilitles

were

merely

the

dictates

of neceflary

'

defence.

Arlftocratlcal
diftribution

The principle
lity

of ariftocracy

Is

founded in the extreme Inequaufeful

of property

of Conditions.

No man can be an

member of

fociety,

except fo far as his talents are employed in a manner conducive

to the general advantage.

In every fociety the produce, the means

of contributing
bers,
its
is

to the neceflities

and conveniencies of

its

memof

of a certain amount.
contribute

In every fociety the bulk at

leaft

members

by

their perfonal exertions to the creation

of

this produce.

What

can be more reafonable and juft, than

that the produce itfelf fhould with

fome degree of equality be

fhared

among them

What more
and

injurious than the accumulatto-

ing upon a few every means of fuperfluity and luxury,

total deftrution

the

of the

eafe,

plain, but plentiful, fubfiltence

li-

of the

many

It

may

be calculated that the king even of a

office,

mited monarchy, receives as the falary of his

equivalent to the lab9ur

an income
fet

of

fifty

thoufand

men *.

Let us

out

In our eftimate from this point, and figure to ourfelves the fhares

of

ihis

counfellors, his nobles, the

wealthy commoners by

whom
Is

the nobility will be emulated, their kindred and dependents.

it

any wonder

that in fuch countries the lower orders of the

com-

munity

are exhaufted
?

by

all

the hardfhips of penury and

immo-

derate fatigue

When we

fee the

wealth of a province fpread

* Taking the average price of labour at one {hilling per diem.

upon

OF THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER.

upon
the great man's table, can
fatiate

485

we

be furprlfed that his neigh-

bours have not bread to

the cravings of hunger ?

Is this
laft

ftate

of

human

beings that muft be confidered as the

?

improvement of political wifdom

In fuch a

ftate

it

is

im-

poffible that

eminent virtue fhould not be exceedingly

clafles will

rare.

The

higher and the lower

natural fituation.
fent,

be alike corrupted by their un-

But

to pafs over the higher clafs for the preto

what can be more evident than the tendency of want

powers
?

contracft the intellecSlual

The

fituation

which the wife

man would
was

defire for himfelf

and

for thofe in

whofe welfare he

interefted,

would be a

fituation

of alternate labour and' re-

laxation, labour that fhould not exhauft the frame,

ad relaxation

that

was

in

no danger to degenerate

into indolence.

Thus

in-

duftry and adivity would be cherifhed, the frame preferved in a

healthful tone, and the
fledion.

mind accuftomed
fituation

to meditation

and

re-

But

this

would be the

of the whole

human
Can

Jpecies, if the fupply

of our wants were equally diftributed.

that

any fyftem be more worthy of our difapprobation than

converts nineteen-twentieths of
nihilates fo

which

them

into beafts of burden, an-

much

thought, renders impoffible fo

happinefs ?

much

virtue

and

extirpates fo

much

But

It

may

be alledged, " that this argument

;

Is

foreign to the

regulations

fubjed of ariftocracy

the inequality of conditions being the inevitable

maintained

486
^^pxiTi"
*

OF THE ARISTOCRATIGAL CHARACTER.

^vkable confequence of the
that
inftitution

of property."

It is
its

true

'

'

many .difadvantages
;

flow out of this inftitution in

fimpleft

form

but thefe difadvantages, to whatever they

may amount,
Arifto-

are greatly aggravated

by the operations of
its

ariftocracy.

cracy turns the ftream of property out of

natural channel,

and

forwards with the moft afTiduous

cai'e

its

accumulation in the

hands of a very few perfons.

'

The dodrines of primogeniture

and
fer

entails, as well as the

immenfe volumes of the laws oftranfinfefted every part of

and inheritance which have

Europe,

were produced for this exprefs purpofe.

avance

it

en-

genoeis.

^^
fition

^^ {dxiit

time that

It

has endeavoured to render the acquiTdifficult, ariftocracy

of permanent property

has greatly in-

creafed the excitements to that acquifition.

All

men

are accuf-

tomed

to conceive a thirft after diftindlion

all

and pre-eminence,
of
this paflion,

but they do not

fix

upon wealth
in

as the objedt

but varioufly upon

lents,

fkill

any

particular art, grace, learning, tait

wiidom and

virtue.

Nor does

appear that thefe

latter

objels are purfued

by

their votaries

with

lefs

affiduity,

than
it.

wealth

is

purfued by thofe
ftill

who

are

anxious to

acquire

Wealth would be
univerfal paffion,

lefs
it

capable of being miftaken for the

were

not rendered

by

political inftitution,

more than by
refped.

its

natural

influence, the road

to

honour and

There

OP THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER.

Tliere
is

487
this

no miftake more thoroughly

of perfons,

to be deplored

on

cfup^xr*

fubjedt, than that

fitting at their eafe

life,

with

all

the conveniences of

who

and furrounded aI^^"^^^ are apt to exclaim, " We If^^i"^ f"^"""

happ^J ^gflaafFaiiscon-

find things very well as they are ;" and to inveigh bitterly againft
all

projedls of reform, as " the

romances of vifionary men, and

are never to be fatisfied."
Is
it

the declamations of thofe

who

well, that fo large- a part of the

abje<3:

community

fliould

be kept in

penury, rendered ftupid with ignorance and difguftful with

vice, perpetuated in nakednefs

and hunger, goaded

to the

com-

miflion of crimes, and

made

Aadtims to the mercilefs laws which

the rich have inftituted to opprefs

quire whether this flate of things
better
?

them

Is

it

fedition

to en-

may

not be exchanged for a

difgraceful to ourfelvcs

Or can

there be

any thing more

is

than to exclaim that " All

well," merely becaufe

we

are

at

cur

eafe, regardlefs

of the mifery, degradation and vice that

?

may

be occafioned in others

There

is

one argument to which the advocates of monarchy

always have recourfe
;

Condufiou.

and

ariftocj'acy

when

driven from every

other pretence

the mifchievous nature of democracy.

"

Howbe in
as ac-

ever imperfed the two former of thefe inftitutions

themfelves, they are found neceflary,"

may
"

we

are

told,

commodations
the reader

to the

imperfedion of

human

nature."

It is

for

who

has confidered the arguments of the preceding

chapters to decide,

how far
6

it is

probable that circumftances can

occur.

488

OF
V.
'

THE ARISTOCRATICAL CHARACTER.

it

BOOK
CHAP.
*

occur,
_

which Ihould make

XIII,

our duty to fubmit to thefe com^

us proceed to examine that de-

plicated evils.

Meanwhile

let

mocracy of which
exhibited.

fo alarming

pi<n:ure

has uniformly beea

CHAP.

4S9

CHAP.

XIV.

GENERAL FEATURES OF DEMOCRACY.

DEFINITION.

SUPPOSED

VERNMENT
THE CRAFTY

EVILS OF THIS FORM OF GOOF ASCENDANCY OF THE IGNORANT

INCONSTANCY
ITS

RASH CONFIDENCE

GROUNDLESS SUSPICION.

MERITS

DEMOCRACY COMPARED.
TENDENCY OF TRUTH.

AND DEFECTS OF MORAL TENDENCY.

REPRESENTATION.
government according
is

DEMOCRACY
vv^hich

is

a fyflem of

to
'

BOOK V. CHAP. XIV.

yr*
Definition.

every

member of
So

foclety

confidered as a

man
if

and nothing more.

indeed that can
is

far as pofitive regulation is

concerned,

vi^ith

any propriety be termed regulation w^hich

all

the mere, recognition of the fimpleft of

is

principles, every

man

regarded as equal.
not
fail

Talents and wealth, wherever they

exift, will

to obtain a certain degree of influence, with-

out requiring any pofitive inftltution of foclety to fecond their

operation.

But there

are certain dlfadvantages that

may feem
political

the necef- Suppofed

it

iary refult of democratical equality.

In

foclety

is

cracy:

reafonable to fuppofe that the wife will be oirtnumbered

by the
unwife,

490
CHAP ^xrv
^"^wlfe,

GENERAL FEATURES
will be inferred " that the welfiu-e of the

and

it

whole
It
is-

^k^^^K^
'^''"
-"^

will therefore be at the

^^'^^

mercy of ignorance and

folly."

rant

^^^^ ^^^ ignorant will generally be fufficiently willing to be

guided by the judicious, " but their very ignorance will incapacitate
gf the crafty/

them from

difcerning the

merit of their guides.

The
advanv/ith

turbulent and crafty

demagogue

will often poffefs greater

tages for inveigling their judgment,

than the

man who
Add

purer intentions
the

may polTefs

lefs brilliant talent.

to this, that

demagogue has a never

failing refource in the ruling

imper-

fection of

human

nature, that of preferring the Ipecious prel'ent

to the fubftantial future.

This

is

what

is

ufiially

termed, play-

ing upon the paffions of mankind.

J

Political truth has hitherto

proved an enigma, that

folve.
Is
it

all

the wit of
that

man

has been infufEcient to

to

be fuppofed
refift

the

uninftrudted

multitude

fiiould

always be able to

the artful fophiftry and captivating

it
?

eloquence that will

be employed to darken

Will

it

not oftea

happen
"

that the fchemes propofed

by the ambitious
which the

difturber will

polTefs a meretriciaus attraction,

fevere aind

fobec

projedl of the difcerning flatefmaa fhall be unable to compenfate t

Inconflancy

;.

" One of the mofl

fruitful fources

of

human

happinefs

is

to

be

found in the fleady and uniform

principles.

operation of certain

fixed

But

it

is

the charateriftic of a democracy to be

wavering and inconilant.

The
is

philofopher

only,

who

has

deeply meditated his principles,

inflexible in his

adherence to

them.
/J

The mafs

of raankiiid, as they have never arranged their

refleClions-^

'

OF DEMOCRACY,
refledblons into fyftem, are at the
^

451

mercy of every momentary J J J

But thisincon-

BOOK v. CHAP. XIV.

^^

impulfe, and liable to change with every v^and.

ftancy
is

diredly the reverfe of every idea of

political juftice.

*'

Nor

is

this

all.

Democracy

is

a monftrous and unwieldy

.

rafh confi-

dence

veffel

launched upon the fea of

human pamons without

is

ballaft.

Liberty in this unlimited form

in danger to be loft almofl as

foon as

it is

obtained.

The

ambitious
fet

man

finds

nothing in this

fcheme of human

affairs to

bounds

to his defires.

He
rife

has
to

only to dazzle and deceive the multitude in order to

abfolute power.

"A
The

farther

ill

confequence flows out of

this

circumftance.

groundlef*
fufpicion.

multitude, confcious of their weaknefs in this refped:, will,

in proportion to their love of liberty and equality, be perpetually

fufpicious

and uneafy.

Has any man

difplayed

uncommon
?

virtues

or rendered eminent ferviccs to his country

He

W'ill

prefently

be

charged

with

fecretly

aiming

at

the

tyranny.

"Various circumflances will

come

in aid of this accufation, the

general love of novelty, envy of fuperior merit, and the inca-

pacity of the multitude to underftand the motives and charadler

of thofe

who

fo far excel

them.

Like the Athenian, they will

be tired of hearing Ariflides conftantly called the Juft.

will merit be too frequently the

Thus

vidim of ignorance and envy.

refined,

Thus
mind

will
ifl

all

that

is

liberal

and

whatever the
is

human

its

iilghefl ftate of

improvement
q

able to conceive, be

often

492

GENERAL FEATURES
V.

^O^K

often overpowered

by the turbulence of unbridled

paffion and

'^~"

the rude didates of favage folly."

If this pidure mufl inevitably be realifed wherever democratical

principles are elLabliihed, the ftate of

human

nature

would

be peculiarly unfortunate.
devifed

No

form of government can be

ariftocracy

which does not partake of monarchy,

or

democracy.

We

have taken a copious furvey of the two former,

that greater or

and

it

would feem impoffible

more
thofe

inveterate

Ujifchiefs'

can be inflicted on mankind, than

thecn.

which are

inflicted

by

No

portrait of injuftice,

degradation and

vice can be exhibited,

that can furpafs the fair

and inevitable
If then to a level
is

inferences

from the principle upon which they

are built.

democracy could by any arguments be brought down

with fuch
monftrous
inftitutions as thefe,

in

which there

neither integrity nor reafon, our profpeds of the future happinefs

of mankind, would indeed be deplorable.

Merits and defeats of de-

But

this IS impoflible.

Suppofing that
all

we

fEould" even be

mocracy
compared.]

obliged to take democracy with

the difadvantages that ^

were

ever annexed to

it,-

and that no remedy could be difcovered for any.

ftill

of

its

defeats,

it

woiUd be

greatly preferable to the exclufive

all its

fyflem of other forms.

lence and inftability
;

Let us take Athens with

turbu-

with the popular and temperate ufurpations

;

of

Pififtratus

and

Pericles

with their monftrous oftracifm, by

they were accuftomed periodically

which with undifguifed

injuftice

OF DEMOCRACY.
callv to banlfh
-'

495

fome eminent

citizen

without the Imputation of a ^

BOOK
'
'^

v.
'

CHAP. XIV.

crime; with the imprifonment of Miltiades, the exile of Ariftides

and the murder of Phoclon

it is

wlrii

all

thefe errors

on

its

head,

incontrovertible that Athens exhibited a

all

more

illuflrious

and

enviable fpetacle. than

the monarchies and ariftocracies that

rejedt the gallant love

ever exifted.

Who

would
it

of virtue and

independence, becaufe
larities
?

was accompanied with fome irregu*

an unreferved condemnation upon

Who

would

pafs

their penetrating mind, their quick difcernment and their ardent

feeling, becaufe

they were fubjedl occafionally to be intemperate

Shall

and impetuous
achievements,
fibility

we compare

a people of fuch incredible

fuch exquifite refinement,

gay without infenin the midft of

artifls,

and fpiendid without intemperance,

greateft

whom
moft

grew up the
finifhed orators
'

poets,

the

nobleft

the

and

political writers,

and the moft

difinterefted
this

philofophers the world ever faw,

feat

fliall

we compare

chofen

of patrlotifm, independence and generous virtue, with the

torpid and felfifh realms of monaixhy

and

ariftocracy

All

is

not

happinefs

that

looks

tranquillity.

Better

were

a portion

of

turbulence and fluduation, than that

is

unwholfome calm which

a ftranger to virtue.

In the eftimate that

is

ufually

made of democracy, one of

the

Its

moral

teij.

"'^^'

moft flagrant fources of error

lies in

our taking mankind fuch as

monarchy and
judging

ariftocracy

have made them, and from thence

legiflate for themfelves.

how

fit

they are ta

Monarchy

'

494

GENERAL FEATURES
evils,

and ariftocracy would be no

if their

tendency were not

to

undermine the

virtues and the underftandings of their fubjets.

is

The

thing moft neceflary

its

to

remove

all

thofe reftraints

which

hold mind back from

natural flight.

Implicit faith, blind

fubmiflion to authority, timid fear, a diflruft of our powers, an

inattention to our

own

importance and the good puipofes

we

are

able to effedl, thefe are the chief obftacles to

human improve-

ment.
teaches

Democracy

I'eftores to

man

a confcioufnefs of his value,

him by

the removal of authority and oppreffion to liften

treat all

only to the dictates of reafon, gives him confidence to

other

men

as his fellow beings,

as

and induces him

to be

to regard

them

no lohger

enemies againft
it

whom

upon

his guard, but

as brethren

whom
ftatfe,

becomes him
looks

to affifL

The

citizen of a

democratical

when he

upon the

miferable oppreffion

and

injuftice that prevail in the countries

around him, cannot

but entertain an inexpreffible efleem for the advantages he enjoys,

and the moft unalterable determination

them.

at all

hazards to preferve
its

The
is

influence of democracy

upon the fentiments of

its

members

altogether of the negative fort, but

confequences

are ineftimable.

Nothing
as

<:an

be more unreafonable than to

argue from
after be

men

we now

find them, to

men

as

they

may

herefuf-

made.

Stridx

and accurate reafoning, inftead of

fering us to be furprifed that Athens did fo

much, would

at firft

induce us to wonder that Ihe retained fo

many

imnerfedlions.

Tendency of
truth.

The

road to the improvement of mankind

is

in the utmoft

degree

OF D E M O G R A C T.
degree fimple, to fpeak and ad; the truth.
If the Athenians

495"

had

had more of
flagrantly
referve,

this,

it

is

impoffible
tell

they fhould have been fo

all

erroneous.

To

the truth in

cafes

without
principles

to adminifter juftice without partiality, are

which,
prolific.

when once Thsy

rigorouily adopted, are of

all

others the moft

enlighten the underftanding, give energy to the

ftrip

judgment, and
plaufibility.

mifreprefentation of

its

fpecioufnefs

and

In Athens

men

fuffered themfelves to be dazzled

by fplendour and fhow.

led to this defeat can

If the error in their conftitution

if

which

be difcovered,
fhall

a form of

political fociety

can be devifed in

which men

be accuftomed to judge flridly

and foberly, and habitually exercifed to the plainnefs and fnnplicity

of tmth, democracy would in that fociety ceafe from the

inftability,
it.

turbalence,

ficklenefs

and violence that have too

certain than the

often charadlerifed

Nothing can be more

or,

omnipotence of truth,

in other words, than the connexion, If fciencc

between the judgment and the outward behaviour.

be capable of perpetual improvement,

men

will alfo be capable

juftice.

of perpetually advancing in pradical wifdom and

eftablilli

Once

the perfectibility of

man, and

it

will inevitably follow

that

we

are advancing to a ftate, in to be eafily miftaken,

which truth

will be too well

-

known

and

juftice too habitually pradifcd

fhall
is

to be voluntarily counteraded.

Nor

we

fee reafon to

think
at
its

upon
fir ft

fevere refledion, that this ftate

fo diftant as

we might

be inclined to imagine.

Error

is

principally indebted for

permaneace

to focial inftitution.

Did. we leave individuals

to

the

495
-BOOK
*

GENERAL FEATURES
V.

CHAP. XIV.

tiie proa-refs t>

of their

own

minds, without endeavouring to regu.

late

them by any

fpecies of

pubhc foundation, mankinij would

to the obedience of truth.
is

in

no very long period convert

The

conteft

between truth and falfhood

of

itfelf

too unequal, for

political
ally.

the former to ftand in need of fupport from any

The more
to

it

be difcovered, efpecially that part of

it

which

relates

man

in fociety, the
it

more funple and

felf

evident

will

it

appear; and
for
its

will be
fo

found impoffible any otherwife to account

long concealed, than from the pernicious

having been

influence of pofitive inftitution.

Repvefentation.

There

IS

another obvious confideration that has frequently

to account for the
is

been alledged
cracies,

imperfedion of ancient demoattention,

which

worthy of om-

though

it

be not fo

important as the argument which has juft been

ftated.

The

ancients were unaccuftomed to the idea of deputed, or reprefentative

aflemblies

and

it

is

reafonable to fuppofe

that

affairs

might
blies,

often be tranfadted with the utmoft order in fuch aflem-

which might be produtive of much tumult and confufion,

at large*.

if

fubmitted to the perfonal difcuffion of the citizens

this

By
The
*

happy expedient we

fecure

many

of the pretended

benefits of ariftocracy, as well as the real benefits of democracy.

difcuflion x)f national affairs
is

brought before perfons of

Book

The

general grounds of this inftitution have heen ftated,

III,

Chap,

IV.

The

exceptions which limit

its

value,

will be feen in the twenty-third

xhapter of the pre font book.

fuperior

OFDEMOCRACY.
fuperlor education ^

497

and wifdom

we may ^

conceive of them, not '

BOOK
"^

v.
'

CHAP. XIV.
>-

only as the appointed

ents, but as authorifed

medium of the
upon

fentiments of their conftitu-

certain occafions to

ad on

their part,

in the
rity

fame manner

as

an unlearned parent delegates his autho-

over his child to a preceptor of greater accomplifliments than

himfelf.

This idea within proper

limits

might be

entitled to

our

approbation, provided the eledor had the

the exercife of his

wifdom not

to relax in

own

underftanding in

all

his political concerns,

exerted his cenforial

power over

his reprefentative,

and were

accuftomed,

if

the reprefentative were unable after the fulleft

explanation to bring
deputation to another.

him over

to

his

opinion, to transfer his

The
It is

true value of the fyftem of reprefentation

is

as follows.

not reafonable to doubt that mankind, whether ading

by

themfelves or their reprefentatives, might in no long time be

enabled to contemplate the fubjeds offered to their examination

with calmnefs and true difcernment, provided no pofitive obftacles

were thrown in

their

way by

the errors and imperfedion

is

of their

political inftitutions.

This

the principle

in

which

the found political philofopher will

fatisfadion.

reft

with the moft perfed

But, fhould

it

ultimately appear that reprefentation,

is

and not the intervention of popular affemblies,

the

mode

which reafon

prefcribes,

then

an error in

this

preliminary
is

queftion, will of courfe infer errors in the pradice

which

built

upon

it.

We

cannot

make one
3

falfe

ftep,

without involving
ourfelves

498

GENERAL FEATURES OF DEMOCRACY.

V.
'

BOOK
\

CHAP. XiV.

ourfelves in a feries of miftakes

and

ill

confequences that rauft ^

be expected to grow out of

it.

Such
,

are the general features of democratical

is

government

but this

a fubjedl of too

much

importance to be difmiffed with-

out the fuUeft examination of. every thing that

to decide

may

enable us

upon

its

merits.

We

will proceed to confider the

it.

farther objedions that

have been alledged againft

CHAP.

499

HA

p.

XV.

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
IMPORTANCE OF THIS TOPIC.

EXAMPLE IN THE DOCTRINB

'

OF ETERNAL PUNISHMENT

FROM

ITS INUTILITY ARGUED HISTORY FROM THE NATURE OF MIND. SECOND

:

EXAMPLE THE RELIGIOUS SANCTION OF A LEGISLATIVE

SYSTEM.

THIS

IDEA
2.

IS,

I.

IN STRICT

CONSTRUCTION
HAS NO ESSEN-

IMPRACTICABLE

INJURIOUS.

THIRD EXAMPLE;

PRINCIPLE OF POLITICAL ORDER.

VICE

IMPOSTURE UNNECESSARY TO THE CAUSE OF JUSTICE NOT ADAPTED TO

TIAL ADVANTAGE OVER VIRTUE.

THE NATURE OF MAN.

ALL

the arguments that have been employed to prove the

BOOK v. CHAP. XV,

'

infufficiency of

democracy grow out of

this

one

root,

'

the fuppofed necefTity of deception and prejudice for reftrain-

Impoitance ^ '^'^^ '"P"^'

ing the turbulence of

human

paffions.

Without the aflump-

tion of this principle the argument could not be fuftained for a

moment.
and
lords

The dired and

intrinfically
?

decifive

anfwer would be, " Are kings

better

wifer

and
folid

than

their

humbler'

(neighbours

Can there be any

ground of diftindtion except

?

"what

is

founded in perfonal merit

3

Are not men,

.

really

and

S 2

ftriaiy

500

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
V.
'

BOOK
*^

ftriaiy confidered, equal, except fo far as

inalienable

what

is

perfonal and

makes them to

differ ?"
is

To thefe

queftions there can

be but one reply, " Such

the order of reafon and abfolute

truth, but artificial diftindions are neceffary for the happinefs

of

mankind.

Without deception and prejudice the turbulence of

Let us then examine the
beft be
illuftrated

human

paflions cannot be reftrained."

;

merits of this theory

inftance.

and thefe will

by an

Example

in

It

has been held

by fome

divines and

fome

politicians, that the

the dofirine

of eternal puniiLment

doitrine which teaches that

men

will be eternally

tormented in

another world for their errors and mifcondud in

this, is
is

" in

its

own
"

nature unreafonable and abfurd, but that

it

neverthelefs

neceffary, to keep

mankind

in awe.
terrible

Do we not

fee," fay they,

is

that notwithftanding this

?

denunciation the world

overrun with vice

lar paflions

What

then would be the cafe,

fet free

if the irregu-

of mankind were

from

their prefent reftraint,

and they had not the

fear of this retribution before their eyes V*

-its

inutility

This argument feems to be founded In a fingular inattention

to the didates of hiftory
reafon.

argued from
Lillorj^

and experience,

as well as to thofe

of

The

ancient Greeks and

Romans had nothing of

this

dreadful apparatus of fire and brimftone, and a torment

" the

fmoke of which afcends

lefs

for ever

and ever."

Their religion was

in the

perfonal than political.

ftate,

They confided

Gods

as proi-

tedors of the

and

this infpired

them with

invincible courage.

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
rage.

501

In periods of public calamity they found a ready confolain expiatory facrifices to appeafe the anger of the Gods.
attention

tk)n

The

of thefe beings was conceived to be principally

little

diredled to the ceremonial of religion, and very

excellencies

to the

moral
to

and defefts of their

votaries,

which were fuppofed

be fufficiently provided for by the inevitable tendency of moral

excellence or defe<3: to increafe or diminifh individual happinefs.

If their fyftems included the do<3:rine of a future exiftence,

attention

little

was paid by them

life

to the connefting the moral deferts of

individuals in this
other.

with their comparative fituation in an-

The

fame defedt ran through the fyftems of the Per-

fians, the

Egyptians, the Celts, the Phenicians, the Jews, and in-

deed every fyftem which has not been in fome manner or other
the offspring of the Chriftian.
If

we were

to

form our judg-

ment of
to find

thefe nations

by the above argument, we fhould exped:

every Individual

among them

cutting his neighbour's

throat,

and hackneyed in the commiflion of every enormity

without meafure and without remorfe.

lity as fufceptible

But they were in rea-

of the regulations of government and the order

of

fociety, as thofe

whofe imaginations have been moft

artfully

terrified

by the

threats of future retribution,

and fome of them

to the public

were much more generous, determined and attached

weal.

Nothing can be more contrary to a

nature of the

juft obfervatlon

of the

from the na-

human mind,
'
.

than to fuppofe that thefe fpeculative

tenets

502

OF POLITICz\L IMPOSTURE.
tenets have

much

influence In

makhig mankind more virtuous

than they would otherwife be found.

in the midft of a fyftem of things,
all

Human beings
the parts of
a

are placed

which

are

flridly conneted with each other,

and exhibit
is

fympathy and

unifon by means of which the whole

as
it

rendered intelligible and

I fhall

were palpable

to the mind.

The refped

obtain and
life

the happinefs
pics of

I fhall

enjoy for the remainder of

my

are toI un-^

which

my
I

mind has a complete comprehenfion.

derftand the value of plenty, liberty and truth to myfelf and

my

fellow men.

perceive that thefe things and a certain conduct

intending them are connected, in the vifible fyftem of the world,

and not by the fupernatural interpofition of an

invifible director.

But

all

that can be told

me

of a future world, a world of fpirits

or of glorified bodies, where the employments are fpiritual and

the
firft

caufe

is

to

be rendered a fubjed: of immediate perception,

or of a fcene of retribution, where the nund,

doomed

to everlaft-

ing Inadivity, fhall be wholly a prey to the upbraidings of re-

morfe and the farcaims of

things with

devils,

is

fo foreign to the fyftem of

which

am

acquainted, that
it.

my

mind

in vain en-

deavours to believe or to underftand

If dodrines like thefe

occupy the habitual reflexions of any,

it is

not of the lawlefs, the

violent and ungovernable, but of the fober and confcientious,

perfuading them paflively to fubmit to defpotifm and injuftice,

that they

may

receive the recompenfe of their patience hereafter.

is

This objection
tion.

equally applicable to every fpecies of decepthe Imagination

j

Fables

may amufe

but can never Hand

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
In the place of reafon

503

and judgment

as the principles

of

human

^00^: V.
* '
*

conduct.

Let us proceed
legiflator

to a fecond inftance.

It is
*'

affirmed

by Roufleau

in his treatife of the Social Contradl, Second

ample
:

ex-

the

that

no

could ever eftablifh a grand political fyftem

religious

fantlion of a

without having recourfe to religious impofture.

people

To

render a

legiflative

fyllem.

who
of

are yet to receive the impreffions of political

wifdom

fufceptible of the evidence of that

wifdom, would be

to convert

the
to

effetSt

civilifation into the caufe.

The

legiflator
;

ought not
therefore

employ

force

and cannot employ reafoning

he

is

obliged to have recourfe to authority of a different

fort,

which
con-

may draw
viflion*."

without compulfion, and

perfuade

without

Thefe
'^

" Pour

qu'un peuple naijfant put goiiter

les fairies tiia^tmes

it

de la poUtique fe*
I'effet put

fulvre

les regies fondamentales

de la ralfon de Petat,

faudroit que

devenir

la caufe, que I'efprit facial, qui doit etre

tioti

Vouvrage de
les

rinjiitution, prifrddt

riiijlitu-

mime,

Is'
le

que

les

hommes fuffent avant

his ce qiiils doivent devenir par elks.

la force ni le raifonuement
;

Ainji done

legijlateur ne

pouvant employer ni

c'ejl

une

nicejftte qi!il recoure

h une

autorite d'un autre ordre, qui puiffe entrainer fans violence^

\if perfuader fans convaincre."

Du Contrat

Social,

Liv.

II.

Chap. VII.

Having frequently quoted Roufleau

lowable to fay one

in the courfe of this

work,

it

may be

al-

word of

his general merits as a

moral and

political writer.

He

has been fubjefted to perpetual ridicule for the extravagance of the propofition

with which he began his

literary career
It

that

tlie

favage ftate was the genuine

a very flight mifliake that

and proper condition of man.

was however by
it is

he

miffed the oppofite opinion which

the bufinefs of the prefent

volume

to eftabhfli.

504
Thefe

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
are the

dreams of a

fertile

conception, bufy in the erec-

tion of imaginary fyflems.

To

a rational

mind

that projedt
fet

would feem
from

to

promife

little

fubftantial benefit,

which

out

fo erroneous a principle.

To

terrify

men

into the recepto

tion of a fyftem the reafonaWenfefs of

which they were unable

perceive,

is

furely a very indiredl

method of rendering them

fober, judicious, fearlefs

and happy.

'^'^in

ftHdt"*

^^ reality no grand political fyflem ever was Introduced In the

obfervable that, where he defcribes the enthufiaftic influx
a moral and political writer (in his fecond letter to

conftrutlion
cable:
blifli.

It is fufficiently
firft

of truth that

made him

Malefherbes), he does not fo

the juft principles which led

much
him

as

mention
it.

his

fundamental error, but only

the
firft

into

He was

to teach that the

im-

perfeflions of government were the only permanent fource of the

'

vices of

mankind

and

this principle

was adopted from him by Helvetius and

however reformed, was

others.
little

But he faw

farther than this, that government,

ca-

pable of affording folid benefit to mankind, which they did not.

This principle

has fmce (probably without any affiftance from the writings of RoufTeau) been
expreiTed with great perfpicuity and energy, but not developed, by

Mr. Thomas

Paine in the

firft

page of his

Common Senfe.
full

RoufTeau, notwithftanding his great genius, was

dice.

of weaknefs and preju-

His Emile

is

upon the whole to be regarded as the principal refervoir of

philofophical truth as yet exifting in the world, but with a perpetual mixture of

abfurdity and miflake.

.

In his writings exprefsly

political,

Du

Contrat Social and

Confidirations fur la Pologtie, the unrivalled fuperiority of his genius appears to

defert him.

To
is

his merits as a reafoner

we

fhould not forget to add, that the

term eloquence
tlian of that of

perhaps more precifely defcriptive of his

mode

of compofition,

any other writer that ever exifted.

manner

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
manner Roufleau
defcribes,
at

50^
BOOK
*
*'

Lycure-us, as he obferves, obtained ' '

'

v. CHAP. XV.
'

the fandtion of the oracle

eftablifhed.

Delphi to the conftitution he had

that

But was

it

by an appeal to Apollo

he perfuaded
to

the Spartans to renounce the ufe of

money, to confent

an

equal divifion of land, and to adopt various other regulations the

moft contrary to

their preconceived prejudices

No

it

was by
and

an appeal

to their underftandings, in the midft of long debate

perpetual counteradion, and through the inflexibility of his cou-

rage and refolution, that he at

laft

attained his purpofe.

Lycur-

gus thought proper,

after the

whole was concluded,

it

to obtain the
to neglect

fandlion of the oracle, conceiving that

became him

no method of fubftantiating the

countrymen.
It is

benefit

he had conferred on his

indeed hardly poffible to perfuade a fociety

that
it

of men
their

to adopt

any fyftem without convincing them

it.

is

wifdom

to adopt

It

is

difficult to

conceive of a fociety

of fuch miferable dupes as to receive a code, without any imagination that

it is

reafonable or wife or juft, but

that
it is

upon

this

fmgle re-

commendation

delivered to

them from the Gods.

The

only reafonable, and infinitely the moft efficacious method of

changing the

inftitutions of

any people,

is

by

creating in

them a

general opinion of their erroneoufnefs and infufficiency.

But,

if it

be indeed impra(ticable to perfuade

men

Into the

2. injurious.

adoption of any fyftem, without employing as our principal ar-

gument the

intrinfic redlitude

of that fyftem, what

is

the arguheart the

ment which he would

defire to ufe,

who had

moft

at

welfare

5o6
cHAp\v*
^~~^'
'

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
^^'f^^s ^^^ improvement of the perfons concerned
?

Would he
ill ?

begin by teaching them to reafon well, or to reafon

by un*
it

nerving their mind with prejudice, or

truth
?

new

ftringing

with

How many arts, and how noxious to thofe towards whom

them, are neceflary,
if

we employ
ceive
?

we would

fuccefsfully deat firft,

We

muft not only leave their reafon in indolence

its

but endeavour to fuperfede

If

exertion in

any future

inftance.

men

be for the prefent kept right by prejudice, what will behereafter, if

come of them

by any

future penetration or
?

any

ac-

cidental difcovery this prejudice fhall be annihilated

is

Detection

not always

the fruit

of fyftematical improvement, but

may

be

cfFeded by fome folitary exertion of the faculty or fome lumi-

nous and
it

irrefiftible

argument, wliile every thing

firft

elfe

remains as

was.

If

we would

deceive,

and then maintain our decepftatutes,

tion unimpaired,
prefs,

we fhall

need penal

and

licenfers

of the

and hired minifters of

falfliood

and impofture.

Admi!

rable

modes

thefe for the propagation of

wifdom and

virtue

Third example
Jitical
:

There

is

another cafe fimilar to that ftated by Roufleau, upon

^

prin-

cipie of po-

which much

ftrefs

has been laid

by

,.

political writers.

" Obe-

order.

dience," fay they, " muft either be courted or compelled.

We

muft

either

make

a judicious ufe of the prejudices and the igno-

rance of mankind, or be contented to have no hold

upon them
feverity

but

their fears,

and maintain

focial order entirely

by the

of punifhment.

To

difpenfe us

from

this painful neceffity,

au-

thority ought carefully to be inverted with a fort

of magic perfualion.

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
fuafion.

507

Citizens fliould ferve their country, not with a frigid

its its

fubmiflion that fcrupuloufly weighs

duties, but

with an enthis reafon

levity.

thufiafm that places

its

honour

in

loyalty.

For

our governors and fuperiors mull not be fpoken of with

They muft

be confidered, independently of their individual cha-

rafter, as deriving a facrednefs

from

their office.

They muft
ought

be

accompanied with fplendour and veneration.

be taken of the imperfedlion of mankind.
over their judgments through the

Advantage muft
to gain

We

medium of

their fenfes,

and

not leave the conclufions to be drawn, to the uncertain procefs of

immature reafon *."

This

is ftill

the fame argument under another form.

is

It

takes Vice

has no

eflential ad-

for granted that reafon

inadequate to teach us our duty

and

vantage ovavirtue.

of confequence recommends an equivocal engine, which with equal

tice,

may

eafe be

employed

in the fervice of juftice

its

and

injuf-

but would furely appear fomewhat more in

It
is

place in the

fervice of the latter.

injuftice that ftands

moft in need of

fuperilition

and myftery, and

will

moft frequently be a gainer by

the impolition.

This hypothefis proceeds upon an afllimption,

to
their parents

which young men fometimes impute

ceptors.
It fays,

and pre:

" Mankind muft be kept in ignorance

it

if

they

know

vice,

they will love

is

too well

if

they perceive the charms

Mr. Burke's Refledions on the

* This argument

the great

common

place of

Revolution in France, of feveral fuccefllve produdions of Mr. Necker, and of a

multitude of other works upon the fubjed of government.

of

5o8

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
of error, they will never return to the fimplicity of truth." And, ^ ' '
'

BOOK
*

V. CHAP. XV.
" '

ftrange as

it

may

appear, this barefaced and unplaufible argument

has been the foundation of a very popular and generally received

hypothefis.
It

has taught politicians to believe that a people

it

once funk into decrepitude, as

aftervsrards

has been termed, could never

be endued with purity and vigour *.

impofture
unneceflary to the caufe

Is

it

certain that there

?

is

no

alternative

between deceit and un-

relenting feverity

Does our duty contain no inherent recommen-

of juftice.

dations
rate

If

it

be not our

own

intereft that
it ?

we fliould

be tempehas
far-

and virtuous, whofe

intereft is

Political inftitution, as

abundantly appeared in the courfe of

ther appear as

this

work, and will

ftill

we

go forward, has been too frequently the parent

of temptations to error and vice of a thoufand different denominations.

It

would be

well, if legiflators, inftead of contriving

farther deceptions and enchantments to retain us in our duty,

would remove the impoftures which

and engender
at

at prefent

corrupt our hearts

diftrefs.

once

artificial

wants and

real

There

would be

lefs

need, under the fyftem of plain, unornamented

theirs, that

truth, than under

" every

vifto fhould be terminated

with the gallows f."

Why

deceive

me

It is either

my wifdom to do the
it

thing

yoa

require of me, or

it is

not.

The

reafons for doing

are either fuf-

jicient or infufficient.

If fufficient,

why

ihould not they be the

Book

I,

Chap. VIII.

f Burke's RefleOions.

machine

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
machine
while
I

509

to

govern

my

underftanding
falfe reafons,

Shall

moll Improve
artifice,

am

governed by
I

by impofture and

which, were

little

wifer, I fhould

know were
;

of no value in

whatever caufe they

may

be employed

or,

while

my

under-

ftanding grows every day founder and ftronger by perpetual

communication with truth

of

If the reafons for

?

what you demand

It is

me

be infufficient,

why

fhould I comply

ftrongly to be

fufpeted that that regulation, which dares not reft

reafonablenefs, conduces to the benefit of a

upon

its

own

few

at the

expence of
thought

the many.

Impofture was furely invented by him,

who

more of fecuring dignity

kind to confent to their
of

to himfelf, than of prevailing

on manrequire

own

welfare.
it

That which you

me

is

wife,

no

farther than
it is

is

reafonable.

Why endeavour
than
it

to perfuade
is,

me
is

that

more

wife,

more

efleatial

really

or that

it

wife for any other reafon than the true

Why

divide

men

into

two

clafles,

one of which

is

to think

and reafon

for the whole, and the other to take the conclufions of their fuperiors

on
;

truft

This diftindtion
is

is

not founded in the nature of

difference

things

there
it

no fuch inherent

between man and

man

as

thinks proper to fuppofe.

is

The

reafons that ftiould

convince us that virtue

better than vice are neither complicated

nor abftrufe

and the

lefs

they be tampered with by the injudi-

cious interference of political inftitution, the

more

will they

come

home

to the underftanding and approve themfelves to the judg-

ment of every man.

Nor

510'

OF POLITICAL IMPOSTURE.
Nor
is

the diftinftion
claffes

lefs

injurious, than

it

is

unfounded.
lefs

The two
man.
to

which

it

creates,

muft be more and

than

It is

too

much

to exped:

of the former, while

we

confign

them an unnatural monopoly,

good of the whole.
It is

that they fliould rigidly confult

for the

an iniquitous requifition upon

the latter, that they fhould never

employ

their underftandings,
reft in

never penetrate into the eflences of things, but always

deceitful appearance.
It is

a
to

iniquitous, that

we

fliould feek

withhold from them the principles of fimple truth, and exert ourfelves to

keep

alive their

fond and infantine miftakes.

deceit fhall vanifh
j

The time

muft probably come when the

iinpoftures of

and then the

able to

monarchy and

ariftocracy will

no longer be

maintain their ground.

aufpicious, if

The change

will at that

time be moft

we

honeftly inculcate the truth now, fecure that

to

men's minds will grow ftrong enough

endure the pradlice, in

proportion as their underftanding of the theory excites them to

demand

it.

CHAP.

5"

CHAP.
OF
OFFENSIVE
CRACY.

XVI..

THE CAUSES OF WAR.

WAR CONTRARY TO THE NATURE OF DEMODEFENSIVE WAR EXCEEDINGLY RARE. ERROOUR COUNTRY.

NEOUSNESS OF THE IDEAS COMMONLY ANNEXED TO THE

PHRASE,

NATURE

OF

WAR

DELINE-

ATED.

INSUFFICIENT CAUSES OF WATl

THE

ACQUIR-

ING A HEALTHFUL AND VIGOROUS TONE TO THE PUBLIC

MIND

THE PUTTING A TERMINi^TION UPON

PRI-

THE MENACES OR PREPARATIONS OF OUR NEIGHBOURS THE DANGEROUS CONSEQUENCES OF

CONCESSION.

VATE INSULTS

TWO LEGITIMATE CAUSES OF WAR.

it

TT^XCLUSIVELY
-8' urged
internal

of thofe objedions which have been

relates to

BOOKV.

againft the democratical fyftem as

affairs,

the

"v^

management of

there are others

upon which

confiderable ftrefs has been laid in relation to the tranfadion of

ftate

with foreign powers, to war and peace,, to

treaties

of-

alliance

and commerce.

There
,

is
,

indeed an eminent difference with refped to thefe

all

Offenfivewar
contrary to the nature of

between the democratical fyftem and

5

others.

It is

perhaps

democracy.

impoffible

5^2

OF

THE CAUSES

OF WAR.
fome way
ori-

impofliblc to fliew that a fingle

war ever did or could have taken

place in the hiftory of mankind, that did not in ginate with thofe
ariftocracy.

two

great political monopolies,

monarchy and
article in
little

This might have formed an additional

the

catalogue of evils to which they have given birth,

to

inferior

any of thofe we have enumerated.

But nothing could be

more

fuperfluous than to feek to overcharge a fubjed the eviis irrefiftible.

dence of which

"What could be the fource of mifunderftanding between

ftates,

where no man or body of men found encouragement

accumulation of privileges to himfelf
at

to the
?

the expence of the reft

people

among whom

equality reigned, would' pofTefs every

thing they wanted, where they poflefled the means of fubfiftence.

Why
would
all.

fhould they purfue additional wealth or territogf

lofe their value the

Thefe

moment they became

the property of

No man
is

can cultivate more than a certain portion of land.

Money

reprefentative,

and not

real wealth.

If every

man

in

the fociety pofTelTed a double portion of other

money, bread and every

commodity would

fell

at

double their prefent price, and

it

the relative fituation of each individual would be juft what

had
the

been before.

War

and conqueft cannot be

is

beneficial to
at the

community.
of the
reft,

Their tendency

to elevate a
will

few

expence

and confequently they

never be undertaken but

where the many

are the inftruments of the few.

till

But
fhall

this can-

not happen in a democracy,

'the

democracy

become
fuch

OF
fucli

THE CAUSES OF WAR.

If expedients can be deviled for maintainits

513

only in name.

BOOK
'^

V.

Ingthis fpecies of government in

purity, or if there be
intellectual

any

.r-^

thing in the nature of

wifdom and
to

improvement

which has a tendency daily

make

truth prevail

more over
But

falf-

hood, the principle of offenfive war will be extirpated.

principle eaters into the very eiience of
cracy.

this

monarchy and

ariflo-

Meanwhile, though the principle of

ofTenfive

war be
flate

in-

Defenfivewir
exceedingly
'aiC'

compatible with the genius of democracy, a democratical

may
is

be placed in the neighbourhood of

lefs

ftates

whofe government

equal, and therefore

it

will be proper to enquire into the

ftate

fuppofed difadvantages which the democratical

in the conteft.
fiftently

may
it

fuflain

The only

fpecies of

war

in

which

can conis

be engaged, will be that, the objed of which

invafion.

to repel

wanton
to

Such invafions

will be

little

likely frequently
ftate

occur.

For what purpofe fhould a corrupt

feature
in

attack a

country, which has no

common
own

with

itfelf

upon

which

to build a mifunderftanding, and

its

which prefents

in the very

nature of
neutrality

government a pledge of

its

inoffenfivenefs

and

Add

to

which,

it

will prefently appear that this ftate,

which

yields the feweft incitements to

provoke an

attack, will

prove a very impradicable adverfary to thofe by

Ihall

whom an attack

be commenced.

One

of the moll eflential principles of political juftice

3

Is

diametrically

Errojieoiif-.

nefs of the

"

514

OF
tncall? the
-'

THE

Cx-iUSES OF \VAR.
which impoftors and
patriots

BOOK V. CHAP. XVI.

.^;

reverfe of that

have

"

'

ccmmonyai.nexed to the
ideas

too fi-eGUCDtlv aCTced to recommend. ^

tJon has been, " Love your country. j t j
'^'

jo

Their perpetual exhortaSink the perfonal exiftence

"'
countV-

individuals in the exiftence of the conimunity.

Make

little

account of the particular

men

of

whom

the fociety confifts, but

aim

at

the general wealth, profperity and glory. the grofs ideas of fenfe, and elevate
it

Furify your
to the fmgle

mind from

contemplation of that abftraft individual of

are fo
fill*."

which

particular

men

many

detached members, valuable only for the place they

The

leffons
is

of reafon on

this

head are precifely oppofite.

" Society
entitled

an

ideal exiftence,

and not on

its

own

account

to the

fmalleft regard.

The

wealth,

profperity

and

glory of the whole are

unintelligible chimeras.
as

Set no value

on

any thing, but in proportion

to

you are convinced of its tendency

virtuous.
exifts
;

make individual men happy and

Benefit

by every

pradticable

mode man wherever he

but be not deceived

by

the fpecious idea of affording fervices to a

individual

body of men, for

which no

man

is

the better.

Society was inftituted,.

not for the fake of glory, not to furniih fplendid materials for
the page of hiftory, but for the benefit of
its

members.
is

The

love of our country, if

thofe fpecious illufions,

we would

fpeak accurately,

another of

which have been invented by impoftors

Du

Contrat Social,

^c,

isfc.

^c.
in

OF

THE CAUSES OF WAR.

515
^i^.^^VX" L.HAr. AVI.

in order to render the multitude the blind inflruments of their

crooked defigns."

-*

Meanwhile

let

us

beware of paffing from one injurious

extreme to another.

Much

of what has been ufually underftood

is

by

the love of our country

highly excellent and valuable,

ftrit

though perhaps nothing that can be brought within the

interpretation of the phrafe.

wife

man

will not

fail

to be the

votary of liberty and equality.

felf in their

He
his

will be

ready to exert himcannot be a matter

defence wherever they

exift.

It

of indifference to him,

when

own

liberty

and that of other

he
has
the
bell

men

with whofe excellence and

capabilities

opportunity of being acquainted, are involved in the event of

the ftruggle to be made.
caufe,

But

his attachment

will

be to the

and not

to the country.

Wherever

there are

men who
aflert

underftand the value of political juftice and are prepared to

it,

that

is

his country.

Wherever he can moft

and the

contribute to the

diffufion of thefe principles

real happinefs

of mankind,

that

is

his country.

Nor

does he defire for any country any

other benefit than juftice.

To
that

apply thefe principles to the fubjed of war.

can be adequately made,
the force of the term.
it

And, before
neceffary
to

application

is

recoiled for a

moment

Becaufe individuals were

3

liable to error,

and fuiFered

their ap-

Nature of war delineated.

prehenfions

51.6

OF
^

THE CAUSES OF WAR.

by a
bias in favour of

^C'OK V.
'

pvelienfions of jufllce to be perverted

fclves,

them-

government was

inftituted.

Becaufe nations were fuf-

centible

of a fimilar weaknefs,
to

and could find no fufEcient

vvas introduced.
lives,

umpire

whom

to appeal,

war

Men

were

induced deliberately to feek each other's

controverfies between them,

and

to adjudge the

not according to the dldtates of

reafon and juftice, but as either fhould prove moft fuccefsful in

devaftation and murder.

This was no doubt in the

firft

inftance

the extremity of exafperation and rage.

But

it

has fmce been

converted into a trade.

part to

One

part of the nation pays another

in their ftead
;

murder and be murdered

fuppofed

and the moft

trivial caufes, a

infult or a fally

of youthful ambition,

have fufEced to deluge provinces with blood.

We

can have no adequate idea of

this evil, unlefs

we

vifit,

at

leaft in

imagination, a field of battle.

Here men

deliberately

deftroy each other

by thoufands without any refentment

againft

or even knowledge of each other.

The

plain

is

ftrewed with

death in

all its

various forms.
in

Anguifh and wounds difplay the

diverfified

modes

which they can torment the human frame.

Towns

are burned, fhips are

blown up
fide,

in the air while the

mangled limbs defcend on eveiy

the fields are laid defblate,

the wives of the inhabitants expofed to brutal infult,

children driven forth to hunger and nakednefs.
It

and

their

would be
and

defpicable to mentio'n, along with thefe fcenes of horror,

the total fubverfion of

all

ideas of mroral juftice they

muft occaflon.

OF THE CAUSES OF WAR.

fion In the auditors
are

^xy
Bno;.: v. CHAP, XVI.
'

and fpedators, the immenfe treafures which

wrung
is

in the

form of taxes from thofe inhabitants whofe

'

refidence

at a diftance

from the

fcene.

After this enumeration

we may

venture to enquire what arc

the juftifiable caufes and rules of war..

It is

not a juftifiable reafon, " that

cordial

we

iraagine our
if

own
we

peo-

Infuffident caufes of

pie

would be rendered more

and orderly,
-

could war:
'^'i^

find a neighbour with

whom

to quarrel,

and

who

mio-ht ferve ^

s'^q"'""^

as a touchftone to try the charaders

and difpofitions of indlnot at liberty to have

all

a healthful """^ ^Jgo";""*

viduals

among

ourfelves*."

We

are

P"^^"='"'"^'

recourfe to the
in the

moft complicated and atrocious of

mifchiefs

way

of an experiment.

The
mind

reader will eafily perceive

t'lat

the pretences by

which the people of

In the author's

France were inftigated to a declaration of war in April 1792 were

in this place.

Nor

will a

few

lines

be mifpent in tL

note in ftating the

judgment of an impartial obfervcr upon the wantonnefs with which they have
appeared ready upon different occafions to proceed to extremities.
If policy

were

in queftion,

it

might be doubted, whether the confederacy of kings would

it

ever have been brought into action againft them, had

cipitation
;

not been for their preto

and

it

might be alked,, what imprefhon they muft expeft

ftates

be

made
?

upon the minds of other

by

their intemperate commiflion

to us, never

of hoftility

But

that ftrit juftice,

which prefcribes

by
is

hafty interference to

determine the doubtful balance in favour of murder,

in comparifou with

a fuperior confideration

which policy

is

unvi'orthy (0

much

as to be

named.
It

5i8

OF THE CAUSES OF V/AR.

V.
jj.

BOOK

jg j^Qf

^ juftifiable reafon, "that

we

have been expofed

to

theTutdi^
upjiipXa't'e" infuks;

certain infults,
'^^-S

and

that tyrants perliaps

citizens of

have delighted in
ftate

treat-

"^^i*^^

contempt the

our happy

who have
the
;

vifited their

dominions."

Government ought

to

proteft

tranquillity of thofe vv^ho refide within the fphere of

its

fundions

but,

if

individuals think proper to vifit other countries,

to the

they

muft then be delivered over

protedion of general reafon.

Some

proportion muft be obferved betvv^een the evil of which

evil

we

complain, and the

which the nature of the propofed

remedy

inevitably includes.

the menaces or preparations of our neighbours:

Jt is
Qj.

not a juftlfiable reafon, " that our neighbour

If
is

is

preparing

menacine: hoftilities."
the inconvenience

we

be obliged to prepare in our x u

j.

turn,

only equal
is

and

it

is

not to

be

believed,

that a defpotic country

capable of

more exertion
latter is indif-

than a free one,

when

the tafk incumbent

on the

penlible precaution.

the dangerous confequences of

Jt

has fometimcs bccn held to be found reafoning

upon

this

fubjed, " that

we ought

not to yield

little

things,

which may
this

not in themfelves be fufficiently valuable to authorife

tremen-

dous appeal, becaufe a difpofition to yield only invites farther

experiments*."
* This pretence

Far otherwife

at leaft

when

the charader of

is

fuftained in Paley's INIoral and Political Philofophy,

Book

VI. Ch. XII.

fuch

OF THE CAUSES OF WAR.

fiich a

5,9

nation

is

fufKciently underftood. ^

people that will not

^

KOOK v.
CHAP. XVI.
''

contend for nominal

and

trivial

objed:s,

that

maintains the

'

precife line of unalterable juftice,

and

that does not fail to be

is

moved

at the
its

moment

that

it

ought to be moved,

not the

people that

neighbours

M^ill

delight to urge to extremities.

"

The

vindication of national honoui-"

is

a very infufficient

the vindication of national ho-

reafon

for hoililities.

True honour
It

is

to

be found only in

nour.

integrity

and

juftice.

has been doubted

how

far a

view

to

reputation ought in matters of inferior

to influence the condu(t of individuals
;

moment

to be permitted

but, let the cafe of indi-

viduals

be

decided

as

it

may,

reputation,

confidered

as

feparate motive in the inftance of nations, can never be juftifiable.

In individuals

it

feems as

if I

might, confiftently with

the utmoft real integrity, be fo mifconftrued and mifreprefented

by

others, as to render

my

efforts at ufefulnefs

almoft always

abortive.

But

this reafon

does not apply to the cafe of nations.

Ufefulnefs and

Their
|)ubhc

real

ftory cannot eafily be fupprelTed.

fpirit in relation to

them

chiefly belong to the tranfadions

;

of their members

among

themfelves

and
is

their infiuence in the

tranfadlions of neighbouring nations

a confideration evidently
juftifiable caufes

fubordinate.

The

qucftion

which refpeds the

difficulties, if
call

of war, would be

liable to

few

we were

accuftomed,

along with the word, ftrongly to

up

to our

minds the thing

which

that

word

is

intended to reprefsnt.

4.,

Accurately

52

OF THE CAUSES OE WAR.

Accurately confidered,
fiable caufes

there can probably be but

is

two

jufti-

of war, and one of them

among
as
it

thofe

which the

logic of fovereigns

and the law of nations,

has been termed,

profcribe
liberty

thefe are the defence of our

own

liberty

and of the

of others.
is,

The

well

known

objection to the latter of

thefe cafes,

" that one nation ought not to interfere in the

internal tranfadions of another ;"

fo

and we can only wonder that

admitted {o
this falfe

abfurd an objetion fhould have beeen

true principle,

long.

The

under favour of which

is,

one has

been permitted to pafs current,

vidual are
fit

" that no people and no inditill

for the poffefTion of

any immunity,

they underit."

ftand the nature of that immunity, and defire to pofTefs

It

may

therefore be an unjuftifiable undertaking to force a nation

to be free.

But,

when

the people themfelves defire

in the acquifition.

it,

it

is

virtue
is

and duty

to affift

them

This principle
intrigue
;

capable'of being abufed

by men of ambition and

but,

accurately confidered, the very fame argument that fliould induce

me

to

exert

myfelf for the

liberties

of

my own

country,

is

equally cogent, fo far as

my

opportunities and ability extend,

with refpel to the

liberties

of any other country.

But the

morality that ought to govern the condudt of individuals and of

nations
is

in

all

cafes the fame.

CHAP.

5^1

CHAP.

XVII.

OF THE OBJECT OF WAR.

l-HE

REPELLING AN INVADER.

NOT

REFORMATION

NOT INDEMNIFICATION. NOTHING NOT RESTRAINT CAN BE A SUFFICIENT OBJECT OF WAR THAT IS NOT A
SUFFICIENT CAUSE FOR BEGINNING
IT.

REFLECTIONS

ON THE BALANCE OF POWER.

ET

us pafs from the caufes to the objedls of war.

is

As
_
'"*

defence

the only legitimate caufe, the objet purfued,

reafoning from this principle, will be circumfcrlbed within very

nvadcr.

narrow

limits.

It

can extend no farther than the repelling the

It is

enemy from our

tion to this,

borders.

perhaps defirable that, in addi-

he fhould afford fome proof that he does not propofc

;

immediately to renew his invafion

affords

but

this,

though

defirable,
hoftillties.

no

fufficient

apology for the continuance of

treaties

Declarations of

war and

of peace are inventions of a

barbarous age, and would never have

ufages, if

grown

into

eftablifhed

war had cuftomarily gone no farther than to the limits

of defence.

It will hereafter

appear that what has been termed the crimi- Not

rerorma:

tioa

nal

522

OF THE OBJECT OF WAR.

nal jiiftice of nations within themfelves, has only
obje<fts,

two

legitimate

reflraint

and reformation.

Neither of thefe
ftates
;

objeds

applies to the cafe of

war between independent

and there-

fore ideas of criminal juftice are altogether foreign to this fubjedt.

War,

as

we have

already feen, perhaps never originates on the

offending fide in the fentiments of a nation, but of a comparatively

fmall

number of individuals

and,

if

it

were otherwife,
fenfe

it is

not
to

in a reciprocation of hoftilities that

good

would teach us

look for the means of reform.

rot rcftraint

Reftraint appears to be fometimes neceflary with refpet to the

offenders that exift in the midft of a

community, becaufe

it is

the

property of fuch offenders to affault us w^ith unexpe(3:ed violence;

but
nations

cannot

move with

fuch fecrecy as to

make an

unforefeen attack an object of confiderable apprehenfion.

The

only effedtual means of

reftraint in this laft cafe is

by

difabling,
;

impoverifhing and depopulating the country of our adverfaries

and,
if

we

recolledted that they

were men

as well as ourfelves,

and the great mafs of them innocent of the quarrel againft us

we

fhould

be

little

likely

to confider thefe

expedients with

complacency.

notindemni-

Indemnification

is

another ohjeQ.
fail

of war which the fame

mode of

reafoning will not

to

condemn.

The

true culprits

can never be difcovered, and the* attempt would only ferve to

eonfound the innocent and the guilty

not to mention that, nations

having

OF
having no

THE OBJECT OF WAR.

umpire, the
_

523

common

revertinir,

in the conclufion of

BOOK
*

v.
'

CHAP. XVI r.

every war, to the juftice of the original quarrel and the iudemnification to w^hich the parties

were

entitled,

would be a means of
K'othi'npf

rendering the controverfy endlefs.

juftinable objedls of

The

queftion refpedling the

can
wai-

war would be

liable to

few

difficulties,

if objcft of
that
is

not a

we

laid

it

down

as a

maxim,

that, as often as the principle or

fnfficient

caufe for bc-

objet of a

war already

in exiftence

was changed,

this

was

to be

ginning

it.

confidered as equivalent to the

commencement
would not
and

of a
to

new

war.

This

maxim

impartially applied

fail

condemn

objedls of prevention, indemnification

reftraint.

The

celebrated topic of the balance of

power

is

mixed con-

Refleftiom

fideration,

having fometlmes been propofed as the caufe for

as

knee of
power,

beginning a war, and fometlmes

an objedt to be purfued in a

war already begun.

of power,

A war,

undertaken to maintain the balance

may

be either of defence, as to protel a people

who

are opprefled, or of prevention to counteradl

new

acqulfitlons,
fhall

or to reduce the magnitude of old pofTeffions.

little

We

be in

danger of error however,

if

we pronounce

wars undertaken
If

to maintain the balance of

power
is

to be unlverfally unjuft.

any people be opprefled,

as far as

it

our duty, as

we have

already fald,

our

ability
if in

extends, to fly to their fuccour.

But

it

would

be well

fuch cafes
prefcrlbes,

we

called

our Interference by the

againfl: the Injufliice,

name which

jufl:Ice

and fought

and not the power. All

hoft:Ilities againfl: a

neighbouring people,
to

becaufe they are powerful, or becaufe

,;

we impute

them

evil

defigns

524
defigns
are an

OF

THE OBJECT OF WAR.

to carry in execution,

which they have not yet begun

enormous

violation of every principle

to be

of morality.

If

one nation chufe

governed by the fovereign or an indi-

vidual allied to the

ibvereign of another, as feems to have been

the cafe of the people of Spain

upon

the extindion of the elder

to enlighten

branch of the houfe of Auftria,

we may endeavour

them on
of

the fubjedl of government and

imbue them with principles

tell

liberty,

but

it is

an execrable piece of tyranny to

them,

"You
hate,

fhall

exchange the defpot you love for the defpot you

certain

on account of

remote confequences

we

apprehend

from the

acceffion of the former."

The

pretence of the balance

of power has in a multitude of inftances ferved as a veil to the

intrigue of courts, but
it

would be eafy
ftates

to fliaw that the prefent

independence of the different

of Europe has in no inftance

been materially fupported by the wars undertaken for that purpofe.

The

fafcii^ation

of a people defiring to become the appen-

dage of a fplendid defpotifm can rarely occur, and might perhapa

cafily

be counteracted by peaceable means and the diflemination

truths.

of a few of the moft obvious

ftruggling^

The

defence of a people

with oppreffion muft always be

it

juft,

with

this lingle

limitation, that the entering into

part,

without urgent need on their

calamities of war,

would

unneceflarily

fpread the

and

diminilh thofe energies, the exertion of which

to their virtue

would contribute

and happinefs.

Add

to this, that the object itfelf^

is

the independence of the different ftates of Europe,

Tocal nature.

of an equi-

The

defpotifm, which at prefent prevails

among
them.

OF
them,
is

THE OBJECT OF WAR.

make
us very anxious

525

certainly not fo excellent as to

for its prefervation.

The

prefs

is

an engine of fo admirable a

nature for the deftrudion of defpotifm, as to elude the fagacity

perhaps of the mofl vigilant police

and the internal checks

diftant

upon freedom

in a

mighty empire and

provinces, can

fcarcely be expedled to be equally adlive w^ith thofe of a petty

tyrant.

The

reafoning will furely be good with refpedt to war,

fubjedl of govern-

which has already been employed upon the

ment, that an inftrument,
to be feledled as the
^in

evil in

its

own

nature, ought never

in

means of promoting our purpofe,

any eafe

which

felec^tion

can be pradifed.

CHAP.

5*6

CHAP.
OF
OFFENSIVE

XVIII.

THE CONDUCT OF WAR.

GENERAL OPERATIONS. FORTIFICATIONS. STRATAGEM. MILITARY CONTRIBUTIONS. ACTION. CAPTURE OF MERCANTILE VESSELS. NAVAL WAR. HUMANITY.
SIONS.

MILITARY OBEDIENCE.

FOREIGN POSSES-

A NOTHER
"*
it.

topic refpedling war,

which

It is

of importance

to confider in this place, relates to the

mode of conducting
facilitated
firft,

Upon

this article

our judgments will be greatly

by no

a recollection of the principles already eftablifhed,

that

war

is

juftifiable

but a war purely defenfive

is

and fecondly, that a

this refpet,

war already begun

the

liable to

change
it

its

charader in

moment
From

the object purfued in

thefe principles
it

becomes in any degree va-

ried.
It is

follows as a diredt corollary, that

never allowable to make an expedition into the provinces of

its

the enemy, unlefs for the purpofe of affifting

bitants.
It is

oppreffed inhacafuiftryreparticularly

fcarcely neceffary to

add that

all falfe

fpedting the application of this exception

would be

odious

and that

it

is

better undifguifedly to

avow

the corrupt

principles of policy

by which we conduit

ourfelves, than

hypo-

critically to claim the praife of better principles, which

we fail not
to

OF THE
'

CONDUCT OF WAR.
whatever

-=^
cafe

to wreft to the iuflification of

we

defire.

The

of

f)OOK
"^

v.
'

CHAP. XVIIt.
"

relieving the inhabitants of our

enemy's territory and their

defire
fhall

of obtaining

relief

ought to be extremely unequivocal;

we

be in great danger of mifapprehenfion on the fubjeft, when the

queftion comes under the form of immediate benefit to ourfelves
;

and above

all

we muft

recolledl that

human

blood

Is

not to be

fhed upon a precarious experiment.

The

little

advantages of war that might be gained by oifenfive

operations will be abundantly compenfated,

by the character of

magnanimous forbearance
exhibit,

that a rigid adherence to defence will

will

and the efFeds that character

produce upon foreign

at

nations and

upon our own

fail

people.

Great unanimity

home
The

can fcarcely

to be the effed: of fevere political juftice.

enemy who
man,
will

penetrates into our country, wherever he meets a

foe.

meet a

Every

obftacle will oppofe itfelf to

his

progrefs, while every thing will be friendly

and

affifting to

our

own

forces.

He will

fcarcely be able to procure the flighteft in-

telligence, or underftand in

any

cafe his relative fituation.

The

principles of defenfive
infallible

war

are fo fimple as to procure

an almofl
of
Foitificatioiis.

fuccefs.
,

Fortifications are a very equivocal fpecies

prote3:ion,

and

will oftener be of advantage

to the

enemy, by

being
mies.
his

firft

taken, and then converted into magazines for his ar-

A moving force
The

on the contrary,

if

it

only hovered about

General adion.

march, and avoided general action, would always preferve the

great engine of military fuccefs or mifcarriafre.

real fuperiority.

528

OF
"
'

THE CONDUCT OF WAR.

BOOK V.
CHAP, xviii.
*

carrlag-e, is the article of provlfions ; and the farther the enemy ' J r o ' advanced into our country, the more eafy would it be to cut ofFhis

fupply
tion,

at the

fame time

that, fo

long as

we

avoided general ac-

any

decifive fuccefs

on

his part

would be Impoffible. Thefe

fo well underftood,

principles, if rigidly pradifed,

would foon be

that the entering in a hoftile

manner the country of a neighinfallible

bouring nation would come to be regarded as the

ftruftion of the invading army.

de-

Perhaps no people were ever

firft

conquered
either

at

their

own

doors, unlefs they were

betrayed

by

divifions

among

themfelves or by the abjedt degeneto underftand of

racy of their charadler.

the nature of juftice, the

The more we come

more
it

will

fhow

itfelf to

be ftronger

than a hoft of foes.

Men, whofe bofoms

are

tmly pervaded

with

this principle,

cannot perhaps be other than invincible.

Among
fpicuous

the various examples of excellence in almoft every de-

partment that ancient Greece has bequeathed us, the moft conis

her refiftance with a handful of

men

againft three

millions of invaders.

Stratagem,

One
art,

branch of the

art

of war, as well as of every other

human

has hitherto confifted in deceit.

built

If the principles of this

work be
ceit

upon
all

a fufficiently folid bafis, the practice of de-

ought in
falfe

inftances to be

condemned, whether

it

proceed

from

tendernefs to our friends, or from a defire to haften

the downfal of injuftice.

efFedual

Vice

is

neither the moft allowable

nor
is

weapon with which

to contend againft vice.

Deceit

not

OF THE
not
lefs deceit,

CONDUCT

OF WAR.
We
fahe
^

51.9

whether the falfhood be formed Into words or be

BOOK v. CHAP. xvin.

^

conveyed through the medium of fiditious appearances.

fhould no more allow ourfelves to millead the
intelligence or treacherous ambufcade, than

enemy by

by the breach of our

There
is

declarations, or feigned demonftrations of friendfhlp.

no

eflential difference

between throwing open our arms to em-

brace them, and advancing towai'ds them with neutral colours or

covering ourfelves with a defile or a wood.

furprife

By

the pradllce of

and deceit we
mofl blood.

ftaall

ofteneft cut off their ftraggling parties

and

flied

By

an open difplay of our force

we

ihall

prevent detachments from being made, fhall intercept the poiHbiiity

of fupply without urmeceflary bloodfhed, and there feems

to believe that our ultimate fuccefs will be lefs certain.

no reafon

Why
its

fhould war be

made

the fcience of difmgenuoufnefs and

myftery^

when

the plain didates of good fenfe

?

would anfwer
is

all

legitimate purpofes
vigilance.

The

firft

principle of defence
is
is

firmnefs

and

The

fecond perhaps, which

to be attained,

not

lefs

immedi-

ately

conneded with the end

difclofure of

franknefs and the

open

our purpofe even to our enemies.

What aftoexcite in
'

nifhment, admiration and terror would this

thofe with

condud

whom we

had

to

contend
it

What

confidence and
?

magnanimity would accompany

in oar
its

own bofoms

Why
be

ihould not war, as a ftep towards

complete

abolition,

brought to fuch perfedion,

as that the purpofes

of the enemy
a.

might be
fw:ord.?

utterly baffled without firing a

mufket or drawing

Anothex

^^o

OF THE
have been delivered,
mited
is

CONDUCT OF
Icfs

\V"A R.
v.'hich
li-

Another corollary not

inevitable

from the principles

that

the

operations of w^ar fhould be

as accurately as pofFible to the generating

no

farther evils

than defence inevitably requires.

banifhed from
it.

Ferocity ought carefully to be

as poffible

Calamity fhould as entirely

be pre-

vented to every individual

Military contributions.

who

is

not adiually in arms, and whofe

f^^g y^^^ j^q

immediate reference to the event of the war.

the levying military contributions, and
veffels.

This
the

principle
Capture of
mercantile
veffels.

condemns

capture of mercantile *
jj^

Each of

thefe atrocities

would be

another

way precluded by

the doctrine of fimple defence.

if

We

fhould fcarcely think of levying fuch contributions,

we

never atfpecies

tempted to pafs the

Naval war.

limits

of our

own territory

and every

of naval War would perhaps be profcribed.

Humanity.

The
enemies.

utmofl benevolence ought to be

pra(3:ifed

towards our

We

fhould refrain from the unneceflary deftrudlion of

a fmgle

life,

and afford every humane accommodation to the un-

fortunate.

The bulk of thofe

againft

whom we have

to

contend

are comparatively fpeaking innocent of the projeted injuftice.

Thofe by

whom

it

has been moll afliduoufly foftered are entitled

to cur kindnefs as

men, and
all

to our compaffion as miftaken.

It

has already appeared that

to the bufmefs of war.

the ends of punifhment are foreign

It

has appeared that the genuine melio-

ration of war, in confequence of

folutely to ceafe,
is

which

it

may
it

be expected abits

by gradually difarming

of

ferocity.

The

horrors of

war have fometimes been apologifed by

a fuppofition
.

that

OF THE CONDUCT OF WAR.

that the

531
It

more

intolerable

It

was made, the more quickly would ^ '

But the dired contrary of
feverities in return.

V. CHAP.XVUI.
^

BOOK
^

ceafe to Infeft the world.

truth.

'

this Is the

Severities

do but beget

It Is

a moft

miftaken

way
their

of teaching

men

to feel that

they are brothers, by

imbuing

minds with unrelenting hatred.

and
is

The

truly juft

man
if

cannot
did.

feel animofity,

therefore

little

likely to a*^ as

he

Having examined
mies,
let

the conduct of
it

war

as

It

refpeits our ene- MllUaiyobc-

us next confider

in relation to the various defcriptlons

of perfons by
little

whom

it Is

to be fupported.

We

have feen

how
The
and

jufl:

and upright war ftands In need of fecrecy.

a campaign, luftead of being, as artifice

plans for

conduding

ambition have hitherto made them, Inextricably complicated, will

probably be reduced to two or three variations, fuited to the
ferent circumftances that can poffibly occur in a
dif-

war of fimple
enemy, the

defence.

The

better thefe plans are

will
It

known

to the

more advantageous

be to the

refifting party.

Hence

It

follows that the principles of implicit faith and military obedi-

ence will be no longer neceflary.

chines.

Soldiers will ceafe to be

ma-

The

eflential

circumftance that conftitutes

is

men

machines

in this fenfe of the

word,

not the uniformity of their motions,

It is thelf

when

they fee the reafonablenefs of that uniformity.

performing any miction, or engaging in any atllon, the ohjed

and

utility

of which they do not clearly underftand.

It is true

that in every ftate of

human
3

fociety there will be

men

of an intelledual

^^2.

OF THj:
V.
'

CONDUCT OF WAR.
fuperior to their neighbours.

BOOK
*

telledlual capacity

much

But de-

fenfive war, and probably

every other fpecies of operation in

which

it

will be neceffary that

many

individuals fhoald

ad

in
as

concert, will perhaps be

found fo fimple in their operations,

not to exceed the apprehenfion of the moft

It Is

common

capacities.

ardentl^y to be defired that the time fhould arrive, M-^hen no

man

fhould lend his afhftance to any operation, without at the

his

fame time exercifmg

judgment refpeding the honefty and

the expcded event of that operatini^

foreign pof-

The
mind

principles here delivered

on the condud of war

and

lead the

to a very interefling fubjed;, that of foreign

diftant ter-

ritories.

Whatever may

be the value of thefe principles con-

fidered in themfelves, they

become

altogether nugatory the

is

morea-

ment
lity

the idea of foreign dependencies

admitted.

But ia

what argument

poffeffing the fmalleft degree of plaufibility

?.

can be alledged in favour of that idea

The mode

in

which de-

pendencies are acquired, muft be either conqueft, ceffion or coiomzation.

The

firft

of thefe no true moralift or politician will

attempt to defend.

The

fecond
firft,

is

to be confidered as the
lefs

fame

thing in fubftanee as the

nuity.

but with

opennefs and. ingefpecious pre-

Colonization,
is

which

is

by much the moft

pretence.

tence

however no more than a

ftate

Are thefe provinces

fake or for theirs
?

held in a
for our

of dependence for our

own

If

own, we muft recoiled

this is

ftill

an ufurpation, and

tiiatjuftice requires

wejhould

yield to others

what

we

demand,
for.

'

OF THE
their

CONBUCT OF WAR.
by the '
didlates of
it is

S3S'

2;overned prlvlleo-e of belno; for ourfelves, the ^ '

BOOK v. CHAP, xviir.

*~"^^-^

own

reafon.

If for theirs, tliey

muft be

told, that

the

bufinefs of afTociations of

men

to defend themfelves, or, if that be

knpradticable, to look for fupport to the confederation

of

their

neighbours.

They muft be

told, that

defence againft foreign

enemies

is

a very inferior confideration, and that

no people were

ever either wife or happy

who were

not

left to

the fair develop--

ment of

their inherent powers.

Can any thing be more abfurd

than for the Weft India iflands for example to be defended byfleets

and armies

to be tranfported acrofs the Atlantic

is

The

fup--

poit of a mother country extended to her colonies,

much

oftener

a means of involving them in danger, than of contributing to

their fecurity.
fide

The connexion

is

maintained by vanity on one

If they muft fink into a dewill they be the
?

and prejudice on the

ftate

other..

grading

of dependence,
ftate

how

worfe in befirft

longing to one

rather than another

to,

Perhaps the

ftep

towards putting aftop

annihilate that
at

this fruitful fource

of war,, would be- to

reafoners

monopoly of trade which all enlightened

prefent agree to condemn, and to throw open the ports of our

all

colonies to

the world.

The, principle. which will not

fail-

to

lead us right

upon

this fubjet
is,

of foreign dependencies, as well as

upon
is

a thoufand others,

that that attribute,

is

however fplendid

not really beneficial to a nation,, that

not beneficial to tha

great mafs of iadlviduals of

which the nation coufifts.

h:ap..

534

CHAP.
C?F

XIX.

MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS AND TREATIES.

A COUNTRY MAY LOOK FOR ITS DEFENCE EITHER TO A STANDING ARMY OR AN UNIVERSAL MILITIA. THE THE LATTER OBJECTED TO AS FORMER CO^DEMNED.
OF IMMORAL

TENDENCY AS UNNECESSARY EITHER IN RESPECT TO COURAGE OR DISCIPLINE. OF A COMMANDER.

OF TREATIES.
topic

BOOK V.
CHAP
I

'
'j

XIX.

i B
--

-H

lafl

which

it

may

be neceflary to examine as
it

to the fubjet of war,

it

is

the condut

becomes us

to obdiftri-

ferve refpedting

in a time of peace.

This

article

may be

buted into two heads, military eftablilhments and

alliance.

treaties

of

Acoiintry

If military eftablifhments In time of peace be' judged propel-,

their purpofe

may look
its

for

defence

may

be effeded either by configning the prad:ice

either to a

ftanding

of military

difcipline to a certain part of the

is

community, or by
a

.army or an
uni\erfal

making every man whofe age

foldier,

fuitable

for that purpofe

^nde^d!

The preferablenefs

of the

latter

of thefe methods to the former

GF MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS AND TREATIES.

is

S35
chap\ik'
^
*

obvious.

The man
depraved.

that

is

merely a

foldier,

muft always be

uncommonly

War

in his cafe inevitably degenerates into a trade

"

from the neceflary precautions of a perfonal defence,

by which

man

fells

his fkill in

murder and the

fafety of his ex-

iftence for a pecuniary

recompenfe.

The man

that

is

merely a

foldier, ceafes to be, in the

fame

ienfe as his neighbours, a citizen.

He is cut
and

off from the reft of the

community, and has fentiments

a rule of

judgment

peculiar to himfelf.

He
;

confiders his

countrymen

as indebted to

him

for their fecurity

and,

by an un-

avoidable tranfition of reafoning, believes that in a double fenfe

they are

at his

mercy.

On

the other hand that every citizen

foldiei",

fhould exercife in his turn the funlions of a

feems pe-

culiarly favourable to that confidence in himfelf

and in the re-

fources of his country,

tain.
It is

which

it

is

fo defirable

he fhould enter-

congenial to that equality, which muft fubfift in an

eminent degree before mankind in general can be either virtuous

or wafe.

And

it

feems to multiply the powers of defence in a

its

country, fo as to render the idea of

faUing under the yoke of

an enemy in the utmoft degree improbable.

There

are- reafons

however
,

that oblige us to doubt refpedling The

latter

oUjetted to

the propriety of cultivatmg under any form the fyftem of milltary difcipline in time of peace.
tions as
it is

It

is

...

as of im-

moral ten-

in this refpet
that

with na-

dency;

with individuals.

The man

with a

piftol bul-

let is fure

of his mark, or that excels his contemporaries in the

exercife of the fword, can hardly efcape thofe obliquities of under-

Handing

,S3^

OF MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTSHanding which

It is

thefe accomplifhments are calculated to nourlfh.

all

not to be expected that he fhould entertain

diftafle
all

that confi-

dence in reafon and

fcribes.
It is
it

of violence which fevere truth pre-

beyond

controverfy that war, though the pracftate

is

tice

of

under the prefent

of the

human

fpecies

may

in

fome
and

inftances be unavoidable,
It

an idea pregnant with calamity

vice.

cannot be a matter of indifference, for the

human

mind

to be fyftematically familiaiifed to thoughts of

murder and
fail
t:t

defolation.

The

difciple

of mere reafon would not

the

iight of a muflcet or a fwoi'd to be imprefTed with fentiments of

abhorrence.

Why

expel thefe fentiments?

fellivity

Why

conaed
;

the

difcipline of death

with ideas of
,\f

and fplendour

which

will

inevitably happen,

the cidzens, without oppreffion, are

?

.accutlomed to be drawn out to encampments and reviews

poffible that

Is it

he
is

who

has not learned to murder his neighbour

avith a grace,

imperfefl: in the trade of

man ?

If It be replied, " that the gen-erating of error

rable

is

not infepa-

from military

difcipline,

and

that

men may

at

fome time be

fufficiently

guarded againft the abufe, even while they are taught

the ufe of arms ;" it will be found

upon

reflelion that this argu-

ment

is

of

little

weight.

Though
it

terror

be not unalterably con-

iieded with the fcienc^ of arms,

fo.

will for a

long time remain

to handle

When men

are fufficiently

improved

to be able

familiarly and with application of

mind

the inflruments of death

jvithout injury, they will alfo be fufficiently improved to be able

to

AND TREATIES.
to mafter

^37
than
at prefent,

any ftudy with much greater

facility

^^9^^
*~"~">'

^'
'

and confequently the cultivation of the

peace will have
choice.
ftill

art military in

time of
it

fewer inducements to recommend

to

our

To apply

thefe confiderations to the prefent fituation of

mankind.

We

have already feen that the fyftem of a ftanding army

that an univerfal militia
is

is

as unneccffarjr
:

altogether indefenfible, and

much
to

more formidable

defence, as well as infinitely

political happinefs.

more agreeable
It

the principles of juftice and

remains to be

feen

what would be the

real fituation

of a nation furrounded by

other nations in the midfl: of which ftanding armies were maintained,

which fhould neverthelefs upon principle wholly negledl

In fuch a nation
it

the art military in feafons of peace.

will pro-

bably be admitted, that, fo far as relates to mere numbers, an

army may be

raifed

upon the fpur of

occafion, nearly as foon as

in a nation the citizens of which had been taught to be foldiers.

But

this

army, though numerous, would be

in

want of many of

thofe principles of combination and adivity

rial

which are of mateindeed included in

is
either eltl

importance in a day of

battle.

There

is

re-

the fuppofition, that the internal ftate of this people

more equal

rage

and

free than that

of the people by

whom

they are invaded. This

will infallibly be the_iuife in a

comparifon between a people with

;

a ftanding army and a people without one

between a people

who

can be brought blindly and wickedly to the invafion of their

peaceful neighbours, and a people

who

will not be induced to

fight

538

OF MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS

BOOK V. CHAP. XIX.

*

"

{{cr\i^

but in their

own

defence.

The

latter

therefore will be

obliged to compare the ftate of fociety and goA'ernment in their

own

country and

among

their neighbours,

and

will not fail to

be

imprefTed with great ardour in defence of the ineftimable advantages they poffefs.

Ardour, even in the day of

battle,

might

prove

fufficient.

body of men, however

field,

undifciplined,
infallibly

whom

nothing could induce to quit the

would

be vidlo-

rious over their veteran adverfaries,

who, under

the circumflances

of the

cafe,

could not poffibly have an accurate conception of the

fighting,
it.

objedt for
tertain

which they were

and therefore could not enis

an invincible love for

It

not certain that adivity

and

difcipline

oppofed to ardour, have even a tendency to turn

the balance of flaughter againft the party that wants them.

great advantage confifts in their
aftonifli, to terrify

Their

power over

the imagination to

and confound.

An

intrepid courage in the

party thus aflailed would foon convert them from fources of

defpair into objeds of contempt..

cr difcipline.

But

it

would be cxtrcmely unwife

in us to

have no other re-

fource but in the chance of this intrepidity.

furer

A
is

refource

much
war

and more agreeable to

juftice

is

in recolledting that the

Battle

of which

we

treat is a

war of defence.
which,

not the objed

of fuch a war.
ing on the

An army,
or

like that

of Fabius, by keepit

hills,

by whatever other means, rendered

impradicable for the

enemy

to force

them

to

an engagement,
enflave the

might look with fcorn upon

his

impotent

efforts to

country.

AND TREATIES.
countrythat, as its

^yj
is.
'
"^

Oat advantage
very eflence
is

Included In fuch a fyftem of xvar '

BOOR v.
CHAP. XIX.
^
'

protradion, the defending

army might
Dlfcipline,

in a fhort time be rendered as fkilful as the aflailants.

like

every other
as

art,

has been reprefented by vain and interefted

vi^ith

men

furrounded

imaginary

difficulties,

but

is

in reality
effec-

exceedingly fimple

and would be learned much more

tually in the midft of real

war than

in the puppet fliow exhibi-

tions of a period of peace.

It Is defirable

Indeed that

we

fliould

have a commander of con-

O^:

com-

fiderable fkill, or rather of confiderable

wifdom,

to reduce this
is

patient

and indefatigable fyflem into pradice.

the

This

of

much

more importance than

nature of military

mere

dlfcipline of the ranks.

But the

wifdom has been greatly

mifreprefented.

Ex-

perience in this, as well as in other arts, has been unreafonably

magnified, and the general

power of

a cultivated

mind been

'

thrown

into fhade.

It will

probably be no long time before this

will be

quackery of profeffional
perpetually do
rigible
;

men

thoroughly exploded.

How

we meet
it is

with thofe

whom

experience finds incor-

while

recorded of one of the greatefl generals of anout for his appointment wholly unacquainted
for that
flvill,

tiquity, that

he

fet

with his

art,

and was indebted

which broke out im-

mediately upon his arrival, to the aifiduoufnefs of his enquiries,

and a careful examination of thofe writers by

moft
fuccefsfully

whom
it

the art had

will be adinit.

been

illuflrated

At

all

events

* C'lceyonh LucuUus^Jive Academjcortim Liber Secundus,

mitted

540

OF MILITARY ESTABLISHMENTS
mitted, that the maintenance of a ftanding o '
difcipline

BOOK V, CHAP. XIX.

'

army y

or the perpetual X
1

~^'

'

of a nation

is

a very dear price to pay for the purchafe

of

a general, as well as that the purchafe

would be extremely pre-

carious, if
It

we were

even perfuaded to confent to the condition.

this Is

may

perhaps be true, though

not altogether clear, that a

nation by whom

military difcipline

was wholly negleded would

In that cafe
it

be expofed to forae difadvantage.

becomes us

to

v/eigh the negled and cultivation together, and to caft the balance

on

that fide to

which upon mature examination

it

fhall

appear to

belong.

Of treaties.

A fecond
eafily

article
is

which belongs to the military fyftem in a feaThis fubjedl

all cafes

fon of peace

that of treaties of alliance.

may

be difpatched.
firft

Treaties of alliance are in

wrong,

in the

place, becaufe all abfolute promifes are

wrong, and

neither individuals nor bodies of

felves

men ought

to preclude

them-

from the benefit of future improvement and deliberation*

all

Secondly, they are wrong, becaufe they are in

cafes nugatory.

Governments, and public

men,

will not,

and ought not to hold

themfelves bound to the injury of the concerns they condutS,,

becaufe a parchment, to which they or their predeceffors were

party, requires
it

at

their hands.
itfelf to their

If the concert

demanded in

time of need, approve

their inclination,
it

judgment or correfpond with

though they were under
no.

will be yielded,

previous engagement for that purpofe.

lo no other end, than to exhibit

Treaties of alliance ferve

by

their violation

an appearance
of

AND TREATIES.
of profligacy and
vice,

54 r

which unfortunately becomes too often

a powerful encouragement to the inconfiftency of individuals,

>

book v. CHAP. XIX, J I

Add

to this, that, if alliances

were engines

as powerful, as they

are really impotent, they could feldom be of ufe to a nation

uniformly adhering to the principles of juftice.

iiifelefs,

They would

be

becaufe they are in reality

ill

calculated for

any other pur-

pofes than thofe of ambition.

it

They might

be pernicious, becaufe

would be

beneficial for nations as for individuals to look for

refources at

home,

inftead

bf depending upon the precarious com-

paflion of their neighbours*

CHAP.

[542

H A
AS

P.

XX.

OF DEiMOCRACY

CONNECTED WITH THE

TRANSACTIONS OF WAR.
EXTERNAL AFFAIRS ARE OF SUBORDINATE CONSIDERATION.

APPLICATION.
I.

FARTHER

OBJECTIONS TO DE-

MOCRACY

IT IS

INCOMPATIBLE WITH SECRECY

THIS PROVED TO BE

AN EXCELLENCE

2.

ITS

MOVEEVILS

MENTS ARE TOO SLOW

OF

3.

TOO PRECIPITATE.

ANARCHY CONSIDERED.
thus endeavoured to reduce the fubjed of
it

EOOKV,
CHAP. XX.
*^

T TAVING
I -*--*{[yQ

war

^^

'

to

its

External
fairs are

af-

true principles, j r r

is

time that

we

fhould recur to
fubjedl,

of fubordinate
coniidt ration,

maxim

delivered

at

our entrance upon

this

that

individuals are individuals of

every thing,

and

fociety,

abftrabed

from the
immediate

which
this

it

is

compofed, nothing.
is,

An

confequence of

maxim

that the internal affairs of the

fociety are entitled to our principal attention,

and the external

are

matters

of inferior and

fubordinate

confideration.

The

internal affairs are fubjeds of perpetual

and hourly concern, the

external are periodical and precarious only.

That every man

fhould be impreffed with the confcioufnefs of his independence,

and refcued from the influence of extreme want and

artificial

defires.

OF
defires, are

DEMOCRACY,
;

&c.

543

purpofes the mofl interefting that can fuggefi; thein-

felves to the
ftate

human mind

but the

life

of

man might
its

pafs, in a

uncorrupted by ideal paflions, without

as

tranquillity being

fo

much

once difturbed by foreign invafions.

The

influence

that a certain

number of

millions,

born under the fame climate

with ourfelves,

and known by the

fliall

common

appellation

of

Englilh or French,

pofTefs
is

over the adminlllrative councils

a circumftance of

of their neighbour millions,

much

too airy

and

diilant

confideration,

to

deferve to be

made

a principal

objedl in the inftltutions of

any people.

The

beft influence

we

can exert

is

that of a fage

and upright example.

If therefore

It

fhould appear that of thefe two

articles.

Internal

Applicati'on.

and external

affairs,

one muft

in

fome degree be

facrificed to the

other, and that a for the

afl:airs

democracy

will in certain refpedts be lefs fitted

of war than fome other fpecies of government,

hefitate

good

fenfe

would not

between thefe
fatisiied, if,

alternatives.

We

fhould have fufficient reafon to be

benefits of jufiice and virtue
at

together with the

home, we had no reafon to

defpair of our fafety

from abroad.

confidence in this article

will feldom deceive us, if our countrymen,

however

little

trained

to formal rules and the uniformity of mechanifm, have ftudied

the profeflTion of

man, underiland

his attributes

and

his nature,

and have

their necks

unbroken to the yoke of blind credulity and

as

abjet fubmiflrion.

Such men, inured,

ftate

we

are
full

now

fuppofing

them, to a rational

of fociety, will be

of calm confi-

dence

544

<^f"

DEMOCRACY AS CONNECTED WITH

adlivity,

BOOK
*
"^

V.
'

(]ence

and penetrating
in
ftead

and thefe

qualities will

ftand

them

of a thoufand leffons in the fchool of military

mechanifm.
defence,

If

democracy can be proved adequate

better fitted for
its

to

wars of

and other governments be

wars of a
imperfec-

different fort, this

would be an argument, not of

tion, but

its

merit.

Farther objeftions to

It

has been one of the objedlions to the ability of a democracy

it

democracy:
I. it IS in-

in War, " that

cannot keep

fecrets.

The

legiflative afTembly,

com patibie
Miti eciecy.

whether

it

poffefs the initiative,

or a

power of

control only, in

g^ecutive

affairs, will

be perpetually calling for papers, plans and

information, crofs examining minifters, and fifting the policy

and the
to cope

juilice

of public undertakings.
if

How

fhall

we

be able

with an enemy,

he

know

precifely the points

we

mean

to attack,

the ftate of our fortifications, and the ftrength

?

and weaknefs of our armies

with
(kill

How

fhall

we manage

our

treaties

and addrefs,

if

he be informed precifely of the

accefs to the inftrutions

fenti-

ments of our mind and have

ambaffadors ?"

of our

till?

proved
'

It

happens in

this inftance, that that

is

which the objection

moft

attacks

ceiience:

^s the vice of

democracy,

one of

its

effential excellencies.

The
vice
;

trick

of a myfterious carriage
it is

is

the prolific parent of every

and

an eminent advantage incident to democracy, that,

this fpecies
fecrets, yet
its

though the proclivity of mind has hitherto reconciled

of adminiftration in fome degree to the keeping of

THE TRANSACTIONS OF WAR.

its

54^

inherent tendency

is

to annihilate them.

Why

Ihould dif-

BOOK
*^

v. CHAP, XX.
"

ingenuity and conceahnent be more virtuous or more beneficial

In nations than in individuals
?

Why

fhould that, which every

man

of an elevated mind would difdain In his perfonal chara<3:er,

if

be entitled to more lenity and toleration,

as a minifter

undertaken by
-this

him

of

ftate

Who

is

there that fees not, that

left

inex-

tricable labyrinth

was

artfully invented,
affairs,
?

the people fhould

underftand their
clined to condudl

own
them

and,

underftanding, become init

With
all

refpeifl to treaties,

is

to be
if

fufpedled that they are in

inftances

fuperfluous.

But,

public engagements ought to be entered into,

what

elfential differ-

ence

is

there between the governments of

two

countries endeafeller

vouring to overreach each other, and the buyer and

ia

any

private tranfadtion adopting a fimilar proceeding

This whole fyftem proceeds upon the idea of national grandeur and glory,
as if in

reality thefe

words had any

thefe airy

fpecific

meaning.

Thefe contemptible objeds,

earlieft

names, have

from the

page of hlftory been made the oftcnfible colour Let us take a fpecimen of
purfuits.

for the moft pernicious undertakings.

their value

from the moft innocent and laudable

If I
influ-

afpire to be a great poet, a great hlftorian, fo far as I

am
to

enced by the didates of reafon,

kind, and not that
I

it Is

that I

may be ufeful
country.
Is

man-

may do honour

to

my

Newton

the better becaufe he was an Engllfliman, or Galileo the worfe becaufe be was an Italian
?

Who 4A

can endure to put

this

high

founding

546

OF DEMOCRACY AS CONNECTED WITH

founding nonfenfe in the balance agalnih the beft
interefts

of

mankind, which
rity,

will always fufFer a mortal

wound, when dexteand

artifice
?

and concealment

are

made

topics of admiration

applaufe

The

underftanding and the virtues of mankind will

always keep pace with the manly fimplicity of their defigns and
the undifguifed integrity of their hearts.

2, Its

move-

It

has farther been objeded to a democratical ftate in

its

tranC-

merits are too

flow:

adtions with foreign powers, " that

.,p.

it is

...incapable
If
ill

of thole rapid

and

decifive proceedings,

which

in

fome

fituations

have

fo

emiit

nent a tendency to enfure fuccels."

by

this objedlion

be

underftood that a democratical

furprife,

ftate is

fitted for dexterity

and

the rapidity of an
If
it

affaffin,

it

has already received a

its

fufiicient anfwer.

be meant that the regularity of

pro-

ceedings

may

ill

accord with the impatience of a neighbouring

defpot, and, like the

Jews of old, we
this
is

4efire a

king " that

we may

be like the other nations,"

a very unreafpnable requifition.

fee hia

juft

and impartial reafoner will be- little defirous to

roll,

cpuntry figure high in the diplomatical

the intrigues of nations,

deeply involved in

and afliduoufly courted by foreign

princes as the inftrument of their purpofes.

more groundlefs
that of

and abfurd paffion cannot

feize

upon any people than

glory, the preferring their influence in the affairs of

their internal happinefs

Europe

to

and

virtue, for thefe objedts will, perpe-

tually counterad

and

clalh

with each other.

But

THE TRANSACTIONS OF WAR,

But democracy
is

547
r.OOK V.
'

by no means

neceffarily of a phlegmatic
is

charader, or obliged to take every propofition that

made

to

it,

'

ad referendum^
blies,

for

the confideration

of certain primary aflem-

like

the

ftates

of Holland.
itfelf,
is

The.
the

firft

principle in

the

inftitution

of government

neceffity,

under the

prefent imperfections of mankind, of having feme man or body

of

men

to at

on the part of the whole.

Wherever government

fubfifts,

the authority of the individual muft be in fome degree

It

fuperfeded.

does not therefore feem unreafonable for a repre-

fentative national aflembly to exercife in certain cafes a difcre-

tionary power.

Thofe

privileges,

which

are

vefted in indivitheir fellows,

duals feledted out of the mafs

by the voice of

and

who

will fpecdily return to a private ftation, are

by no means

liable to the

fame objedions,

as the exclufive

and unaccommotogether

dating privileges of an ariftocracy.

Reprefentation,
it is

with
tially

many

difadvantages, has this benefit, that

to call

able impar-

and wdth difcernment

upon the moft enlightened

part of the nation to deliberate for the whole, and

may

thus

generate a degree of wifdom, a refined penetration of fentiment,

which

it

would have been unreafonable

to expedt as the refult

of primary aflemblies.

A third

objection
is,
*'

more frequently
it is

offered againfl democratical

3.

too preci-

pitate.

government

that

incapable of that mature and delibe-

rate proceeding

which

is

alone fuitable to the decifion of fuch

important concerns.

Multitudes of

men have

appeared fubjet
to

x^

548

OF DEMOCRACY AS CO-NNECTED WITH

jg [g
'

BOOKV.
*^

p occafional infanit)^
:

they adt from the influence of

liable to

'

rap-e,

fufpicion and defpah"

they are

be hurried into

the moft unjuflifiable

poftor."
that

extremea by the

artful

pradices of an imis,

One of

the moft obvious anfwers to this objedion

we muft

not judge of a fovereign people by the example of

ftates.

the rude

multitude in defpotic

We

muft not judge of

men born
of

to the exercife of rational fimdions,

by

the example

men

rendered

mad with

oppreffion,

and drunk with the

is,

acquifition of

new born power.

Another anfwer
all

that for all

men

to fhare the privileges of

is

the law of our nature

is

and

the dictate of juftice.

The

cafe in this inftance

It is

parallel to that,

of an individual in his private concerns.

each

true that, while

to all the ftarts.

man

is

mafter of his

own may

affairs,

he

is liable

of paffion.

He

is

attacked

by the allurements of temptation and

be guilty of the moft
fatal errors

the tempeft of rage, and

before refledtion and
this
is

judgment come forward

depriving

to his aid.

But

no

fufficient reafon for.

men

of the direction of

their

own
not to

concerns.

We
firft

fhould endeavour to

make them

wife
felfthis,

and
-

make them
is

flaves.

The

depriving

men

of their

government

in the

place unjuft, while in the fecond

it is,

felf-government, imperfect as

will be
its

found more falutary

place..

than any thing that can be fubftituted in

EtIIs of anarfidered'."'

The
It IS

nature of anarchy has never been fufEciently underfloodo

it is lefs

undoubtedly a horrible calamity, but

horrible than

defpotifm.
2.

Where anarchy

has

flain its hundi-eds,

defpotifm has
iiicrificedt

THE TRANSACTIONS OF WARo

facrlficed millions

upon

millions, with this only

vices

efFecfl:,

to perpe>.

BOOK
^

V.
-i

tuate

the ignorance,
is

the
lived

and the mifery of mankind.

is all

Anarchy
immortal.
to

fliort

mifchief, v/hile defpotifm

but

It is
all

unqueftionably a dreadful remedy, for the people

their furious paffions,
till

yield to

the fpetacle of their

:

efFeits gives ftrength to

recovering reafon

but,

though

it

be a

dreadful remedy,

it

is

a fure one.

No

idea can be fuppofed,

more pregnant with

abfurdity,
till

than that of a whole

people
It

taking arms againft each other

is

they are

all

exterminated.

to defpotifm that

anarchy

is

indebted for
its

its fting.

If defpo-

tifm were not ever watchful for

prey, and mercilefsly prepared

to take advantage of the errors of

mankind,

this ferment,

like fo

many
clear

others, being

left to

itfelf,

would
is

fubfide into an even,

all

and delightful calm.

Reafon

at

times progreffive.
it

Nothing can give permanence

Into

to error,
it

that does not convert

refifl

an

eftabliflament,

and arm

with powers to

aa

invafion.

GH AP.

550

CHAP.
OF

XXI.

THE COMPOSITION OF GOVERNMENT.

HOUSES OF ASSEMBLY.
.

THIS

INSTITUTION UNJUST.

DE-

LIBERATE PROCEEDING THE PROPER ANTIDOTE.

SEPA-

RATION OF LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE POWER CONSIDERED.

SUPERIOR
articles

IMPORTANCE OF THE LATTER.

FUNCTIONS OF MINISTERS.

NE
Houfes of
aflembly.

of the

which has been

mofl: eagerly infilled

on

by the advocates of complexity in

that of " checks,

political inftitutions, is

by which

rafli

proceeding

may

be prevented,

and the provifions under which mankind have hitherto lived

with tranquillity,
tion."

may

not be reverfed without mature delibera-

We

will fuppofe that the evils of

monarchy and

arifto-

cracy are by this time too notorious to incline the fpeculative enquirer to feek for a

remedy

in either of thefe.

" Yet

it is

pofllb'Ie,

without the inftitution of privileged orders, to find means that

may
tives
blies

anfwer a fimilar purpofe in

of the people
;

this refpedl.

The

reprefenta-

may be

diftributed for

example into two affem-

they

may

be chofen with this particular view to conftitute

an upper and a lower houfe, and

other, either

may be

diftinguifhed

from each

by various

qualifications of age or fortune, or

by

being

OF THE COMPOSITION OF GOVERNMENT.

being chofen by a great greater or fmaller number of eledors, or for a '
"^

551

^OOK
CHAP.

v.

XXI,

fhorter or longer term."

To every

Inconvenience that experience can produce or imagi- Tin

tioii

inftitu-

unjuft.

nation fuggeft there

is

probably an appropriate remedy.

This

remedy may
ficial

either be fought in the dldtates of reafon or in artidictates.

combinations encroaching upon thofe

prefer?

Which

are

we

to

There
is

is

no doubt

that the inftitution of

two

houfes of aflembly

contrary to the primary didates of reafon

nation be governed
?

and

juftice.

How
its

fhall a

Agreeably to the

opinions of
to

inhabitants, or in oppofition to

them

Agreeably

them undoubtedly.
is

Not, as

we we

cannot too often repeat, be-

caufe their opinion

a ftandard of truth, but becaufe, however

erroneous that opinion

may

be,

can do no better.

There

is

no

effectual

way

of improving the inflitutions of any people, but

their underftandlngs.

by enlightening

He

that

endeavours to

maintain the authority of any fentiment, not by argument, but by

force,

may

intend a benefit, but really inflids an extreme injury.

that' truth

To
that

fuppofe

can be

inftilled
is

through any medium but

ail

of

its intrinfic evidence,

the moft flagrant of

errors.

He

that believes the moft fundamental propofition through the

Influence of authority, does not believe a truth, but a falflaood.

The

propofition
it,

Itfelf

he does not underftand, for thoroughly to

underftand
it is

Is

to perceive the degree of evidence with

;

which
the

accompanied

thoroughly to underftand
terms, and,

it is

to

know

full

meaning of

its

by neceflary confequence,

to per-

ceive

iS^
^tiA?'^xxi'
^^
'

OF THE COMPOSITION
^^^'^^ i^

what

refpets they agree or difagree with each other. All

is,

that he beUeves

that

it

is

very proper he fhould fubmit to

ufurpatlon and injuftice.

It

was imputed

to the late

government of

Fi ance, that,

when

they called an affembly of notables in 1787, they contrived, by

dividing the affembly into feven diftindl corps, and not allowing

them

to vote otherwife than in thefe corps, that the vote of fifty

perfons fhould be capable of operating as if they were a majority

in an affembly of one hundi'ed and forty-four.
It

would have

been
b.e

flill

worfe, if

it

had been ordained that no meafure fhould

meafure
of the affembly, unlefs
all
it

confidered as the

were

adopted by the unanimous voice of

the corps

eleven perfons

might then, in voting a negative, have operated

one hundred and forty-four.
This

as a majority

of

may

ferve as a fpecimen

of

the effects of diftributing a reprefentative national affembly into

two or more

houfes.

Nor

fhould

fuffer ourfelves to

be de-

ceived under the pretence of the innocence of a negative in

parifon with an affirmative.
truth

com-

In a country in which univerfal

was already

eflablifhed, there

would be

little

need of a re-

prefentative affembly.

In a country into whofe inftitutions error

has infinuated

itfelf,

a negative

upon

the repeal of thofe errors

is

the real affirmative.

The
tp

imlitution of

two houfes of affembly

itielf.

is

the dlred

method

divide a nation againfl

One of

thefe houfes will in a

gr'eater

OF
greater or
privilege.
lefs

GOVERNMENT.
'

-^^3

degree be the afylum of ufurpation, monopoly and '^

BOOK v. CHAP. XXI

*

Parties

would expire

as

foon as they were born, in a

interefts
infti-

' *

country where oppofition of fentiments and a ftruggle of

were not allowed

tution.

to aflliine the formalities

of diftindt

Meanwhile

a fpecies of check perfedlly limple, and

which apin the

Dt-liberate

proceeding

pears fufficiently adequate to the purpofe, fuggefts

idea of a flow and deliberate proceeding

itfelf

the proper
antidote.

which the reprefentative

aflembly fhould prefcribe to

this affembly fhould

itfelf.

Perhaps no proceeding of
till it

have the force of a general regulation

had undergone
or
till

five or fix fuccefTive dlfcuffions in

the affembly,
its

the expiration of one

month from
is

the period of

being

propofed.

Something

like this
it

the order of the Englifh houfc

of commons, nor does

appear to be by any means

among

the

worft features of our conftitution.

fufficiently

fyftem like this would be

analogous to the proceedings of a wife individual,

to determine

who

certainly

would not wifh

life

upon the moft important

flill

concerns of his

without a fevere examination, and

if his decifion

lefs

would omit

this

examination,

were deftined

to be

a rule for the conduct and a criterion to determine

titude of other

upon

the rec-

men.

Perhaps, as

we

have

faid, this

flow and gradual proceeding

ought in no inflance
fentative afl'embly.
"

to be difpenfed

with by the national repre-

This feems

to

be the true line between the

4 B

fundions

554

OF

THE COMPOSITION
Its

fundions of the aflembly and

mlnifters.

It

would give a

charader of gravity and good fenfe to

this central authority, that

would tend eminently

to fix the confidence of the citizens in its

wifdom

andjuftice.
its

The mere

votes of the aflembly, as diftin-

guifhed from

ads and

decrees,

might ferve

as

an encourage-

ment

to the public fundlionaries,

and

as affording a certain deevils

gree of hope refpeting the fpeedy cure of thofe

the public might complain
;

of which

but they fhould never be allowed to

be pleaded
like this

as the legal juftification

of any adion.
fatal

A precaution
itfelf,

would not only tend to prevent the

confequences of
but of tu-

any

precipitate

judgment of the aflembly within

mult and diforder from without.

find
it

An
them

artful

demagogue would
fit

much more

eafy to

work up
retain

the people into a

in
it

of

mor

mentary

infanity, than to

for a

month

in op-

pofition to the efforts of their real

friends to undeceive them.

to take their

Meanwhile the confent of the aflembly

confideration might reafonably be
violence.

demand

into

expeded

to

moderate their

Separatloa of
legiflative

Scarcely any plaufible argument can be adduced in favour of

and

executive power coniidered.

what has bccu denommated by

powcrs.

, .

political writers
r
i
i

a divifion of
<-

Nothing can feem

r leis
i

realonable, than to prefcnbe

any

pofitive limits to the topics of deliberation in

an aflembly ade-

quately reprefenting the people

the exercife of fundions, the

or peremptorily to forbid them

depofitaries

of which are placed

under their infpedion and cenfure.

Perhaps upon any emergence,

OF
Kence, '
'

GOVERNMENT.
the time

55^-

totally unforefeen at

of their eledion, and un-

BOOK v. CHAP. XXI.

^

commonly
upon

important, they would prove their

wifdom by

calling

"

'

the people to eleQ. a

new

aflembly with a diret view to

as

that emergence.

But the emergence,

we

iliall

have occafion

more

fully to obferve in the fequel, cannot with

any propriety be

prejudged, and a rule laid

to or diftindl

down for

their

condudl by a body prior

from themfelves.

The

diftinftion of legiflative

and

executive powers, however intelligible in

theory, will

by no

means

authorife their fep^ation in pradice.

Legiflation, that

is,

the authoritative enunciation of abftrait or

Superior importance of
the latter.

general propofitiohs, Js a function of equivocal nature, and will

never be exercifed in a pure ftate of fociety, or a ftate approaching to purity, but with great caution and unwillingnefs.
It is

the moft abfolute of the fundions of government, and govern-

ment
with

itfelf is
it.

remedy

that inevitably brings

is

its

own

evils

along

Adminiftration on the other hand

a principle of perat in a

petual application.

So long

as

men

fliall

fee reafon to

corporate capacity, they will always

have occafions of temporary

emergency
in focial

for

which

to provide.

In proportion as they advance

will,

improvement, executive power

comparatively

fpeaking,

become every

thing,

and

legiflative nothing.

Even

at

prefent, can there be

any

articles

of greater importance than thofe

of peace and war, taxation, and the felelion of proper periods

for the meeting of deliberative affemblies, v>rhich, as

was obferved

in the

commencement

of the prefent book, are articles of tempo-

4 B

rary

556

OF THE COMPOSITION
rary regulation*? Is
it

decent, can

it

be

juft, that thefe prerolefs

gatives fhould be exercifed

by any power
that

than the fupreme,

mofl: adequately

or be decided

by any authority but

?

which

reprefents the voice of the nation

This principle ought beyond

queftion to be extended univerfally.

There can be no
from the

juft reafon

for excluding the national reprefentative

exercife of
fociety

any

function, the exercife of

neceflary.

which on the part of the

is at all

Funaions of
miniiters.

-pj^g

fundlions therefore of minifters and maeiftrates "

commonly
'

fo called,

do not

relate to

any

particular topic, refpedling

which

they have a right exclufive of the reprefentative aflembly.

They

do not

rebate to

any fuppofed

neceffity for fecrecy

all,

for fecrets are

always pernicious, and, moft of

fecrets relating to the interefts

of any fociety, which are to be concealed from the members of

that fociety.
It is

the duty of the aflembly to defire information

without referve for themfelves and the public upon every fubjedt
of general importance, and
to
it is

the duty of minifters and others

it

communicate fuch information, though

fhould not be ex-

prefsly defired.

The

utility therefore

of minifterial fundlions
clafles

being

lefs

than nothing in thefe refpefts, there are only two

;

of utility that remain to them

of financial
detail or

particular fundiions, fuch as thofe

minute fuperintendence, which cannot be

at

exercifed unlefs

by one or

moft by a fmall number of perfonsfj

* Chap.

I.

p. 381.

Ibid.

and

OF GOVERNMENT.
and meafures, proportioned
to

557
I'OOK v.
^~~~"^'
'

the

demand of

thofe neceffities

which

will not

admit of delay, and fubjedt to the revifion and

cenfure of the deliberative aflembly.

will perpetually diminifh as

The

latter

of thefe

clafles
;

men

advance in improvement

nor

can any thing be of greater importance than the redudion of

that difcretionary

power

in

an individual, which

may

greatly

affed the Interefts or fetter the deliberations of the many.

CHAP.


558
]

CHAP.

XXII.

OF THE FUTURE HISTORY OF POLITICAL SOCIETIES.

QUANTITY OF ADMINISTRATION NECESSARY TO BE MAINTAINED. OBJECTS OF ADMINISTRATION NATIONAL
GLORY

RIVALSHIP OF NATIONS. INFERENCES

:

I.

COMEX-

PLICATION OF GOVERNMENT UNNECESSARY

TENSIVE TERRITORY SUPERFLUOUS
ITS LIMITATIONS.

2.

PROJECT OF GOVERNMENT:
3.

CONSTRAINT,
POLICE

DEFENCE.
BOOK
^
y

V.
-^

T T T E have now endeavoured to

^
'

deduce certain general prin-

ciples

upon moft of the

But there
is

fubjedts of legiflative

and exe-

tkm'neceffa

cutlve power.
"f^^ii^s

one very important topic which reof either of thefe powers does
?

tabed"^^'""

to be difcuffcd.

How much

the benefit of fociety require us to maintain

Objeftsof
adminiftration:
national

We
jjg

have ah^eady feen that the only legitimate objedl of pollthe advantage of individuals.
to

tical inftitution is

All that cannot

brought

home

them, national wealth,

profperiity

and glory,

can be advantageous only to thofe

felf interefted

impoftors,

who,

from the

earlieft

accounts of time, have confounded the under-

Handings

OF THE
merit and mifery.

FUTURE HISTORY,
more
fecurely to '

Sec.

559
I500K v. CHAP. XXII.

manJi gs ftandinps of mankind the

fmk them

in debafe-

The

defire to gain a

more

extenfive territory, to conquer or

ftates, to furpafs

nvaifiiip

of

nations.

to hold in

awe our neighbouring

them

in arts or
is

arms,

is

a defire founded in prejudice and error.

Power

not

happinefs.

Security and peace are

more

to

be defired than a
are brethren.

name

at

which nations tremble.

Mankind

We

aflbciate in a particular diflriit or

under a particular climate, be-

caufe aflbciation

is

neceflary to our internal tranquillity, or to de-

fend us againft the wanton attacks of a

the rivalflhip of nations
is

common enemy.

But

a creature of the imagination. If riches

;

be our objed, riches can only be created by commerce

greater
is

and the

our neighbour's capacity to buy, the greater will be our

fell.

opportunity to

The

profperity of

all is

the

interefl:

of

all.

The more
lefs fhall

accurately

we

underftand our

own

advantage, the

we

be difpofed to difturb the peace of our neighbour.

is

The fame

principle

applicable to

him

in return.

It

becomes
is

us therefore to defire that he

may

be wife.

But wifdom

the

growth of equality and independence, not of injury and oppreffion.

If oppreflion

had been the fchool of wifdom, the improveineflimable, for they have

ment of mankind would have been

be'en in that fchool for

many

thoufand years.

We

ought there-

fore to defire that our neighbour fhould be independent.

We
ought

560
ought to

OF THE FUTURE HISTORY

defire that

he fhould be free

for wars

do not originate

in the unbiafTed propenfities

of nations, but in the cabals of gothat

vernment and the propenfities

people
at

governments

infpire into the

large.
is

If our neighbour invade our territory, all

we
is

Ihould defire

to repel

him from

it

and

for that purpofe

it

not neceffary

we
his

ihould furpafs

him

in prowefs, fince

upon our

own ground

match

is

unequal.

Not

to fay that to conceive

a nation attacked by another, fo long as

equitable
fition.

its

own

condudt

is

fober,

and moderate,

is

an exceedingly improbable fuppo-

Where

nations are not brought into

is

avowed

hoftllity, all jea-

loufy between them

an unintelligible chimera.
is

I refide

upon

a certain fpot, becaufe that refidence

happinefs or ufefulnefs.
I

moft conducive to

my

am

interefted in the political juftice

and virtue of

my

fpecies, becaufe

they are men, that

;

is,

creatures

eminently capable of juftice and virtue

and

have perhaps adlive

ditional reafon to intereft myfelf for thofe

who

under the

fame government

as myfelf, becaufe I

am

better qualified to

unin

derftand their claims, and

their behalf.

more capable of exerting myfelf

But

can certainly have no intereft in the infliction

of pain upon others, unlefs fo far as they are exprefsly engaged in

ats of injuftice.

The

object of found policy and morality

is

to

draw men nearer

to each other, not to feparate

them

to unite

their interefts, not to oppofe them.

Individuals

OF POLITICAL SOCIETIES.
Individuals cannot have too frequent or unlimited intercourfe

^Si

COOK
,"'~r~'-

V.
'

CHAP. xxn.

with each other; but

focieties

of

men have no

interefts to explain '

Inferences:
'" V"""^?'""

and

adjuft,

except fo far as error and violence ^

may y
at

render cxplajr

nation neceflary.
cipal

This confideration annihilates

once the prin-

cation of government
uniicceflary

objeds of that myfterious and crooked policy which has hiBefore

this prin-

therto occupied the attention of governments.

ciple officers
ciators,

of the army and the navy, ambaffadors and negothe train of artifices that has been invented to hold

and

all

other nations at bay, to penetrate their fecrets, to traverfe their

machinations,
nothing.
ther with

i,o

form

alliances

and counter
is

alliances, fink into

The
its

fexpence of government
the

annihilated, and toge-

exf^^e

means of fubduing and undermining

the determination of

its

fubjeds.

Another of the great opprobriums of political

r

fcience

is
1

at

the

2.

extenfivc

lame time

'

11 completely

11 removed, that
it

extent 01 territory fubjedl to

alter-

territory fu-

perfluous,

one head, refpeting which philofophers and morallfts have

nately difputed whether

be mofl unfit for a monarchy or for a

democratical government.
future ftate of

The appearance which mankind

in a
is

improvement may be expedted to

affiame,

a policy that in different countries will wear a fimilar form,

becaufe

we have
policy the

ail

the

fame

faculties

and the fame wants

of which
will

but

independent branches

ex-

tend their authority over a fmall territory, becaufe neighbours

are beft informed of each other's concerns,

and are

perfei3:'y

equal

to

their

adjuftment.

No

recommendation

can

be

4 G

imagined

562

OF THE FUTURE HISTORY

imagined of an extenfive rather than a limited ,
that of external fecuritjA*
territory, except ' r
^
"

BOOK V. CKAP. XXII.

*

'

Whatever
ment, are
of
its

evils are

included in the abftradl idea of govern-

all

of them extremely aggravated by the extenfivenefs

jurifdidion, and foftened under circumftances of an oppc-

fite fpecies.

Ambition, which

may be no

lefs

formidable than a

peftilence in the former, has

ter.

no room
like the

to unfold itfelf in the lat-

Popular commotion
furface
is

is

waves of the
moil

fea,

capable

where the

large of producing the

tragical effedls,

but mild and innocuous

when

confined within the circuit of an

humble

lake.

Sobriety and equity are the ob^^lous charaderiftica

of a limited

circle.

It

may

indeed be objeded, " that great talents are the offspring

of great paffions, and that in the quiet mediocrity of a petty republic the powers of intelled

may

be expeded to fubfide into

iii-

adivity."

This objedion,

if true,
it is

would be

entitled to the
that,

mofl

ferious confideration.

But

to

be confidered

upon the

hypothefis here advanced, the whole

ftitute in

human

fpecies

would con-

one fenfe one great republic, and the profpeds of hirn

who

defired to

ad

beneficially

upon

a great furface of

mind,

would become more animating than

which
this ftate

ever.

During the period In

was growing but not yet complete, the compa-

rifon of the bleflings

we

enjoyed with the iniquities pradlfing

among

OF POLITICAL SOCIETIES.
among our neighbours would
exertion *.
afford

563
to
'

an additional ftimulus

COOK
^

v.
'

Ambition and tumult are

evils that arife

out of government in
.
,

^conftramt,
its limita-

an indiredl manner, in confequence of the habits|which govern-

tions.

ment introduces of material adion extending

tudes of men.
ence.

itfelf

over multiits exifl-

There

are other evils infeparable

from

The objeds

of government are the fuppreflion of vio-

lence, either external or internal,

which might otherwife deilroy

its

or bring into jeopardy the well being of the community or

jnembers

and the means For

this

it

employs

is

violence of a

more

re-

gulated kind.
forces
tration
ftraint

purpofe the concentration of individual

becomes
is

neceflary,

and the method in which

is

this
evils

concen-

ufually obtained,

alfo conflraint.

The
"f
.

of con-

have been confidered on a former occafion

agalnft delinquents or perfons to

Conflraint
is

employed
imputed,

whom

delinquency
Conftraint

is

by no means without

its

mifchiefs.

em-

ployed by the majority of a fociety againft the minority

differ

who may
is

from them upon fome queftion of public good,

firft

calcu-

Jated at

fight at leaft to excite a

ftill

greater difapprobation.

Both of

thefe exertions

may

Indeed appear to

reft

upon the

fame principle.
*

Vice

is

unqueftionably no more than error of

This objedion

will be coploully difcufTed in the eighth

book of the prefent

work.
t Book
II,

Chap. VI.

4 G

judgment.

564

OF THE FUTURE HISTORY

V.
'

BOOK
'

judgment, and nothing can

juftifv

an attempt to corred

it

by

'

force but the extreme neceflity of the cafe *.

The

minority, if
defcription,

erroneous,

fall

under precifely the fam.e general

though

their error

may

not be of equal magnitude.

But the neIf the idea

cefhty of the cafe can feldom be equally impreffive.

of fecefTion

for example were fomewhat more

it

familiarifed to the

conceptions of mankind,

could feldom happen that the feceffion

of the minority could in any degree compare in mifchievous ten-

dency with the hoftility of a criminal offending againft the m,oft obvious principles of focial juflice.
offenfive
rity,

The

cafes are parallel to thofe

of

and defenfive war.

In putting conftraint upon a minotells

we

yield to a fufpicious temper that

hereafter in

us the

oppofmg

party

may

fome way

injure us,

and

we

will antici-

pate his injury.

to repel

In putting conftraint upon a criminal,

we

feeni

an enemy

who

has entered our territory and refufes to

quit

it,

Projetiofgopolice'!

Government can have no more than two

the fupprefRon of

legitimate purpofes,.

injuftice againft individuals

within the com-

munity, and the

firft

common

defence againft external invafiqn.

The

of thefe purpofes, which alone can have an uninterrupted

claim

upon

us,

is

fufficiently

anfwered by an affociation of fuch

an extent

as to afford

room

for the inftitution of a juiy, to decide

upon the

offences of individuals within the

community, and upon

the queftions and controverfles refpeding property

*

which may

Book

II,
I

Chap. VI.

Book IV, Chap. VII.

chance

OF POLITICAL SOCIETIES.
chance to
efcape
arlfe.
It

s^S

might be eafy indeed for an offender to

'

BOOK V. CHAP. xxir.

'''

from the

limits of fo petty a jurifdiftion

at firft that the

and

it

might

'
^

feem neceffary
tions ihould be

neighbouring

pariflies or jurifdicat leaft

governed in a fimilar manner, or

Ihould

be willing, whatever was their form of government, to co-operate

with us in the removal or reformation of an offender, whofe

prefent habits were alike injurious to us and to them.

will be

But there
of any com-

no need of any exprefs compadl, and

ftill lefs

mon

centre of authority, for this purpofe.

intereft are
feals.

General juftice and

fig-

mutual

found more capable of binding men than

In the

natures and

mean time

all

neceffity for caufing the

at

punifhment of the crime to purfue the criminal, would foon

leaft ceafe, if it

ever exifted.

The motives
:

to

offence

would

become

rare

its

aggravations few

and rigour fuperfluous. The

reftraint

principal

objel of punifhment
;

is

upon a dangerous
this reftraint
is

member of the community

members of

and the end of

would
by the
and

be anfwered, by the general infpedion that

exercifed

a limited circle over the condudt of each other, fenfe that

all

by the gravity and good

fures pf
niftied.

would

charadterife the cen-

men, from

whom

myftery and empiricifm were bain the caufe of

that

No

individual

would be hardy enough

vice, to defy the general confent of fober

judgment

would
is

furround him.
better,
it

It

would carry

defpair to his mind, or,

which

would carry convidion.

lefs

He

would be

obliged,

by a

force not

irrefiftible

than whips and chains, to reform his

condud.
In

S66
In

OV THE FUTURE HISTORY

this fketch is

contained the rude outline of political govern-

ment.
defence.

Controverfies between parlfli and parifli

fince, if

would be
arofe,

in

an

eminent degree unreafonable,

limits

any queftion

about

for example, juflice

would prefently teach us

land,
is

that the

individual

who

cultivates

any portion of
diftrid

the propereft

perfon to decide to
tion of

which

he would belong.

No

aflbcla-

men,

fo

long as they adhered to the principles of reafon,

If

could poffibly have any intereft in^extending their territory.

we

would produce attachment in our

aflbciates,

we

can adopt no

furer

method than
;

that of pradlifmg the dictates of equity

if this failed in

and

moderation
fail

and,

any

inftance,

it

could only

with him who, to whatever fociety he belonged, would

prove an unworthy member.

punifh offenders
is

The

duty of any fociety to

not dependent upon the hypothetical confent

of the offender to be punifhed, but upon the duty of necefTary

defence.

But however

irrational
flate

might be the controverfy of parllh

of
fociety,
it

with parifh in fuch a

pofTible.

would not be the

lefs

For fuch extraordinary emergencies therefore provifioa

ought to be made.

Thefe emergencies are fimilar in

their

nature to thofe of foreign invafion.

againfl
ful,

They

can only be provided

by

the concert of feveral diflrids, declaring and, if need-

inforcing the dictates of juftice.

One of

the mofl obvious remarks that fuggefls

itfel'f

upon
thefe

OF POLITICAL SOCIETIES.
thefe

s^l
and of COOK
jointly
""

two

cafes,

of hoftility between

diilridl

and

diftridl,,

v.
'

foreign invafion
to repel,
is,

which the
it is

interefl

of

all calls

upon them

'

that

their nature to be only of occafional recurto be

rence,

and that therefore the provifions

made

refpedling

them need not be

in the ftridteft fenfe of perpetual operation.

it

In other words, the permanence of a national aflembly, as

has

hitherto been pradifed in France, cannot be neceffary in a period

of

tranquillity,

and

may

perhaps be pernicious.

That we may

form

more

accurate

judgment of

this, let us recoiled:

fome of

the principal features that enter into the conftitution of a national

aflembly.

CHAP.

5^^

CHAP.

XXIII.

OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLIES,
they produce a fictitious unanimity an unnatural uniformity of opinion. causes of this uniformity. consequences of the mode of decision by vote 1. perversion of reason 2. contentious

disputes

3.

the triumph of ignorance and

Society

incapable of acting from itself

vice.

of

BEING well conducted BY OTHERS. THESE CONSIDERATIONS.

CONCLUSION.

MODIFICATION OF DEMOCRACY THAT RESULTS FROM

BOOK V. CHAP. XXIIL

They
duce a mity
;

T N the

firft

place the exiftence of a national affembly introduces

proficti-

-^ the evils of a fititious unanimity.

The

public, guided
is

by fuch

tious unani-

an affembly, ads with concert, or

cxcrefcence.
exift.

elfe

the affembly

a nugatory

But

it is

impoffible that this unanimity can really

The

individuals

who

conftitute a nation, cannot take into

confideration a variety of important queftions, without forming

different fentiments refpedling them..

In reality

all

matters that

are brought before fuch an affembly are decided by a majority

of votes, and the minority, after having expofed v;ith

all

the
are

power of eloquence and

force of reafoning of

which they

capable

OT NATIONAL ASSEMBLIES.
capable the injuftice and folly of the ^
'

^6g
>

meafures adopted, are r

BOOK v. CHAP. xxnt.

'
^-

-obliged in a certain fenfe to

lion.

aflift

In carrying

them

into execu-

Nothing can more diredly contribute

to the deprav^ation
It

of the

human

underflanding and charader.

Inevitably readers
that
is

manldnd

timid, difTembling
to at

and corrupt.

He

not accuf-

tomed exclufively
flanding, muft
fall

upon

the di<States of his

own

under-

infinitely (hort
is

of that energy and fimplicity

of which -our nature

capable.

He

that contributes his per-

fonal exertions or his property to the fupport of a caufe

which

he

believes to be unjuft, will quickly lofe that accurate difcrimiai'e

nation and nice fenfiblllty of moral reditude which

cipal

the prin-

ornaments of reafoii.

Secondly, the exiftence of national councils produces a certain

fpecies of real unanimity, unnatural in
its

an unnatmal uniformity of
opinions,

charadler,
ftate

and perniof mind

fibre
is,

clous in

its

effeds.

The genuine and wholfome

fhackles,

to be unloofed

from

and

to

expand every

of

its

frame according
truth

to the

Independent and individual imprefTions of

upon

that

mind.

How

great

would be the progrefs of

unfettered

intelledaal improvement, if
dices of education,

men were

by the pi^juftate

unfeduced by the influence of a corrupt

to yield

of

fociety,

and accuftomed

without fear to the guidance

of truth, however unexplored might be the regions and unex-

peded

the conclufions to

which

flie

conduded

us

We

cannot

advance in the voyage of happlnefs, unlefs Vvc be wholly at

large
.that

upon the ftream

that

would carry us

thither

the anchor,
fafety, will

we

at

firft

looked upon

as the infti-ument

of our

4D

at

570

OF NATIONAL ASSEIVLBLIE^.
V.
jjf

BOOK
*~

jaf^

appear to be the means of detaining our progrefs.

fpecies will be the refult of

Unani

^^

"^

mitj of a certain

perfed freedom of

enquiry, and this unanimity would, in a ftate of perfed free-

dom, become hourly more confpicuous.

that refults

Bllt

the unanimity,.,

from men's having a

is

vifible ftandard

by which

to

adju ft their fentiments,

deceitful

and

pernicious,.

CMifesofthla
uniformity,.

In

numerous

afTemblieS' a

thoufand motives

influence

cur-

judgments, independently of reafon and evidence.

Every man^

looks forward to the effeds which the opinions he avows will

produce

on

his

fuccefs.

Every man conneds himfelf with

adivity of his thought
is

fome fed or
at

party.

The

fhackled

every turn by the fear that his aflbciates

is

may

difclaim him,.
ftate

This efFed
Britifh

ftrikingly

vifible

in

the prefent

of

the,

parliament, where men, vAofe

faculties are

comprehen-

five almoft

beyond

all

former example, are induced by thefe

clearly.

motives fmcerely to efpoufe the moft contemptible and

exploded

errors,.

Cbnfequencej of the mode of decifion by

?ote
:

Thirdly, the debates cf a national affembly are diftorted from

their reafonable tenour

by the

neceffity

of their being uniformly

i.perverfien

terminated by a vote.

Debate and difcufTion are in their

own

nature highly conducive, to intelledual improvement; but they

iofe this falutary

charader the

moment they

are fubjeded to this

unfortunate condition.

What

can be more unreafonable, than to

is

demand, that argument, the ufual quality of which

and imperceptibly
2.

gradually
its

to

enlighten

the

mind,

fliould

declare

eiFed

OP NATIONAL ASSEMBLIES.
cfTedl in the clofe

571

of a finple converfation

No

fooner does this

its

EOOK v. CHAP, xxiir.

'

circumftance occur than the whole fcene changes

charader,

'

The

orator

no longer enquires

after

permanent

convicSlion, but

tranfitory efFed.

He

feeks rather to take advantage of our pre-

judices than to enlighten our judgment.

That which might

otherwife have been a fcene of philofophic and moral enquiry:^

is

changed into wrangling, tumult and precipitation.

Another circumftance
is the necefTity

that arifes out of the decifion

by

vote,

contentJ-

ous dirputes-:

of conftrudling a form of words that

fhall beft

meet the fentiments and be adapted to the preconceived ideas

of a multitude of men.
ludicrous and

What

can be conceived of
of a

at

once more
of rational

difgraceful, than the fpedacle

fet

beings employed for hours together in weighing particles and

adjufting

commas

Such

is

the fcene that

is

peipetually wit-

neffed in clubs
fcufmefs
is

and private

focieties.

In parliaments this fort c^

ufually adjufted before the meafure becomes a fubjed

of

public infpedtion.
it

But

it

does not the

lefs exift

and fome

times

occurs in the other mode^

to fuit

fo that,

when numerous

amendments have been made

imperious pretenders,
the

the

corrupt intereft of
at
laft

Herculean talk remains,

intelligible

to

deduce the chaos into a grammatical and

form.

The whole
all

is

then

wound up with

that intolerable infult

upon
up

3.

the

tri-

umph
reafon and juftice, the deciding

upon

truth

by the

cafting

of i^ noiancs and
vice.

of numbers.

Thus every thing

that

we

have been accuftomed

to

573

OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLIES^
to efleem

BOOKV.
GHAP. xxiii.
^""^""^
'

moll

facred, '

is

determined,
it

at

beft

by
'

the weakeft

heads in the aflembly, but, as

not

lefs

frequently happens, by

the moil corrupt and dilhonourabk intentions-

Society incapable or

jj^

^j^g

j^f^

place, national aflerablies will ' ^

if

by no means be '

f^^j^sfrom

thought to deferve our diret approbation,,

we

recolledl for
is

a-

moment

the abfurdity of that fidtion

it

by which

fociety

conis

fidered, as

has been termed, as a moral individual.

to counteract the

It

in

vain that
aeceffity.

we endeavour

immutable laws^of
ftili

A multitude
them
as-

of

men

after all

our ingenuity will

remain no more than a multitude of men.

leCtually unite
tion.

Nothing can intek

and
identical percep-

fhort of equal capacity

So long

the varieties of

mind

fhall

remain, the force

of fociety can no otherwife be concentrated, than by one

_

maa
and

for a fhorter or a longer term taking the lead of the reft,

employing

their force,

whether material or dependent on the

weight of their charader,

z.

mechanical manner, juft as ha

All govern-

would employ the

force of a tool or- a machine..

ment

correfponds in a certain degree to

what the Greeks denothat in defpotic countries

;

minated a tyranny.

The

difference

is,

mind
it

is

depreffed

by an uniform ufurpation
of
its

while in republics?
tlie.

preferves. a greater, portion

eafily

adivity, and

ufurpatioHi

more

conforms

itfelf to

the fluduations of opinion.

cFbelng well
condiidted
sthers,

The

pretcnce of colledive

wifdom

is

the moll palpable of all

rife

by

Impofturcs.

The

afts

of the fociety can never

above

the.

fuggellion&

OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLIES,.
fiiffseftions

^yj

of

this or that individual

who

is

member of It. Let

BOOK v.
CHAP.
*^

XXIII,.
'
'

us enquire whether fociety, confidered as an agent, can really

become the equal of

certain individuals of

whom

it is

compofed*

And

here, without flaying to

examine what ground we have to

the fociety will actually take
reafons to perfuade us thaty

expedt that the wifeft

the lead in
it,

member of

find

two obvious

whatever be the degree of wifdom inherent in him that really

fuperintends, the

ads which he performs in the name of

and
lefs able,

the-

fociety will be both lefs virtuous

than under otherIn the

firfl

circumftances they might be expedted to be.

there are

place able to

few men who, with the confcioufnefs of being

cover their refponfibility under the

venture upon meafures,
fijible

name of

a fociety, will not^

lefs dire(S

in their motives^ or lefs juftl-

in-the experiment, than they

would have chofen

ad;

to adopt

in their

own

perfons.

Secondly,

men who

under the name

of a fociety, are deprived of that adivity and energy which

may

belong to them in their individual charader.

They

have- a.

multitude of followers to draw after them, whofe humours they

muftconfult, and to whofe flownefs of apprehenfion they muft

accommodate themfelves.
fee

It is

for this reafon that

we

frequently.

men

of the mofl elevated genius dwindle into vulgar leaders,

involved in the bufy fcenes of public
life.

when they become

From
clade,'

thefe reafonings

we

are fufBciently authorlfed to con-

Conclufion,

that

national alfemblies,

or in other words alTemblies. the

differences-

iaflltuted: for

the joint purpofe. of. adjuiling

between

574

OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLIES.
V.
'

BOOK
*

HC^AP. XXIil.
"

between
befl

diftrldl

and

diftridl,

and of

confultlns: refpeffcing the Io o

mode

of repelliag foreign invafion, however neceflary to he

to

had recourfe

upon

certain occafions,

ought to be employed as

fparlngly as the nature of the cafe will admit.

either never be eleded but

They

fhould
like

upon extraordinaiy emergencies,

Romans, or
elfe
fit

the didator of the ancient

periodically,

one

day

for

example in

a year,
;

with a power of continuing their

to hear the complaints

feffions

within a certain hmit

and repreis

fentations of their conftituents.

The

former of thefe modes

greatly to be preferred.

Several of the reafons already adduced

is

are calculated to flaow, that eledion itfelf

of a nature not to
it.

he employed but when the occafion demands

be no

There would

difficulty in fuggefting expedients relative to the regular

It

originating of national affemblies.

pall habits
-place

would be moft

fuitable to

and experience,
certain

that a general eledipn ihould

difti-its

take
It

whenever a

number of

demanded

it.

would

be moil agreeable to rigid fimplicity and equity that an

diftrils
diftridls

affembly of two or two hundred

ihould take place, in

exad

proportion to the number of

defired.

by

whom

that

mea-

fure was

-Modification

It

cannot reafonably be -denied that

all

the objedions

which

thatMtr^ have been moft loudly

confidclatsons.

reitei'ated againft

democracy, become null

in an application to the form of government which has

delineated.

now been
of

Here

is

no opening

for tumult, for the tyranny

multitude drunk with unlimited power, for political ambition

OF NATIONAL ASSEMBLIES.
on
iealoufy and r precaution the part of the few, or reftlefs J ^ y

57S
on the

BOOK V. CHAP. XXIIIb

*

part of the

many.

Here no demagogue would

find a fuitable oc-

'.

cafion for rendering the multitude the blind inftrument of his purpofes.

Men

in fuch a ftate
it.

of fociety would underftand their

true reafon

happinefs and cherilh

The

why the mafs of manOnce

kind has fo often been made the dupe of knaves, has been the
myfterious and complicated nature of the focial fyftem.
annihilate the quackery of government,

and the moft homebred

artifices

underftanding will be prepared to fcorn the ihallow

the
ftate

of

juggler that

would miileadhim*.

CHAP.

51^-

CHAP.

XXIV.

OF THE DISSOLUTION OF GOVERNMENT.

POLITICAL AUTHORITY OF A NATIONAL ASSEMBLYOF
JURIES.

CONSEQUENCE FROM THE WHOLE.

what
is

__

CHAP^xMv
^^^!^\^^r^.

'^ ^^^ains for us to confider

the degree of authoritjr

neceffary to be veiled in fuch a modified fpecies of national

^nadoMUf"^

aflembly as
iffue their

we have
commands

admitted into our fyftem.

to the different

Are they

to

^'

members of the confede-

racy

Or

is it

fufficient that

they fhould invite them to co-ope-

rate for the

common

advantage, and by arguments and addreffes

xonvince them of the reafonablenefs of the meafures they propofe

?

The

former of thefe would

at

iirft

be neceffary.

The

latter

would afterwards become

fuiEcient.

The Amphidyonic

<;ouncil

of Greece poffeffed no authority but that which derived

perfonal character.

from
was
and

its

In proportion as the

fpirit

of party
fubfided^

extirpated, as the reftleffnefs of public

as the political

commotion

machine became fimple, the voice of reafon

would be

fecure to be heard,

An

appeal

by the affembly

to the

feveral diftridis

would not
it

fail

to obtain the approbation of

it

all

rea-

ibnable men, uulefs

contained in

fomething fo evidently
queftionabJe,

'

OF THE DISSOLUTION OF GOVERNMENT.

queftlonable, as to

577
BOOK
*

make

it

perhaps defirable that

it

fliould

v.

prove abortive.

v-

This remark leads us one ftep

farther.

Whylhould
invitations,

not the

of

juries.

fame diftindtion between commands and

which we

have juft made in the cafe of national aflemblies, be applied to

the particular aflemblies or juries of the feveral
diftridts
?

At

firft,

we

will fuppofe, that

fome degree of authority and violence

But
this neceflity

would be

neceflary.

does not arife out of the

nature of man, but out of the inftltutions

by which he has

al-

ready been corrupted.

not refufe to
liften,

Man

is

not originally vicious.

He would

or to be convinced

by the

expoftulations that

are addrefled to him, had he not been accuftomed to regard

them

as hypocritical,

and to conceive

that,

while his neighbour,

his parent

and

his political
intereft,

governor pretended to be adluated by a

they were in
reality, at the
fatal efFecfls

pure regard to his

his,

expence of
of myfterl,

promoting

their

own.

Such are the

Oufnefs and complexity.

Simplify the focial fyftem in the

man*

ner which every motive but thofe of ufurpation and ambition

powerfully recommends
to every capacity
;

render the plain didates of juftice level

neceflity of implicit faith
j

remove the

and
It

the whole

fpecies will

become reafonable and

virtuous.

will then be fufficient for juries to

-adjufting controverfies,
^tatiog that adjuftment.

recommend a

certain

mode of

without afluming the prerogative of die*

It will then,

be

fuflicient for

them

to in*
vite'

4 E

578

OF
V.
'

THE DISSOLUTION
If their
expoftulatloili
evils arifing

BOOK
"

vlte

offenders to forfake their errors.

"

proved in a few inftances ineffedual, the

circumftance would be of
lefs

out of this

importance, than thofe which pro-

ceed from the perpetual violation of the exercife of private judg-

ment.

But

in reality

no

evils

v/ould

arife, for,

where the empire

of reafon was fo univerfally acknowledged, the offender would

either readily yield to the expoftulations of authority
refifled,
;

or, if

he

though fuffering no perfonal moleflation, he would

feel

fo uneafy

under the unequivocal difapprobation and obfervant

eye of public judgment, as willingly to remove to a fociety more

congenial to his errors.

The
F"!!!^^!"^"**

reader has probably anticipated

me

in the ultimate con-

whole,

clufion,

from

thefe remarks.

If juries might at length ceafe to

decide and be contented to invite, if force might gradually be

withdrawn and reafon

that juries themfelves
tion,

trufled alone, fhall

we

not one day find

and every other

?

fpecies of public inflitu-

may

be laid afide as unneceffary

Will not the reafonings of

one wife man be

as effedtual as thofe

of twelve

Will not the

a

competence of one individual to

inftrudt his neighbours be

matter of fufEcient notoriety, without the formality of an election

?

Will there be
?

many

vices to corred

and much obftinacy

to conquer

This

is

one of the mofl memorable flages of

delight mufl

human

improvement.
friend of

With what

every well informed

mankind look forward

to the aufpicious period, the dif-

iblution

'

OF

GOVERNMENT.
which has
*

^7^

folution of political government, of that brute engine,

BOOK

v.

been the only perennial caufe of the vices of mankind, and which,
as has abundantly appeared in the progrefs of the prefent

work,

has mifchiefs of various forts incorporated with

its

fubftance,

and

no otherwife

to be

removed than by

its

utter annihilation

4 E

AN

A N

ENQUIRY
CONCERKING

POLITICAL JUSTICE.
B O O

VI.

OF OPINION CONSIDERED AS A SUBJECT OF POLITICAL INSTITUTION

CHAP.

I.

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

ARGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF THIS SUPERINTENDENCE.
THE EXERTIONS OF SOCIETY IN ITS CORPORATE CAPACITY ARE, I. UNWISE 2. INCAPABLE OF PROPER EFFECT. OF SUMPTUARY LAWS, AGRARIAN
ANSWER.

POLITICAL DEGENERACY NOT INCURABLE. SUPERFLUOUS IN COMMERCE IN SPECULATIVE', ENQUIRY IN MORALITY. PERNICIOUS
LAWS AND REWARDS.
3.

4.

AS UNDERMINING INTELLECTUAL CAPACITY

AS

SUS-

PENDING INTELLECTUAL IMPROVEMENT

CONTRARY
T

582

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE

TO THE NATURE OF MORALITY- -TO THE NATURE OP
MIND.

CONCLUSION.
has entered deeply into the fyftems
is

BOOK VI.
CHAP.
in
I.

A PRINCIPLE, which
-^ -^

Arguments
favour of
this fuperin-

of the writers on
to

pohtical law,

that of the duty of go-

vernments

watch over the manners of the people.

"

Go-

tendence.

vernment," fay they, " plays the part of an unnatural ftep-mother, not

of an afFedionate parent,

when

fhe

is

contented

by

rigorous punifhments to avenge the commiffion of a crime, while

fhe
is

wholly inattentive beforehand to imbue the mind

witl;

thofe virtuous principles,

which might have rendered punifhment

unneceflary.
to have
its

It is

the bufmefs of a fage and patriotic magiftracy

attention ever alive to the fentiments of the people, to

encourage fuch as are favourable to virtue, and to check in the

bud fuch

as

may

lead to diforder

and corruption.
its

How
long

long

ihall government be employed to difplay

terrors,
?

without ever
fhall

Jiaving recourfe to the gentlenefs of invitation

How

fhe deal in retrofpel and cenfure to the utter neglet of prevention

and remedy

?"

Thefe reafonings have in fome refpeds

lateft

gained additional ftrength by means of the

improvements
It

and

cleareft

views upon the fubjed of political truth.

has been

rendered more evident than in any former period, that govern-

ment, inflead of being an objed of fecondary confideration, has

been the principal vehicle of extenfive and permanent
evil to

mankind.

It

was

natural therefore to fay,

"

fince
it

government

can produce fo
fitivegood."

much

pofitive mifchief, furely

can do fome po-

But

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

But thefe views, however fpeclous and aereeable they

^g^
in

may

BOOK
'

vi.
I.
'"

CHAP.
Aiifwer.

the nrft inftance appear, are liable to very ferious queftion.

If

we would

not be feduced by vifionary good,

we ought

here

more

than ever, to recoiled the principles that have repeatedly been infifted

upon and
an

illuftrated in this

work, " that government

is

in

all cafes

evil,"

and "

that

it

ought to be introduced

as fparingly

as poflible."

Nothing can be more unqueflionable than

that the

manners and opinions of mankind are of the utmoft confequenc

to the general welfare.
is

But

it

does not follow that government

are to be fafhioned.

the inftrument

by which they

One of the
this purpofe, "

reafons that
is

may

lead us to doubt of

its fitnefs

for '^^^

exertiansin

of fociety

to be

drawn from the view we have already taken '

as

"' corporate capacity are,

'"

of fociety confldered

an agent

*.

A multitude of men may be

become a
real indi-

""*'^^

feigned to be an individual, but they cannot

vidual.

The

ats

which go under the name of the

fingle perfon

fociety, are

really the aits

now of one

and

now

of another.

The

men who by

turns ufurp the

name of the whole,

perpetually

ad

under the preflure of incumbrances that deprive them of their

true energy.

They

are fettered

by the

prejudices, the

humours,

the weaknefs and the vice of thofe with

after a

whom

they

ad

and,

thoufand

facrifices

to thefe contemptible

interefts, their

projed comes out

monftrous.

at laft

diftorted
its

in every joint, abortive

and
no-

Society therefore in

corporate capacity can

by

Book V, Chap. XXIII,

p. 572.

meant

584

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE

VI.
I.

BOOK

CHAP.

bufv means be bufy and ^

intrufive

impunity, fince with im ^

its

ads muft

be expelled to be deficient in wifdom

2. Incapable
ot"

Secondly, they will not be

are in wifdom.

lefs deficient

in efiicacy than they

proper

effed.

The

object at

which we

are fuppofing

them to

aim,

is

to

improve the opinions, and through them the manners

;

of mankind

for
:

manners are nothing

fuch as
is

elfe

but opinions carried

out into adlion

the fountain, fuch will be the ftreams

that are fupplied

from
?

it.

But what

is

it

upon which opinion

muft be founded

Surely upon evidence, upon the perceptions of

the underftanding.
in
it its

Has

fociety then

any

particular advantage
?

corporate capacity for illuminating the underftanding

its

Can

convey into

addrefl'es

and expoftulations a compound or

its

fublimate of the the individual

wifdom of all

members, fuperior in quality to

wifdom of any

If fo,

why

have not

focieties

of

men

written treatifes of morality, of the philofophy of nature, or

the philofophy of

mind

Why have

all

the great fteps of human,'

?

improvement been the work of individuals

If then fociety confidered as an agent have

no

particular ad-

<fantage for enlightening the underftanding, the real difference

between the

d'lBa of fociety
article

and the

dlEia

of individuals muft be
is

looked for in the

of authority.

But

authority a proper

inftrument for influencing the opinions and manners of

men

If

l^ws were a fufilclent means for the reformation of error and

Yice^
it is

not to be believed but that the world long ere

this

would

'

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

would have become the
be more eafy than to
feat

585
^,9P.^\.^CHAP.
"^

of every virtue.
to be juft

Nothing can
to love

command men

and good,

I.

their neighbours, to pradlife univerfal fmcerity, to be

content

with a little, and to

refifl:

the enticements of avarice and ambition.

But, when you have done, will the characters of men be altered

by your

precepts
;

Thefe commands have been

if
it

ifiued for thou-

fands of years

and,

had been decreed that every

it

man

fliould

be hanged that violated them,

that this

is

vehemently

to

be fufpe^Sted

would not have fecured

their influence.

But

it

will be anfwered,

" that laws need not deal thus In ge- Of fumptuary

.

nerals, but

may

defcend to particular provifions calculated to fe-

cure their fuccefs.

We

laws, agrarian laws and rewards.

I

may

inftitute

fumptuary laws, limiting

the expence of our citizens in drefs and food.

agrarian laws, forbidding

We may
more than

inflitute

any man

to poflefs

a certain
a.Q:s

annual revenue.

We
far are

may
we

proclaim prizes as the reward of

of juftice, benevolence and public virtue."

And, when we have

?

done

this,

how

really

advanced in our career

If the

people be previoufly inclined to moderation in expence, the laws

are a fuperfluous parade.
If they are not inclined,
?

who fhall

exe-

cute them, or prevent their evafion

cafes, that regulations

It is

the misfortune in thele

/

cannot be executed but by individuals of

reftrain.

that

very people they are meant to

If the nation at

--f

large be infefted with vice,

who

fhall

fecure us a fucceflion of'*'

?

magiftrates that are free

from the contagion

ftill it

Even
Vice

if
is

we
ever

could

furmount

this difficulty,

would be
r

vain.

more

mgenious

58(5

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE

ineenious in evafion, than authority in detedion. ^ '
_

BOOK
'

VI.
I.
'

It is

abfurd

to-

CHAP.

^ imagine that any law can be executed, that diredly contradids

the propenfities and
fpirit

of the nation.

If vigilance

were able

fully to countermine the fubterfuges of

art,

the magiftrates,

who

thus pertinacioully adhered to the practice of their duty, would.

not

fail

to be torn in pieces..

What
human

can be more contrary to the moft rational principles

intercourfe than the inquilitorial fpirit
?

of

which fuch regu-

lations imply

Who fhall
I

penditure and count the

the ftratagems

employ
I

my houfe, fcrutinife my exWho fhall deted dilhes upon my table my real pofleffion of an enorto cover
enter into
?

mous income^ while

there
is

feem

to receive but a fmall

one

Not

that

really

any thing unjuft and unbecoming,

as has

been too

often fuppofed,. in

my

neighbour's animadverting with the utmoffc

freedom upon

my

perfonal condud.

But

that fuch regulations

;

include a fyftem of petty watchfulnefs and infpedion

tenting themfelves with animauverlion
prefented,^ but

not conis

whenever the occafion

making

it

the bufinefs of one

man

conftantly to

pry into the proceedings of another, the whole depending upon

the uniformity with

which

this is

done

creating a perpetual
firft,

ftruggle between the reftlefs curiofity of the

and the

artful

concealment of the fecond.

By what

motives will you

make

man an
him

informer

If

by

public fpirit and philanthropy inciting

to brave

obloquy and refentment for the fake of duty, will

far ad-

fumptuary laws be very necelTary among a people thus

vanced:

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

vanced in virtue
?

587

If

by
^

finifter

and indiredl connderations, will

'

BOOK

vr.
I. '

CHAP.
v

not the vices you propagate be more dangerous than the vices you
fupprefs
?

Such muft be the

cafe in extenfive

governments

in govern;

ments of fmaller dimenllons opinion would be

infpedlion of every

all fufficient

the

man

over the condudl of his neiglibours,

when
the

unftained with caprice,

irrefiftible

would

conftitute a cenforfliip of
this cenforfhip

more

nature.
its

But the force of

would depend upon

tates

freedom, not following the pofitive dic-

of law, but the fpontaneous decifions of the underfland-

ing.

Again, in the diftribution of rewards

againft error, partiality

who

fhall

fecure

us

and

intrigue, converting that

which was
?

meant

for the fupport of virtue into a

new

engine for her ruin

Not

to add, that prizes are a very feeble inftrument for the geits

neration of excellence, always inadequate to

really 'exifts, always in

reward where
its

it

danger of being bellowed on

fem-

blance, continually mifleading the underftanding

by

foi-eign

and

degenerate motives of avarice and vanity.

In truth, the whole fyftem of fuch regulations

ftruggle againft the laws of nature
all

is

a perpetual
will in

and

necefTity.

Mind

inftances be

fwayed by

its

own

views and propenfities.

No
lities

projed can be more abfurd, than that of reverfmg thefe propen-

4 F

588

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE

{iiies

KOOK VI.
*

by the

interpofition of authority.

He

that fhould
ftill,

com-

mand
who,

a conflagration to ceafe or a tempefl: to be

would not

difplay

more ignorance of the fyflem of the

univerft, than he,

Vv'ith

a code of regulations, whether general or minute, that

his clofet, expedls to reftore a corrupt

he has framed in

and lux-

urious people to temperance and virtue.

Political de-

The

force of this

argument refpefting the

felt,

inefficacy of regu-

generacy not
incurable.

latious has often

been

and the conclufions

that are

deduced
chaleaft,

from

it

have been in a high degree difcouraging.

it

"

The
at

rader of nations,"

has been faid,

"

is

unalterable, or

when
are

once debauched, can never be recovered to purity.

LaM'S

an empty name,
In

when

the manners of the people are

become

corrupt.

vain fhall the wifell legiilator

attempt the reforma-

tion of his country,

when

the torrent of profligacy and vice has

is

once broken

down

the bounds of moderation. There

for the relloration of fim.prtcity
evils that arife

no longer
frugality.

any inflrument
It is ufelefs to

left

and

declaim againft the

from inequality

of riches

and rank, where

this inequality has

fpirit will

already gained an

eftablifliment.

generous
;

admire the exertions of a

fpirit will

Cato and a Brutus

but a calculating

condemn them,
difeafe
is

as inflicting ufelefs torture

upon a

patient

whofe

irre-

mediable.

It

was from a view of

this truth that the poets de;

rived their fidions refpeding the early hiftory of mankind

well

aware

that,
it

when luxury was

introduced and the fprings of

that fhould

mind

unbent,

would be a vain expedation

hope

to recal

men

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

men from
But
this

5S9
vi.
I.
'

paffion to reafon,

and from effeminacy to enerev*." BOOK ^ ^J

is

CHAP.
v

conclufion from the inefEcacy of regulations

valid, that in reality,

fo far

from being

A third
that fuch

objection to the pofitive interference of fociety in ^

its is,

3- fuperflu-

OU5

corporate capacity for the propagation of truth and virtue

interference
is

altogether

unneceflary.
battles.

Truth and

virtue are competent to fight their

own

They do

not

need to be nurfed and patronifed by the hand of power.

The

miftake which has been

is

made

in this cafe,

is

fimilar to
fubjecft

'"

commerce

the miftake which

now

univerfally exploded
that, if

upon the

of commerce.
to extend
its

It

was long fuppofed

any nation defired

trade, the thing

moft immediately neceffary was

for government

to

interfere,
It is

and

inftitute

protecting
that

duties,

bounties and monopolies.

now
when

well
it

known
is

commerce
from the

never flourifhes, fo

much,

as

delivered
is

guardianfhip of legiflators and minifters, and

principle, not of forcing other people to

built

upon the

buy our commodities

dear

when they might

purchafe them elfewhere cheaper and

better, but

of ourfelves feeling the neceffity of recommending

them by

their intrinfic advantages.

Nothing can be

at

once fo
-

unreafonable and hopelefs, as to attempt by pofitive regulations

to difarm the unalterable laws of the univerfe.

Book

I,

Chap. VIII.

The

590

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE

Xhp
fame truth which has been
felt

BOOK VI.
.^V

under the

article

of coni-

CHAP-I.

'

merce, has alfo

made a

confiderable progrefs as to the fubjeds

in fpeculalive

^f^U-

of fpeculative enquiry.
religion

Formerly

it

was thought that the true

was

to

be defended by ads of uniformity, and that one

of the principal duties of the magiflrate was to watch the progrefs of herefy.
It
is

was truly judged

that the

connexion between
it

error

and vice

of the moil intimate nature, and

was con-

cluded that no means could be more effedtual to prevent

men

from deviating

into error, than to check their wanderings

by the

fcourge of authority.

Thus

writers,

whofe

political

views in

other refpeds have been

uncommonly

enlarged, have told us

"

that

men

ought indeed to be permitted to think as they pleafe,

;

hut not to propagate their pernicious opinions

permitted to keep poifons in their
clofet,

as

they

may

be

but not to offer

them

to fale imder the denomination of cordials *."

Or,

if

humanity
fet

have forbidden them to recommend the extirpation of a

which has already got footing

in a country, they

have however
to

earneftly advifed the magiflrate to give

no quarter

any new

extravagance that might be attempted to be introduced f.

reign of thefe
fpeculation
is

The

two

errors refpeding

commerce and
it

theoretical

nearly at an end, and

is

reafonable to believe

that the idea of teaching virtue through the inflrumentality of

government

will not long furvive

them.
II,

* Gullivers Travels, Part

]-

Chap. VI,
:

Mably,

de la Le^ijlation, Liv.

IV, Chnp. Ill

des Etats

Unis d'Amerlque,

Lettre III.

All

'

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

All that
is

591

to be afked
is

on the

part of

government in behalf of
for

^^^ '^-
.^

morality and virtue

their

a clear ftage

upon which

them

to exert

^-

in morality

;.

own

energies,

and perhaps fome

reftraint for the prefeht

upon

the violent difturbers of the peace of fociety, that the efforts

of thefe principles

may

be allowed to go on uninterrupted to

their natural conclufion.

Who

ever faw an inftance in which

error unaided

by power was

victorious

over truth

Who

is

there fo abfurd as to believe, that with equal arms truth can be

ultimately defeated
influence has been

Hitherto every inftrument of menace or

to counterad: her.

employed
the

Has

fhe

made

no progrefs

Has

mind of man

the capacity to chufe falfis

hood and

rejedl truth,

when

her evidence

fairly

prelented

When

it

has been once thus prefented and has gained a few

fail
?

converts, does fhe ever

to

go on perpetually increafmg the

fatal interference

number of her

votaries

Exclufively of the

of

government, and the violent irruptions of barbarifm threatening

to

fweep her from the face of the earth, has not

?

this

been in

all

inftanees the hiftory of fcience

Nor

are thefe obfervations lefs true in their application to tha

manners and morals of mankind.

Do

not

men

always ad: in

the manner w^hich they efteem beft upon the whole or moft

conducive to their intereft

Is

it

poffible

then that evidence of

what

is
?

beft or

what

Is

moft

beneficial can be

thrown away upon

them

The

real hiftory

of the changes of charader they expe-

rience in this refped

is this.

Truth

for a long time fpreads itfelf

unobferved,.

592

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE

VI.
'

BOOK
"~-^

CHAP, I.

unobferved.

Thofe who

are the

firft

to

embrace
it

it

are

little

aware of the extraordinary efFeds with which

is

pregnant.

But

it

goes on to be

iludied

and

illuftrated.

It

perpetually

increafes in clearnefs

and amplitude of evidence.

is

The number
If
it

of thofe by

whom

it

embraced

is

gradually enlarged.
if it

have relation to
they

their pradical interefts,

fhow them

that

may

be a thoufand times more happy and free than at

impoffible that in
it

prefent,

it is

its

perpetual increafe of evidence

and energy,

fhould not at

laft

break the bounds of fpeculation,

adtion.

and become an animating principle of

What

can be

more abfurd than the opinion, which has

"
that juftice

fo long

prevailed,

and an equal diftribution of the means of happinefs

may

appear ever fo clearly to be the only reafonable foundation

of political fociety, without ever having any chance of being

reduced int6 practice

that oppreffion
that,

and mifery are draughts

tailed,

of

fo intoxicating a nature,

when once
?

we can

never afterwards refufe to partake of them

that vice has fo

many
of the

advantages over virtue, that the reafonablenefs and wifdom

latter,

however powerfully

exhibited, can never obtain a

hold upon our affedions ?"

While
are far

therefore

we

decry the efficacy of unaffifted laws,

that

we

from throwing any difcouragement by

means upon

the profped of focial improvement.

The

true tendency of this

view of the fubjed

eonfiftent

is

to fuggeft indeed a different, but a

this

more
is

and proraifmg method by which

improvement

to

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

to be produced.

593

The

legitimate infirument of eiTe3:lng political

BOOK
*^

vi.
'

reformation

is

truth.

Let truth be incefiantly ftudied,

effeO. is inevitable.

illuflrated

"^"^

and propagated, and the

Let us not vainly

the

endeavour by laws and regulations

to

anticipate
till

future

didates of the general mind, but calmly wait

the harveft cf

opinion

is

ripe.

Let no new pradlice in

till

politics

be introduced,

and no old one anxioufly fuperfeded,

voice.

called for

by the public

The

tafk, wdiich for the prefent fhould

is

wholly occupy

the friend

of man,

enquiry,

inftrudlion,

difcufiion.

The
Error,

time

may come when

his tafk fhall be of another fort.

being completely

detedled,

may

indeed

fink

into

unnoticed

oblivion, without one partifan to interrupt her

fall.

This would

inevitably be the event,

fiderate impetuofity of

were

it

not for the reftleffnefs and incon-

mankind.

But the event may be otherits

wife.

Political

change, by advancing too rapidly to

;

crifis,
it

may become attended with commotion and hazard

then be incumbent on
cataftrophe.
lefs

and

will

him

adlively to

afTill

in unfolding the

The

evils

of anarchy have been fliown to be

;

much

than they are ordinarily fuppofed *

but,

whatever be their
arife,

amount, the friend of

man

will not,

when they
will

timidly

fhrink from the poft of danger.

focial

He

on the contrary by
the under-

emanations of wifdom endeavour to guide

ftandings of the people at large to the perception of felicity.

* Book V, Chap.

XX,

p.

548.

4G

Ir

594

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE

In the fourth place the interference of an organifed foclety for
the purpofe of influencing opinions and manners,
ufelefs,
is

not only

4'

penntiouE

but pernicious.
is

We have

already found that fuch interinefiedlual.

ference

in
is

one view of the fubjeil

to be

But here a

diftindlion

made.

Confidered v^ith a view to the introin the ftate of fociety,

it

duQion of any favourable changes

altogether impotent.
it is

it is

But, though

be inadequate to change,
political regulation

powerful to prolong.

This property in
that to
it

is

fo far

from being doubtful,

alone

we

are to afcribe

all

the calamities that government has inflidted on

mankind,

"When

regulation coincides with the habits and propenfities of

at the

mankind

time

it is

introduced,

it

will be

found fufEciently

capable of maintaining thofe habits and propenfities in the greater

part unaltered for centuries.

In this view

it is

doubly pernicious*

asundermining intel-

To
the

underftand this more accurately,

let

us apply

it

to the

kaual
city

capa-

^^fg of rewards,

which has always been a favourite

legiflation.

topic with
-^

advocates of an improved

How

often

have

we

been

told,

" that

talents

and virtues would fpring up fpon-

taneoufly in a country, one of the objeds of whofe conftitution

fliould be to fecure to

them an adequate reward?"

Now

to

judge of the propriety of this aphorifm

recollcding that the difcerning of merit
a fecial capacity.
is

we

Ihould begin with~

an individual, and not

What

can be more reafonable than that each

man

for himfelf fliould eilimate the merits of his

neighbour?

To

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

To
endeavour to
inftitute a j^eneral

595

iudemeut in the name of the ^

^^OK
^'
*

vi.
1.
'

CHAP.

whole, and to melt

down

the different opinions of

firfi:

mankind

into

one

common

opinion,
it is

appears at

fight fo
its

monftrous an
confequences.

attempt, that

impoffible to augur well of

wife, reafonable or
jufl:
?

Will

this
is

judgment be

Wherever each

man
merit

accuftomed to decide for himfelf, and the appeal of

immediately to the opinion of
not for the
falfe
its

is
it

contemporaries, there,

were

bias

of fome pofitive inftitation,

we

might expedt a genuine ardour in him

who

afplrcd to excellence,

creating and receiving impreffions in the

partial audience.

judgment of an im-

We might

expedt the judgment of the auditors

to

ripen

by perpetual

exercife,

and mind, ever curious and

truth.

awake, continually to approach nearer to the flandard of

What do we

gain in compenfation for

oracle,
fort

this,

by

fetting

up authois

rity as the general

from which the adlive mind

it

to

inform

itfelf

what

of excellence

fhould feek to acquire,

fliould

and the public

at large

what judgment they

?

pronounce

upon
of an

the efforts of their contemporaries

What

fhould

we

think

ad of

parliament appointing fome particular individual

laft refort

prefident of the court of criticifm, and judge in the

of

the literary merit of dramatic compofitions reafon

Is there

any

folid

why we

fhould expet better things,

from authority
?

ufurping the examination of moral or political excellence

Nothing can be more unreafonable than the attempt

to retain

men

in one

common

opinion by the dictate of authority.

The

4 G

opinion

'

596

GENERALEFFECTSOFTHE
VI.
'

BOOK
*

opinion thus obtruded upon the minds of the pubUc

real

is

not their

"

opinion

it is

only a projel by which they are rendered in-

capable of forming an opinion.

to deliver us

Whenever government affumes

ourfelves, the only

from the trouble of thinking for

it

confequences

produces are thofe of torpor and imbecility.

Wherever

truth ftands in the

it

mind unaccompanied by
it

the evi-

dence upon which

depends,
is

cannot properly be faid to be ap-

prehended
racter

at all.

Mind

in this cafe

robbed of

its effential

cha-

and genuine employment, and along with them muft be

lofe all that

expected to

which

is

capable of rendering

its

operathe af-

tions falutary

and admirable.

Either mankind will

refift

fumptions of authority undertaking to fuperintend their opinions,

and then thefe affumptions

fectual ftruggle
;

will

produce no more than an inef-

or they will fubmit, and then the effeCls will

that in

be injurious.

He

any degree configns

to another the tafk

of dictating his opinions and his conduCt, will ceafe to enquire

for himfelf, or his enquiries will be languid

and inanimate.

Regulations will originally be inftituted in favour either of

falfliood or truth.

In the

firft

cafe

no

rational enquirer will pre;

tend to alledge any thing in their defence

but, even fhould truth

be their objel,yetfuch

is

their nature, that they infallibly defeat the

ferve.

very purpofe they were intended to

prefented to the mind,
is

Truth, when originally

;

powerful and invigorating

political inftitution,

but,

when
flac-

attempted to be perpetuated by
cid

becomes

and

lifelefs.

Truth

in

its

unpatrohifed

ftate

ftrengthens and

improves

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

improves the underftanding
only fo far as
it is
;

sgy
^9^^^ ^^*
^

becaufe in that ftate

is

embraced

perceived to be truth.
is

But

truth,

when recom-

'

mended by
opinions

authority,

weakly and

irrefolutely embraced.

The
repeat

I entertain are

no longer properly by
rote,

my own

them

as a leflon appropriated
I

but

do not ilridly Ipeak-

ing underftand them, and

am

not able to aflign the evidence

is

upon which they

reft.

My

mind

weakened, while

it

is

pre-

tended to be improved.
I

Inftead of the firmnefs of independence,

am

taught to

bow

to authority I
ftriitly
is

know

not why.

Perfons thus

trammelled, are not

fpeaking capable of a fingle virtue.

The

firft

duty of man

to take

none of the principles of conduct

a clear

upon

truft, to
it is

do nothing without
right to be done.

and individual convic-

tion that

He

that refigns his underftandit

ing upon one particular

others.

topic, will not exercife

vigoroufly

upon

If he be right in

any

inftance,

ii

will be inadvertently

and by
is

chance.

confcioufnefs of the degradation to

hiiti;

which he

fubjefbed will perpetually haunt

or at leaft he will want

the confcioufnefs that accrues from independent confideration,

and
calm

will therefore equally

felf

want

that intrepid perfeverance, that

approbation that grows out of independence.

Such

beings are the mere dwarfs and mockery of men, their efforts

comparatively pufillanimous, and the vigour with which they

ftiould execute their purpofes, fuperficial

and hollow.

Strangers to convidlon, they will never be able to dlftingulfh

as fufpcndfnq

between prejudice and reafon.

Nor

is

this the worft.

Even

I'mpiovenunt

when

598

GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE

v/hen the glimpfes of enquiry fuggefl themfelves, they will not
dare to yield to the temptation.

BOOK VI.
^~

-'

To what

purpofe enquire,

when

the law has told

me what
?

to believe

and what muft be the

fo

termination of
called fuggefts

my

enquiries

Even when opinion properly

if it differ

itfelf, I

am. compelled,

in

any degree

from the

eftablifhed fyftem, to fhut

my

eyes,

and loudly profefs

my

adherence where I doubt the moft.

This compulfion
it

may
to

exift in

many

different degrees.

But, fuppofmg

to

amount

no more

than a very flight temptation to be infmcere, what judga regulation either in a moral or in-

ment muft we form of fuch

telle(9;ual

view

of a regulation, inviting

men
by

to the profeffion

of

certain opinions

by the

proffer of a reward,
their juftice

and deterring them

penalties

from a fevere examination of

bilities
?

and

difa-

fyftem like this does not content

itfelf

with habitually
all

unnerving the mind of the great mafs of mankind through

its

ranks, but provides for

its

own

continuance by debauching

or terrifying the few individuals, who, in the midft of the general emafculation,
prife.

might

retain their curiofity

and love of enterin

its

We

may judge how

pernicious

it

is

operation in

this

refped by the long reign of papal ufurpatlon in the dark

ages,

and the many attacks upon

it

that

were fuppreffed, previ-

oufly to the fuccefsful one of Luther.

there that venture to

Even

yet,

how few

are

examine into the foundation of Mahomeeffedts

tanifm and Chriftianity, or the

cratical inftitution, in countries

of monarchy and ariftoare eftablifhed

their

where thofe fyftems

free

by law

Suppofing men were

from perfecution for

hoftilities

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

hoftilities in this

599

partial,

while fo

many

refped, yet the inveftie;ation could never be im^ ^ allurements are held out, inviting men to

BOOK
*

vi.
I.
'

CHAP.
v

a decifion in one particular way.

To

thefe confiderations

It

fhould be added, that what

is

rieht

"

under certain circumftances to-day,

circumftances

may by

an alteration in thofe

contrary to the nature of n^o^l^ty =

become wrong to-moiTow.

Right and wrong are

the refult of certain relations, and thofe relations are founded in the refpedtive qualities of the beings to

whom

they belong.
dif-

Change
ferent.

thofe qualities, and the relations

become altogether

The

treatment that

am bound
am bound

to

beftow upon any one

Increafe the

depends upon
firft,

my

capacity and his circumftances.

I

or vary the fecond, and

to a different treatment.
reftraint,

am bound
I

at prefent to fubjet

an individual to forcible

becaufe
vicious

am
I

not wife enough by reafon alone to change his

propenfities.

The moment

can render myfelf wife

latter

enough,

ought to confine myfelf to the

mode.

It is

per-

haps right to fuffer the negroes in the

Slavery,
till

Weft

Indies to continue in
ftate

they can be gradually prepared for a

it

of

liberty.

Univerfally

is

a fundamental principle in
is

found

political fci-

ence, that a nation

beft fitted for the

amendment of its civil goand defue the advantage

is

vernment by being made

of that
fired
it

to underftand
it

amendment, and the moment

ought to be introduced.

fo underftood

and de-

But, if there be any truth in

to

thefe views, nothing can be

more adverfe

reafon or inconfiftent

'

6oo

GENERALEFFECTSOFTHE
VI.
I.
'

BOOK
'

CHAP.

fiftent

with the nature of man, than pofitive regulations tending

to continue a certain

mode of proceeding when

its

....

utility is

gone,

to the nature at mind.

If

wre

would bc

ftill

more completely aware of the pernicious

tendency of pofitive

inftitutions,

we ought

in the

lail

place expli-

citly to contraft the nature

of mind

and the nature of govern-

ment.

It is

one of the moft unqueftionable properties of mind to

It
is

be fufceptible of perpetual improvement.

the inalienable

tendency of

pofitive

inftitution, to
ftate.

retain that with

Is

which

It

is

converfant for ever in the fame

then the perfedibility cf

?

xinderftanding an attribute of trivial importance

Can we

recoi-

led with coldnefs and indifference the advantages with which this
quality
is

pregnant to the
?

lateft pofterity

And how are

by

thefe ad-

vantages to be fecured

By

inceffant induftry,
fpirit

a curiofity

never to be diflieartened or fatigued, by a

of enquiry to

which a fublime and philanthropic mind

will allow
is

no paufe.

The

circumftance of
ftill,

all

others moll neceffary,

that

we

fhould

never (land

that every thing

moft interefting to the general

fhould be in a
ftate

welfare, wholly delivered

from

reftraint,

of
Is

change, moderate and as

there

it

were imperceptible, but continual.

any thing

that can look with a

more malignant

afpedt

upon

the general welfare, than an inftitution tending to give perma-

nence to certain fyftems and opinions

Such

inftitutions are

two

ways pernicious

firft,

which

Is

moft material, becaufe they render

all

POLITICAL SUPERINTENDENCE OF OPINION.

all

60
;

the future

advances of mind infinitely tedious and operofe ^ ^

BOOK
^

vr.
I.
'

'

CHAP.
v

fecondly, becaufe,

by violently confining
an unnatural

the ftream of reflexion,

ftate,

and holding
laft
ties,

it

for a time in

they compel

it

at

to rufli forward with impetuofity,

and thus occafion calami-

which, were
its

it

free

from
it

reftraint,

would be found extremely

foreign to

nature.

Is

to be believed that, if the interference

of pofitive inftitution

were out of the queftion, the progrefs of

fo flow, as to
?

mind

in paft ages

would have been

have

fl:ruck the

majority of ingenuous obfervers with deipair

The

fcience

of
in
fo

Greece and

Rome upon

the fubjedts of political

:

jufl:ice

was

many

refpedts extremely imperfedl

yet could

we have been

long in appropriating their difcoveries,

had not the allurements

of reward and the menace of perfecution united to induce us, not

to truft to the
firfl:

and

fair verdidt

of our

own

underfl:andings

The jufl

conclufion from the above reafonings

is

nothing more

Conclufion.

than a confirmation, with fome difference in the

tion, of the

mode of applicais little

fundamental principle, that government

firfl:

capable
It

of affording benefit of the

is

importance to

mankind.

calculated to induce us to

lament, not the apathy and indifIt

ference, but
cites us to

the

inaufpicious adivity" of government.

in-

look for the moral improvement of the fpecles, not in

It

the multiplying of regulations, but in their repeal. us that truth and virtue, like commerce, will then

teaches

flourifla

moft,

when

leaft

fubjeded to the mifliaken guardianfhip of authority

and laws.

This

maxim

will rife

upon us

in

its

importance, in

proportion

^02
BOOK VI.
CHAP. ^^
I.
'

GENERAL EFFECTS,
proportion as ^ ^

&c,

we conned
which

it

with the numerous departments of ^

_

political juftice to
fall as it fhall

it

will be

found to have

relation.

As
it

be adopted into the practical fyftem of mankind,

will

go on

to deliver us

from a weight

intolerable to

mind, and in

the highefl degree inimical to the progrefs of truth.

CHAP,

^03

CHAP.

II.

OF RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS.
THEIR GENERAL TENDENCY.

EFFECTS

ON THE CLERGY;
'.

THEY INTRODUCE, I. IMPLICIT FAITH 2. HYPOCRISY TOPICS BY WHICH AN ADHERENCE TO THEM IS VINDICATED. EFFECTS ON THE LAITY. APPLICATION*.

ON
nine

of the mofl flriklng inftances of the injurious effeds of

BOOK VI*
CHAP, IL
*

the political patronage of opinion, as

is

...
t_

it

at prefent exifts in

the world,

to be

found in the fyftem of religious conformitVi

i_

/L

Their general
tendency.

^^

'

Let us take our example from the church of England, by the conftitution

of which fubfcription

is

required from

its

clergy to thirty-

articles

of precife and dogmatical aflertion upon almoft every

fubjedl of moral

and metaphyfical enquiry.

Here then we have

to confider the whole honours and revenues of the church, from

the archbifhop

who

takes precedence next after the princes of the

as

blood royal to the meaneft curate in the nation,

employed

in
Is

fupportof a fyftem of blind fubmiffion and abjed hypocrify.

there one

man through this numerous

one

hierarchy that

is at liberty

to think for himfelf ? Is there

his

man among them that can

upon
his

lay

hand upon

his heart,

and

declare,

honour and conhis

?

fcience,that his

emoluments have no efFed in influencing

4 H

judgment

6o4

OF RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS.
VI.
II.
'

BOOK
CHAP.
'

iuda-ment ? The declaration is literally impoffible. ^ that an honeft man under fuch circumllances can fay
.

The moft
is,

"

hope

not

I endeavour to be impartial."

EfFeds on the
clergy
:

Firft,

the fyftcm of religious conformity

is

a fyftem of blind

they introjj^'

fubmiffion.

In every country polTeffing a religious eilabiiihment,

it

J-

>

the

ftate,

from a benevolent care

its

may

be for the manners and

^^"^'

opinions of

fubjecls, publicly encourages a

numerous

clafs

of

men

to the fludy of morality

and

virtue.

What

inftitution,

we
to

might naturally be
public happinefs
topics of
?

led to enquire, can be

more favourable

Morality and virtue are the moft interefting

fpeculation
;

human
to
refult

and the

beft

efFedts

might be

expedted

from the circumftance of many perfons,

the

perpetually receiving

moft

liberal

education,

and

fetting
topics.

themfelves apart,

for

the exprefs

cultivation of thefe

But unfortunately

thefe very

men

are fettered in the outfet

by

having a code of propofitions put into their hands, in a conformity

to

which

all

their
is

enquiries

muft terminate.

The
and

natural tendency of fcience

to increafe

from age

to age,

proceed from the humbleft beginnings to the moft admirable

conclufions.

But

care

is

taken in the prefent cafe to anticipate

thefe conclufions,

and to bind

men by

promifes and penalties

not to improve upon the wifdom of their anceftors.

is

The

plan

to guard againft degeneracy

and

decline, but never to advance.

It is

founded in the moft fovereign ignorance of the nature of

fails

mind, which never

to

do

either the

one or the other.

Secondly,

OF RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS.
Secondly, the tendency of a code of reUc;lous conformity
is

605
to

i^oOK

vi.
II.
'

CHAP.
*^

make men

hypocrites.

To

underftand this

it

may

be

vifeful

to

J.hypocrify:

recolledl the various

fubterfuges that have been

invented

by

topics

by
ad-

wiiicii a'l

ingenious
clergy.

men

to apologife for the fubfcription of the Englifh

litrcnce to

tlicm

is

viu-

It is

obfervable

by the v?ay

that the articles

of the church

dicated.

are founded

upon the creed of

fifty

the Calvinifls,

though for one

hundred and

years paft

it

has been accounted difreputable

or

among

the clergy to be
tenets.

of any other than the oppofite,

to prove

Arminian

Volumes have been written

that,

while thefe

articles exprefs predeftinarian

fentiments, they are

capable of a different conftrudlion, and that the fubfcriber has a

right to take advantage of that confl:rution.
clafs

Divines of another

have refted their arguments upon the knov/n good charader

firft

and benevolent intentions of the

reformers, and have con-

cluded that they could never intend to tyrannife over the confciences of

men, or preclude the

refult

of farther information.

Laflly, there are

many who have

treated the articles as articles

of peace, and inferred that, though

you did not

believe,

you

might allow yourfelf

provided you added to
to oppofe

in the difingenulty of fubfcrlbing

it

them,

the farther guilt of conftantly refraining

as

what you confidered

an adulteration of divine

truth.

It

would perhaps be regarded

as incredible, if

it

relied

upon

the evidence of hiftory alone, that a whole body of men, fet

apart as the inftrudors of mankind,
to be

weaned

as

they are expeded

from temporal ambition, and maintained from the fuppofition

6o6

OF RELIGIOUS
fitlon

EST

AB L

HiME N TS.
and
divine
truth

that

the

exlftence

of

human

virtue

depends on their exertions, fhould with one confent employ

themfelves in a cafuiftry, the objcift of which
is

to

prove the

propriety of a man's declaring his aflent to wliat he does not

beUeve.

Thefe

men

either credit their

own

fubterfuges, or they

do

not.

If they

do not, what can be expedled from

?

men

fo

unprincipled and profligate

other

With what

front can they exhort

men
?

to virtue,

with the brand of vice upon their

own

foreheads
fenfibility

If they do, w^hat

?

mufl be

their portion

of moral
fhall enter

and dlfcernment

Can we

believe that

men

upon
and

their profeflion with fo notorious a perverfion of reafon

truth,

and

that

no confequences
?

will flow

from
to

it

to infeft

their genera] charadler

Rather,
ftate,

can

we

fail

compare

their

unnatural and unfortunate

with the profound wifdom and

determined virtue which their induftry and exertions would

unqueftionably have produced,
if

they had been

left

to their

genuine operation

They

are like the

vidims of

Circe, to

whom

human

underftanding was preferved entire, that they might more

exquifitely feel their degraded condition.

They

are incited to

ftudy and
fruits

to a thirll after

knowledge,

at the

fame time that the

of knowledge are conftantly withheld from their unfuc-

cefsful attempts.

They

are held

up

to their contemporaries as

the profefTors of truth, and political inftitution tyrannically

com-

mands them,

in

all

the varieties of underftanding and fucceflion

of ages, to model themfelves to one

common

ftandard.

Such

OF RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS.
Such
are the effedls that a code of religious conformity pro^ ^
;

607
I^OOK
vt.
II.
'

CHAP.
*

duces upon the clergy themfelves ^ ^^

are produced

let

us confider the effeds that

EffoJtsonthe

upon

their

countrymen.

They

are bid to look

^^"y*

for inftrudion and morality to a denomination of

men, formal,
intelledl

embarrafled and hypocritical, in

is

whom the

main fpring of

unbent and incapable of adion.

zeal,

If the people be not blinded

with religious

they will difcover and defpife the imperfecIf they be fo blinded,

their

tions of their fpiritual guides.

they will
imbecil

not the

lefs

tranfplant into
fpirit

own

charalers the

and unworthy

they are not able to detedl.

Is virtue fo

deficient in attractions as to be incapable of gaining adherents to

her ftandard
a juft
its

Far otherwife.

Nothing can bring the wifdom of

and pure conduct into queflion, but the circumftance of

being recommended to us from an equivocal quarter.

malicious

The

mod

enemy of mankind could not have

invented a

a fcheme

more

deftrulive of their true happinefs, than that of

hiring at the expence of the ftate a

it

body of men, whofe

bufinefs

fhould feem to be to dupe their contemporaries into the pradice

of virtue.

One

of the leffons that powerful fals are pei-petually reading

to the inhabitants

of fuch countries,

is

that of duplicity
if
it

and preought to

varication in
exift
is

an order of men, which,

exift at

all,

only for reverence.

Do you

think that this prevarication

?

not a fubjedt of general notoriety

Do you

think that the

firft

idea that rifes to the underllanding of the multitude at fight of

a clergy-

6o8

OF RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS.
VI.
II.
^

BOOK
CHAP.
'

a clergyman, f/

is

not that of a

man who
r
,

inculcates certain propo1 1

'

fitions, not fo properly becaufe

he thmks them true or thmks

is

1-1

them

interefting, as

becaufe he

hired to the

employment

Whatever

inflrudtion a code of religious uniformity

is

may

fail

to

convey, there

one that

it

always communicates, the wifdom

at

of ellimating an unreferved and difmterefted fmcerity

a very

cheap

rate.

Such

are the efFedls that are

produced by

political

inftitution, at a

time

when

it

moft zealoufly intends with parental

care to guard

its

fubjeds from fedudtion and depravity.

Application.

Thefe arguments do not apply

creeds, but to the very notion of

to

any

particular articles

and

ecclefiaftical

eftablifhm.ents in

general.

Wherever the
it

ftate

fets

apart a certain revenue for the

fupport of religion,

will infallibly be given to the adherents

of

fome

particular

opinions, and will

operate in the

manner of

prizes to induce

men

at all events to
if I

embrace and profefs thofe

it

opinions.

Undoubtedly,

think

right to have a fpiritual

inftrutor to guide

me

in

my
I

refearches and at ftated intervals to

at liberty to take the

remind me

of

my

duty,

ought to be
this

proper Heps to fupply myfelf in

refpedt.

prieft, v^rho

thus derives his miffion from the unbiaffed

judgment of

his

parifhioners, will fland a chance to poffefs beforehand

and inde-

pendently of corrupt influence the requifites they demand.

But

why

fhould

be compeiled to contribute to the fupport of an

I

inftitution,

whether

approve of

it

or no

If public worfhip be

conformable to reafon, reafon without doubt will prove adequate

to

OF RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS,
to
its

609

vindication and fupport.

it

If

it

be from God,

it is

profanaftate.

BOOK
CHAP.
*
,

vi.
II.
'

tion to imagine that

It

Hands in need of the

artificial

alliance

of the
it

muft be in an eminent degree

itfelf in

and

exotic, if

be in-

capable of preferving

exiftence, otherwife than

by the

inaufpicious interference of political inftitution.

4I

II

\\

6io

CHAP.

III.

OF THE SUPPRESSION OF ERRONEOUS OPINION IN RELIGION AND GOVERNMENT.

OF HERESY.

ARGUMENTS
IS

BY WHICH THE SUPPRESSION

OF HERESY

RECOMMENDED.

ANSWER.

IGNORANCE

NOT NECESSARY TO MAKE MEN VIRTUOUS. DIFFERENCE OF OPINION NOT SUBVERSIVE OF PUBLIC SECURITY. REASON, AND NOT FORCE, THE PROPER CORRECTIVE OF
SOPHISTRY.

ABSURDITY OF THE ATTEMPT TO RE-

STRAIN THOUGHT
SPEECH.

TO

RESTRAIN THE FREEDOM OF

CONSEQUENCES

LIBILITY OF THE
CISED.

THAT WOULD RESULT. FALMEN BY WHOM AUTHORITY IS EXER,

OF

ERRONEOUS OPINIONS IN GOVERNMENT.

INIQUITY OF THE ATTEMPT TO RESTRAIN THEM.

TENDENCY OF UNLIMITED POLITICAL DISCUSSION.

BOOK VI. CHAP III
t

'

I
-*-

'^HE fame views which have

prevailed for the Introdudion

to the idea

^'

of religious eftablifhments, have inevitably led

rife

of provifions againft the

and progrefs of herefy.

political

No

arguments

can be adduced in favour of the

patronage of truth,

that will not be equally cogent in behalf of the political difcou-

ragement of

error.
;

Nay, they
for error

will,

of the two, be mofi: cogent

irre-

in the latter cafe

and mifreprefentation are the

concilable

OF THE SUPPRESSION,
concilable enemies of virtue,

&c.

Gii
means
(?t9?p Y/f
*

and

if

authority were the true

at leaft
It

to difarm them, there would then

be no need of pofitive
has however happened

"

'

provifions to
that this

affift

the triumph of truth.

argument, though more tenable, has had fewer adherents.

Men

are

more

eafily reconciled to abufe in the diflribution

It will

of

rewards, than in the infliction of penalties.

requifite laborioufly to infift
its

not therefore be
;.

upon the

refutation of this principle

difculTion

is

principally neceflary for the fake of method.

Various arguments have been alledged in defence of

reftraint.
is

this

Arguments
by which the
fuppreffion

" The importance of opinion

as a general

proportion
inftltuall

notorious and unqueflionable.

its

Ought not

political

of herefy has been recom.

mended.

tion to take under

infpedion that root from which

?

our
be

adions are ultimately derived

The

opinions of

men muft
their

expeded

to be as various as their education

its

and

temper

ought not government to exert

forefrght to prevent this dif?

ccrd from breaking out into anarchy and violence

There

is

no

propofition fo abfurd or fo hoftile to morality and public good,

as not to

have found

its

votaries

will there be

no danger in

fuffering thefe

eccentricities to

proceed unmolefted, and every

perverter of truth and juftice to

able
?

make

as

many

converts as he

is-

It

has been found indeed a hopelefs tafk to endeavour

tO'

extirpate

by

violence errors already eftablifhed

but

is it

not the

duty of government to prevent their afcendancy, to check the

growth of
hitherto

their

adherents
?

and the introdudion of herefie9

unknown

Can

thofe perfons, to

whom

the care of the.

general

6i2
^H \T
*

OF THE SUPPRESSION OF ERRONEOUS OPINIONS

Ttt
'

g^'^^''^^

welfare

is

confided, or
fi.iggeft

who

are fitted

by

their fituation

or their talents to

proper regulations to the adoption of

the community, be

juftified in

conniving

at the fpread

of fuch

extravagant and pernicious opinions as llrike at the root of order

and morality

Simplicity of

mind and an underftanding undecharafteriftics

bauched with fophiftry have ever been the

people

of a

among whom

virtue has flourilhed

ought not govern-

ment
thefe

to exeit itfelf to exclude the inroad of qualities oppofite to

?

It is

thus that the friends of moral juftice have ever con-

templated with horror the progrefs of infidelity and latitudinarian principles.

It

was thus

that the elder Cato

viewed with

grief the importation into his

own country

of that plaufible and

loquacious philofophy by which Greece had already been cor-

rupted *."

Anfwer.

There
fuggeft.

are feveral trains of reflexion

which

thefe reafonings

agnorance
not neceffary
to

None

of them can be more important than that which'

make men

may

affift

US in detecting the error of the elder Cato, and of

S'irtuous.

other perfons

who

have been the zealous but miftaken advocates

is

of virtue.
If
it

Ignorance

not neceffary to render

men

virtuous.

were,

we might
it

reafonably conclude that virtue was an im-

pollure,

and that

was our duty

to free

ourfelves

from

its"

The

reader will confider this as the language of the objeflors.

in reality diftinguiflied

The moft
all

.eminent of the Greek philofophers were

teachers, by the fortitude with

from

other

which they conformed

to the precepts they

taught.

ihackles.

IN
fhackle*.

RELIGION AND GOVERNMENT.

cultivation of the underftanding has

613

The

no tendency ^-9^if CjHAP.

the Iclence
that
*

to corrupt the heart.

man who

fhould poflefs

all

III. --.-'.

Y^"

of

Newton and

all

the genius of Shakefpeare,

would not on

account be a bad man.

Want

of great and comprehenfive views

had

as

conhderable a ihare as benevolence in the grief of Cato.

the taking to pieces an imperfed: machine in order
it

It is like

by

reconftruding

to

enchance

its

value.

An

uninformed and
artiil,

timid fpedator would be frightened at the temerity of the

at the confufed heap of pins and wheels that were laid afide at

random, and would take

tion
It is

it

for granted that nothing but deflruc-

would be the confequence.

thus that the extravagant

But he would be difappointed.

fallies

of mind are the prelude of

the higheft wifdom, and that the dreams of Ptolemy were deftined
to precede the difcoveries of

Newton,

The

event cannot be other than favourable.

Mind would

elfe

ceafe to be

mind.

It

would be more

plaufible to fay that the

perpetual cultivation of the underftanding will terminate in

nefs,

madIs

than that

it

will terminate In vice.

As long

as

enquiry
is

fufFered to proceed,

and

fcience to

improve, our knowledge

elfe,

per-

petually Increafed.

Shall

we know every thing

clear fighted

and nothing

of ourfelves
all

Shall

we become
moft

and penetrating in

other fubjeds, without increafmg our penetration

upon the
to folly
?

fubject of

man

Is vice

truly allied to

wifdom or

Can mankind
in the
I

perpetually increafe In wifdom, without Increafrng

It is

knowledge of what

wife for them to do

Can

man
have

6i4
CHAP.
-*

OF THE SUPPRESSION OF ERRONEOUS OPINIONS

a clear difcernment, unclouded with any reinains of former
is
III.

BOOK VI. have

"^"^

miftake, that this

cive to his

the alion he ought to perform, moft condu-

own

intereft

and to the general good, moft delightful

in the review,

at the inftant

and fatisfadory

moft agreeable to rea-

fon, juftice

and the nature of things, and

refrain

from performrelative to the

ing

it ?

Every fyftem which has been conftrufted

all its

nature of fuperior beings and Gods, amidft

other errors has

reafoned truly upon thefe topics, and taught that the increafe of

wifdom and knowledge

benevolence and
juftice.

led,

not to malignity and tyranny, but to

DJfFerence of opinion not

fubverilve of

Secondly,

it

is

a miftake to fuppofe that" fpecnlative difFerencesIt

^f opinion threaten materially to difturb the peace of fociety.

is

^^Y-

only

when they

are enabled to

arm themfelves with the

ftate,

autho--

rity

of government, to form parties in the

and

to ftruggle

for that political afcendancy

which

is

too frequently exerted in

fupport of or in oppofition to fome particular creed, that they

become dangerous.

Wherever government

is

wife enough to
fedls

maintain an inflexible neutrality, thefe jarring

are

always

found to
that

live together

with

fufficient

harmony.

The very means The moment

tor-

have been employed for the'prefervation of order, have been

its

the only means that have led to

difturbance.

government

refolves to

admit of no regulations oppreffive

its level,

either party, controverfy finds

and appeals to argument

and reafon,

inftead of appealing to the

fword or the

ftake.

The
gious.

moment govern-ment
3

defcends to wear the badge of a fed:, relr-

IN RELIGION
clous war
broils
is
'

AND G,OVERNMENT.
is

615

commenced, the world

difgraced with inexpiable o r

BOOK vr.
CHAP.
^~
'

III.
'

and deluged with blood.

Thirdly, the Injuftice of punifliing

men
we

for their opinions

and

arguments

will

be

ftill

more

vifible, if
is

refled;

little

on the naof coer-

Reafon, and not force, the proper correftive of

fophiilry.

ture of punifhment.

Puniftiment

one of thofe
fo

claflcs

cion, the multiplication of

which

is

much

to be

deprecated,

and which nothing but the

juftify.

mod

urgent necellity can in any cafe

to exift,

That

neceffity

is

commonly admitted

where a

man

has proved by

his unjuft actions the injurioufnefs of his chais

Ta(5ler,

and where the injury, the repetition of which

is

to be ap-

prehended,

of fuch a nature as to be committed before

we

can

have

fufficient notice to

guard ourfelves againfl

it.

But no fuch
and perfar-

neceffity can poffibly exift in the cafe of falle opinions

verfe arguments.

Does any man

it

aflert

falihood

Nothing

ther can be defired than that

fhould be confronted with truth.

?

Does he bewilder us with

fon,

fophiftry

Introduce the light of rea-

and

his deceptions will vanifh.

There

is

in this cafe a clear

line of diftindlion.

In the only admiffible province of punifhment

it is

force

it is

true

is

introduced, but

only in return for force pretherefore, erroneous

it

vioufly exerted.

Where argument

flate-

ments and mifreprefentation alone are employed,

is

by argu-

ment only

that they

muft be encountered.

We
if

fhould not be
the vidlory of

creatures of a rational

and intelledual nature,

truth over error were not ultimately certain.

To

6i6

OF THE SUPPRESSION OF ERRONEOUS OPINIONS

Vl.'i

BOOK
CHAP.
'^TT'T-

'j'q

III.

enable us to conceive properly of the value of laws for the f f J

let

punifhment of herefy,
provided with fuch r
jQ prevent

us fuppofe a country to be fufficiently

the attempt
to reitrain

lavps, '

and obferve the

refult.

The

objedt j

is

thought:

men from

entertaining certain opinions, or in other

in a certain

words from thinking

way.

What

can be more ab?

furd than to undertake to put fetters

upon

the fubtlety of thought

defires to reflrain
it

How

frequently does the individual

fail

who

in

himfelf,

in the attempt

Add

to this, that prohibition

and

menace

in this refpet
I

do but give new

reftleffnefs to the curiofity

of the mind.

muft not think of the

poflibility, that there is

no

God ;

that the ftupendous miracles of

;

Mofes and

Chrift

were

never really performed

are erroneous.
I

that the

dogmas of the Athanafian creed

and run blindly into
all

muft fhut

my eyes,
be

the

opinions, religious and political, that

facred.

my

anceftors
?

regarded as

Will

this in all inftances

poffible

There

is

another confideration,
is

trite

indeed, but the tritenefs

its

of which

an additional argument of
to

truth.

Swift fays

"

Men

ought

be permitted to think as they pleafe, but not to

propagate their pernicious opinions *."

this is,

The
:

obvious anfwer to be able

"

We
The

are

much

obliged to

him

how would he
fo long as
it

to punifh our herefy, even if

he defired

it,

was conbe

cealed

attempt to punifli opinion

is

abfurd

we may

f Sfe above. Chap.

I, p.

590..

filent

'

IN RELIGION
filent

AND GOVERNMENT.
if

617

refpeding our conclufions,

we

pleafe

the train of tliiuk- J??Pp^

fail

X^

ing by which thofe conclufions are generated cannot

filent.

to be

*'

'

But,

if

men

be not punifhed for their thoughts, they

may
not

be

' reftrain the

punifhed for uttering thofe thoughts."

impofTible than the other.

No.

This

is

iefs ^P^^ch.

By what

arguments will you perof an

in-

fuade every

man

in the nation to exercife the trade

will

former with

By what arguments
I

you perfuade

my bofom

friend,

whom

repofe

all

the thoughts of

my

heart, to repair

im-

mediately from

my

company

to a magiflrate, in order to procure

my

commitment

for fo doing to the prifons of the inquifition .?

this is attempted, there will

In countries where
ftruggle, the

be a perpetual

government endeavouring

to

pry into our moft

to out-

fecret tranfadions,

and the people bufy to countermine,

wit and

to deteft their fuperintendentSo

But the moft valuable confideration which

fubjed fuggefts,
is,

this part

of the

Confequenee*
that would
refult.

fuppofing

all this

were done, what judgment

muft we form of the people among

all this

whom

it

is

xlone

Though

cannot, yet

much may be performed

it

though the em-

bryo jcannot be annihilated,

may

be prevented from ever ex-

panding

itfelf into

the dimenfions of a man.

The arguments by

which we were fuppofing a fyJlem

to be

for the reftraint of opinion

recommended, were arguments derived from a benevolent

anxiety for the virtue of mankind, and to .prevent their degene-

racy.

6iB

OF THE SUPPRESSION OF ERRONEOUS OPINIONS

III.

BOOK VI.
CHAP.
'

racy. '

Will

this

end be accompliflied ^

Let us contraft a nation

"

of men, daring to think, to fpeak and to

ad what

they believe to

be right, and fettered with no fpurious motives to difTuade them

from

right,

with a nation that

fears to fpeak,

and

fears to think

upon

the

mod
is

interefting fubjeits of

human

enquiry.
?

Can any
In

fpelac]e be

more

degrading than this timidity

Can men

whom
ine

mind
?

thus annihilated be capable of any good or valuthis

able purpofe
ftate,

Can

moft abjet of

all flaveries

be the genu-

the true perfedion of the

human

fpecies

Fallibility of

Another argument, though

it

has often been ftated to the world,

the

men by

vyhomauthority is exercifed.

dcferves to be mentioned in this place.

\}a2Xi

Governments, no more
cabinets of princes

individual

men,

are infallible.

The

and

the parliaments of kingdoms,

if there

be any truth in confidera-

tions already ftated *, are often lefs likely to be right in their

conclufions than the theorift in his clofet.

eftimate of greater and
ciples
lefs, it

But, difmiffing the

was
is

to be

prefumed from the prinfa(f]t,

of

human

nature,

and

found true in

that cabinets

and parliaments

are liable to vary

from each other in opinion.

its

"What fyftem of religion or government has not in

patronifed

turn been

by

national authority
is,

The confequence

therefore of

admitting this authority

not merely attributing to govern-

ment

a right to impofe fome, but

any or

all

opinions

upon the
of

community.

Are Paganifm and

Chriftianity, the religions

* Book V, Chap. XXIII,

p.

572.

Mahomet,

IN

RELIGION AND GOVERNMENT.

are

619
arlfto-

Mahomet, Zoroafter and Confucius,

cracy in
all

monarchy and ^

BOOK vi.
CHAP. III.
*

their
Is
it

forms equally worthy to be perpetuated among

quite certain that the greateft of
all

'

mankind
mities
is

human

cala-

change
?

Muft we never hope

for

any advance, any im-

provement

Have no

revolution in government, and no reforma-

tion in religion been produ(StIve of niore benefit than difadvan-

tage

There

is

no

fpecies of reafoning in defence of the fiipprefto this

fion of herefy
principle, that

which may not be brought back

the

monftrous

knowlege of truth and the introduQion of

right principles of policy, are circumflances altogether indifferent

to the welfare

of mankind.

The fame reafonings

that are here

employed

agalnft the forcible Of en-oneous

opinions In

fuppreffion of religious herefy, will be found equally valid with government.

refpedt to political.

The

firft

circumftance that will not

fall

to

iniquity of

fuggeft

itfelf

to every refledlng

mind,

is.

What

fort
?

of ccnftitu-

reftrainThem!

tion muft that be

lencies

which muft never.be examined

whofe excel-

muft be the conftant topic of eulogium, but refpeding

to enquire in

which we muft never permit ourfelves

confift
?

what they
all

Can

it

be the intereft of foclety to profcribe

inveftl-

gation refpedllng the

wifdom of its

regulations

Or muft our

de-

bates be occupied with provifions of temporary convenience

and

are

we

forbid to afk, whether there

may

not be fomethlng
?

fundamentally wrong in the defign of the ftrudlure

Reafon

and good

fenfe will not fall to

augur

ill

of that fyftem of things

wiiich

620
GHAP.
'

OF THE SUPPRESSION OF ERRONEOUS OPINIONS

is

BOOK VT. which

III.
'

too facred to be looked into

eflentially

'

and to fufpet that there ^

muft be fomething
eye of curiofity.

weak

that thus fhrinks

from the

Add

to which, that,

however we may doubt

lefs reafon^^

of the importance of religious difputeSj nothing can

ably be expofed to queftion than that the happinefs of mankind

Is

eflentially

connected with

the

improvement

of. political

fcience..

Tendency of
unlimited political difcuf-

But wiU Hot demagogucs and declalmers lead to the fuball

verfion of

Son.

order, '

and introduce the moll dreadful calamities

?

?"

What
are

Is

the Hate they will Introduce

Monarchy and

ariilocracy

fome of the moll extenfive and

lafting mifchiefs that

have

yet afflidled mankind.

hearers to Inftltute a
prefs

Will thefe demagogues perfuade their

new

dynafty of hereditary defpots to op-

them
fet

Will they perfuade them to create out of their

own

body a

of feudal chiefs to hold their brethren In the moft.

?

barbarous flavery

They would

probably find the moft copious

eloquence inadequate to thefe purpofes.

The arguments o

declalmers will not produce an extenfive and ftriking alterationin political opinions, except fo far as they are built

upon

a bafis.

of

irrefiftible truth.

Even

if

the people were in

fome degree-

intemperate in carrying the conclufions of thefe reafoners into,

practice, the mifchiefs they
trivial,

would

Inflidl

would be

inexprefllbly

compared with thofe which- are hourly perpetrated

.

by

the moft cold blooded defpotlfm.

But in

reality the

duty of go-

vernment

IN RELIGION
vernment in thefe

AND GOVERNMENT.
be mild and equitable.

621

cafes is to

Arguments ^

BOOK
CHAP.
*
v

vi.
III.
'

alone will not have the power, unaffifted

by the

fenfe or the re-

collection of oppreflion or treachery, to hurry the people into excefles.

Elxcefles are

neverthe

ofFspring^

of reafon, are never the

ofFspi'ing

of mifreprefentation only, but of power endeavouring

to

ftifle

reafon and traverfe the

common fenfe

of mankind.

ri

P.

622

CHAP.
O F

IV.

T E

S.

THEIR SUPPOSED ADVANTAGES ARE ATTENDED WITH

JUSTICE

IN-

ARE NUGATORY. ILLUSTRATION.

THEIR
SE-

DISADVANTAGES

THEY ENSNARE,

EXAMPLE.

COND EXAMPLE.
PURIST.

ENCE OF TESTS ON THE LATITUDINARI AN

THEY ARE AN USURPATION. INFLUON THE

-CONCLUSION.
majority of the arguments above employed on the

BOOK

VI.

'HF^
-S-

HE

CHAP. IV.
fubjed of penal laws in matters of opinion are equally
tefts,

applicable to

religious
penalties,
if

and

political.

The

diftindion belefs,
is

tween

prizes

and

between greater and

little

worthy of our attention,

curiofity of intelleft,

any difcouragement extended

to the

and any authoritative countenance afforded

its

to one fet

of opinions in preference to another, be in

_

own

nature imjuft, and evidently hoftile to the general good.

Leaving out of the confideration

religious tefts, as being al-

ready fufficiently elucidated in the preceding difcuffion *, let us

attend for a

moment

to

an
*

article

which has had

its

advocates

Chap.

II.

among

O
among men of
political tefts.

S.

623

confiderable liberality, the fuppofed propriety of' i^P^\ ^^

" What,

fhall

we have no

federal oaths,
?

no oaths
in that

^^

^^

'

of

fidelity to the nation, the

law and the republic

How

cafe fhall

we

ever diftinguifh between the enemies and the friends

of freedom ?"

Certainly there cannot be a

fedtual

method devifed
federal

at

once more inefis

Their fuppofed advantages are at-

and iniquitous than a

oath.

What
"

the Ian-

tended with

guage that
legillature

in ftridinefs of interpretation belongs to the aa: of the

iiju^lice

impofing

this

oath

To

one party
j

it

fays,
it

We know
you
you
it

very well that you are our friends

the oath as
;

relates to

we acknowledge
muft take
it,

to

be altogether fuperfluous

neverthelefs

as a cover to

our indireft purpofes in impofing

are
It is lefs

upon perfons whofe views

unequivocal

than yours."

To
is

the other party

it

fays,

"

vehemently fufpedied that you

are

are inimical to the caufe in

either true or falfe
lefs
; ;

which we

engaged

this fufpiciou;

if falfe,

we ought

not to fufpeft you, and

much

ought

we

to put

you

to this invidious

and nugatory

purgation

if true,

you

will either candidly confefs

:

your

differ-

ence, or difhoneftly prevaricate

be candid, and

we

will indig-

nantly banifh

you

be-difhoneft, and

we

will

receive

ycu

as

bofom

friends."

Thofe

who

fay this

however promife too much.

watch the
innocent.

Duty and
fufpeil,

arenugatorj',.

common

fenfe oblige us to
is

man we
Would

even

though he Ihould fwear he

not the fame

precautions

624

-OF
precautions which

TESTS.
ftill

BOOK VL
*

we

are

obliged to

employ

to fecure us

'

againft his duplicity, have fufficiently anfwered our purpofe with-

out putting

him to

his purgation

Are there no methods by which

be the proper fubjet in

-we can find out whether a

man

whom
can-

to repofe an important truft without putting the queftion to himfelf?

Will not he,

who

is

fo

dangerous an
his

enfmy

that

we

not fuffer him

at large, difcover

enmity by

his condat,

-without reducing us to the painful neceffity of tempting

-an.

him
all

to

a6t of prevarication

If he be fo fubtle a hypocrite that

our

vigilance cannot detet him, will he fcruple to add to his other

jcrimes the crime of perjury i

Whether

the

teft

we

impofe be merely intended to operate as

or to any more confiderable difadvanis ftill

an exclufion from
tage, the difability

office,
it

introduces

in the nature of a punifh-

ment.

It treats the

individual in queftion as an
[in

unfound

mem-

ber of fociety, as diftinguifhed

an unfavourable fenfe frofh

attri-

the multitude of his countrymen, and poiTefling certain

butes detrimental to the general good.

In the eye of reafon

Society

human
is

nature

is

capable of no other guilt than this*.

authorifed to animadvert upon a certain individual, in the cafe

of murder for example, not becaufe he has done an adlion that

he might have avoided, not becaufe he was fufEciently informed

..of

the better and obftinately chofe the worfe

for this

is

impofli-

* Book IV, Chap. VI.

-ble.

O
ble,

T E

S.

625
at the

every
to

man

neceflarily does that

:

which he

thne appre-

book vi. CHAP IV

'

hends

be beft

but becaufe his habits and charadler render

-*'

him dangerous to fociety, in the fame fenfe as a wolf or a blight

would be dangerous *.
no common magnitude,
It

muft no doubt be an emergency of

putting a

that can juftify a people in

mark of

difpleafure

upon a man

for the opinions he entertains,

be they what they may.

But, taking for granted for the prefent

it

the reafonablenefs of this proceeding,

as

would

certainly be juft

equitable for

the

government

to

adminifter to

the

man

accufed for murder an oath of purgation, as to the

man

accufed

of difafFedion to the eftablifhed order of fociety. be a principle of juftice clearer than this, that
called

There cannot

no man can be

on

in order to

punifhment to accufe himfelf.

Thefe reafonings being particularly applicable to a people in

a
ftate

Illullratlon.

of revolution

like the

French,

it

may perhaps be allowable

to take

from

their revolution

an example of the injurious and

enfnaring effefls with which

attended. It

tefts

and oaths of

fidelity are ufually

was required of all men

to fwear " that they would be

faithful to the nation, the

law and the king."

In what fenfe

can they be faid to have adhered to their oath, who, twelve

months
bafis,

after their conilitution

had been

eftablifhed

on

its

new

have taken a fecond oath, declaratory of their everlafting

abjuration of

monarchy ? What

fort

of

effedt,

favourable or un-

Book IV, Chap. VI.

4L

favourable

626

O
fa-vourable?

T E

S.

BOOKvr.
CHAP.
IV.

muft

this

precarious mutability

in

their

folemn.

^ppg^jg ^Q heaven have

are

upon the minds of

thofe

by

whom

they

made

Their difad-

And
The

this leads

US from the confideration of the fuppofed ad-

vantages of
theyenfnare:
firft

tefts religious

and

political, to their real difadvantages.

of thefe diladvantages confifts in the impoffibility of

teft

conftruling a

in

fuch a manner,

as to fuit

the various
liable

opinions of thofe
example
:

upon

to reafonable objedion.

whom it When

is

impofed, and not to be

the law

was repealed impofing

upon

the diffenting clergy of England a fubfcription with certain

to.

refervations

the articles of the eftabliihed church, an attempt

was made
tuted in

to invent
its

an unexceptionable
This
teft

teft that

might be

fubfti-

room.

fimply affirmed, " that the books

of the Old and

New

Teftament in the opinion of the perfon

who
But

took

it

contained a revelation from

God;" and
fuch

it

was

fuppofed that no Chriftian could fcruple

is it

a declaration.

impoffible that I fhould be a Chriftian, and yet doubt

of the canonical authority of the amatory eclogues of Solomon,

or of certain other books contained in a feledlion that
nally

was

origiI

made

in a very arbitrary

manner?

"Still

however

may

take the

teft,

with a perfuafion that the books of the Old and

New
the
the

Teftament contain a revelation from God, and fomething

In the fame fenfe
I

more."

might take

it,

even

if the

Alcoran,
to

Talmud and
lift.

the facred books of the

fort

Hindoos were added

What
2

of influence will

be produced upon the

'

mind

O F
mind
that
Is

T E

S.

627
its

accuftomed to
?

this loofenefs

of conrtiaidion in

BOOK vj.
CHAP.
*

IV.
*

moll folemn engagements

Let us examine with the fame view the federal oath of the
French, proclaiming the determination of the fwearer "
faithful to the nation, the

fecond ex-

ample

to

be

law and the king."

Fidelity to three

feveral interefts

which may

in various cafes be placed in oppofifirft

tion to each other will appear at

fight to be

no very reafonable
king has

engagement.

The

propriety of

vowing

fidelity to the
its

already been brought to the

tion *,
Fidelity to the

trial

and received

condemna-

law

is

an engagement of fo complicated

a nature, as to ftrike terror into every

It is

mind of ferious

refledlion.,

impoffible that a fyftem of law the compofition of

ftiall

men

fhould ever be prefented to fuch a mind, that

gether
faultlefs.

appear alto-

But, with refpedt to laws that appear to

to every fort of hoftillty fhort of

me

to

be

unjuft, I

am bound

open

violence, I
to the

am bound

to exert myfelf inceffantly in proportion

injuftice for their abolition.
lefs

magnitude of the
is

Fidelity to
I

the nation

an engagement fcarcely
to the caufe

equivocal.

have a

paramount engagement
the

of juftice and the benefit of

human

race.

If the nation undertake

is

what

is

unjuft, fidelity
is

in that undertaking
is

a crime.
its

If

it

undertake what

juft,

it

my

duty to promote
but becaufe fuch

fuccefs, not becaufe I

am

one of

its

citizens,

is

the

command of juftice.

* Book V, Chap.

ILYIII.

4 L

Add

628

OF
Add
dience
to this
"*,

TESTS.
faid

what has been already

upon

the fubjedl of obeare the ofF-

and

it

will be fufEciently evident that

all tefts

fpring of ufurpation.
ifTue its

Government has
therefore cannot

in

no

cafe a right to

commands, and
Its

command me

to take a

certain oath.

only legal fundtions

are, to

impofe upon

me

certain degree of reftraint

whenever

manifeft

by

my
me

adlions a
to a cer-

temper detrimental to the community, and

to invite

tain contribution for purpofes conducive to the general intereft*

Influence of teRs on the latitudba-

Jt

may
-^

be alledp;ed with refped to the French federal oath, as ^ '^

teft

vvell as

with refped to the religious

before cited, that

it

may-

be taken with a certain laxity of interpretation.

fidelity to the law, I

When

fwear

may mean

only that there are certain parts

fidelity to the nation,

of

it

that I approve.
I

When

fwear
fo far

the

law and the king,

rities fhall

may mean

only as thefe three authoall

agree with each other, and

of them agree with the

final refult
*'

general welfare of mankind.

In a word the

of

this

laxity of interpretation explains the oath to

mean,

fwear that I

my duty to do every thing that appears to me to be juft." Who can 'look without indignation and regret at Who can think without horror this proftitution of language
believe
it is
?

of the confequences of the public and perpetual leflbn of duplicity

which

is

thus read to

mankind

onthepurifi.

guf^ fuppofing thcrc fhould be certain

* Book
III,

members of the com-

Chap. VI.

jnunity

OF
munlty fimple and

TESTS.
enough
to conceive that

629
an oath

unlnfl;ru(led

BOOK
' i

vi.
'

contained fome real obligation, and did not leave the duty of
the perfon to
it,

whom
liften

it

was adminiftered

precifely

where

it

found
?

what

is

the leflbn that

would be read

to

fuch members

They would

with horror to the

man who endeavoured

them

to

perfuade them that they

owed no

fidelity to the nation, the

law

and the king,

as to
tell

one

who was
it

inftigating
late,

to facrilege.

They would

him

that

was too

and that they muft

not allow themfelves to hear his arguments.

They would

per-

haps have heard enough before their alarm

commenced, to
of this man,

make them look with envy on

was
free to liften to the

the

happy

flate

who

communications of others without

terror,

who

could give a loofe to his thoughts, and intrepidly follow

the courfe of his enquiries wherever they led him.

felves
lives.

For themreft
;

they had promifed to think no more for the

of their

Compliance indeed in

this

cafe

is

impoflible

but will a

vow

of inviolable adherence to a certain conftitution have no

efFed in checking the vigour of their contemplations and the

elafticity

of their minds

We

put a mlferable deception upon

ourfelves,

when we

Conelufion,

promife ourfelves the moft favourable

effedls
this

from the abolition

wretched fyftem of

of monarchy and ariftocracy, and retain

tefts,

overturning in the apprehenfions of mankind at large the

injuftice.

fundamental diftindions of juftice and

not
lefs
S"

Sincerity

is

effential

than equality to the well being of mankind.

govern-

6io 'J

O
VI.
/'

T
lefs

BOOK
,v

government, that

is is

perpetually furniflilng motives to jefu-

_^J

itifm

and hypocrify,

not

abhorrent to right reafon, than a

diftifilion.
It is

government of orders and hereditary

to imagine

not eafy

how foon men would become

and unreferved

frank, explicit in their

declarations,

in their manners,

were there no
falf-

pofitive inftitutions inculcating

upon them
it

the neceffity of
for

hood and

difguife.

Nor

is

poffible

any language
arife

to

defcribe the inexhauftible benefits that

verfal practice of fincerityj

would

from the um-^

CHAP.

63t

CHAP.
OF

V.

OATHS.

OATHS OF OFFICE AND DUTY

LESS ATROCIOUS.

THEIR

ABSURDITY

THEIR IMMORAL CONSEQUENCES.

VED RESPECTING THEM.

OATHS OF EVIDENCE

OPINION OF THE LIBERAL AND RESOLTHEIR ESSENTIAL FEATURES:

FALSE MORALITY.

GONlEMPT OF VERACITY

THEIR

PARTICULAR STRUCTURE ABSTRACT PRINCIPLES ASSUMED BY THEM TO BE TRUE. THEIR INCONSISTENCY

VS^ITH

IHESE PRINCIPLES.
fame arguments that prove the
all

THE
I entered

injuftice

of

tefts,

may BOOK VI.

If
'

be applied univerlally to

oaths of duty and office.

[,

upon

the office v^rithout an oath,

is

what M^ould be

my
it,

j^fp^g
'

and

duty

Can

the oath that

impofed upon

me make any

altera-

' .

tion in

my

duty

If not, does not the very adt of impofing

'^''y

'

by implication
that a diredl

aflert a

falfhood

Will

this falfhood, the alTertion

engagement has a tendency

to create a duty,

have
?

no injurious -efFedt upon a majority of the perfons concerned

What
any

is

the true criterion that

is

I fhall
?

faithfully

difcharge the
life,

office that

conferred

upon me

Surely

my

paft

and not
life

proteftations I

may

be compelled to make.

If

my

have

been

632

O
have been

O A T
compulfion

H
is

S.

^^^K VI.

\)QQn unimpeachable, this

it

an unmerited

infult

if

^
tViclr

S'^

'

othervvife,

it is

fomething worfe.

Immoral

It is

with no

common

difapprobation that

we
This

recolleft the

confequencef.

proftitution of oaths

which marks the hiftory of modern Eurois

pean countries, and particularly of our own.

one of the
its

means

that

government employs

to difcharge itfelf of

proper

fundions, by making each

man

fecurity for himfelf.

It is

one

of the means that

legiflators

have provided to cover the

ineffi-

ciency and abfurdity of

their regulations,

by making
is

individuals

promife the execution of that which the police

execute.
It holds out in

not able to

one hand the temptation to do wrong,

to

and in the other the obligation impofed not

that temptation.
It

be influenced by

compels a

man
all

to

engage not only for his

dependents.
It

own condud,

but for that of

his

obliges

certain officers (church-wardens in particular)

to promife

an

infpedion beyond the limits of

for a proceeding

human

faculties,

and to engage

on the part of thofe under

are

their jurifdidion,

which they neither intend nor

be believed in
after ages that

expeded

to inforce.

Will

it

every confiderable trader in excifeinduced by the conftitution of

its

able articles in this

country

is

government

to reconcile his

mind

to the guilt of perjury, as to the to exercife his profeffion

?
I

condition upon which he is accuftomed

Oaths of evidence :
Jefs atrocious.

There remains only one

fpecies

of oaths

to

be confidered,

which have found

their advocates

among

perfons fufficiently en
lightened

OF OATHS.
lightened to rejed every other fpecles of oath,

.

^33
I

mean, oaths ad-

miniflered to a witnefs In a court of juftlce.

free

Thefe are certainly

BOOK vr. CHAP V

'

from many of the objections

office.

that apply to oaths of fidelity,

duty or

They do

not

call

upon

man to

declare his aflent

to a certain propofition

which the

legiflator has

prepared for his

acceptance

they only require

him folemnly to pledge himfelf to

by his own apprehenfion of things^

the truth of aflertions, didtated

and expreffed

in his

own

words.

They do

not require
to fhut

him
up

to
his

engage for fomething future, and of confequence

mind

againft farther information as to

;

what

his

conduct in that

future ought to be

but merely to pledge his veracity to the appall.

prehended order of things

Thefe confiderations
good.

palliate the evil,

but do not convert

it

into opinion of
and reiuived
rclp ceding"

Wherever men of uncommon energy and dignity of mind

have
felt

have
tions

exifted, they

the degradation of binding their afler-

them,

with an oath.

The

Englifh conftitution recognlfes in a

this

partial

and imperfedt manner the force of

principle,

and
fhall

therefore provides that, while the

common

herd of mankind
fhall

be obliged to fwear to the truth, nothing more

be required

from the order of nobles than a declaration upon honour.

reafon juftify this diftindion
?

Will

Can

there be a pradtice

more pregnant with

fulfe
?

morality than
it

Tlien- efTentlal

features

that of adminiftering oaths in a court of juftlce

The language

contempt of
veracity
s

exprefsly holds

is,

"

You

are not to be believed ifpon

your mere

word

;"

634

O AT H
""^^"^

S.

CHAP^v
""

^'^^^ '" ^^*^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^'^

ferve themfelves

^1 enough

refolutely to pre-

"

'

from contamination^ when they are accuftomed

occafions to be treated with contempt.

upon the moft folemn

the unthinking
it

To

comes hke

a plenary indulgence to the occafional

afFairs

tampering with veracity in

are not

of daily occuiTence, that they

affirm without rifk

upon

their oath
is

and

we may

of

error, that there

no caufe of infmcerity, prevarication and

pra(3:ice

falfhood

more powerful, than the

It treats

of adminiftering oaths

in a court of juftice.
life

veracity in the afFairs of

It

common
upon
ari

as a thing

unworthy

to be regarded.

takes for granted that

to be credited
it

no man,
his

at leaft

no man of plebeian rank,

;

is

bare affirmation

and what

it

takes for granted

has

irreliftible^endency to produce.

falfe

morality.

Add

to this a feature that runs

it

through

all

the abufes of poli-

tical inftitution,
is it

inverts the eternal principles of morality.

Why
I

that I

am bound

to be
?

more

efpecially careful of

what

affirm in a court of| juftice

Becaufe the fubfiftence, the honeft

reputation or the
it.

life

of a fellow

man may be materially affeded by

by the contrivance of human
to fpeak the

All thefe genuine motives are

inftitution

thrown

into ihade,

and we are expected

it

truth, only becaufe

at the times in

government demands

of us upon oath, and

recol-

which government has thought proper or

lefted to admlnifter this oath.

obligations of morality

All attempts to ftrengthen the

by

fiftltlous

and fpurious motives,

will in

the fequel be found to have no tendency but to relax them.

Men

: :

OF OATHS.
Men
grity fiand
will

6j5
and confclous
Inte-

never adl with that

is

liberal iuftice
till

P<50K VI.

CHAP.
"
.

V.
'

which

tlieir

higheft ornament,

they come to underlips ivith

what men

are.

He that

contaminates his

an oath,

muft have been thoroughly

tion, if

fortified

with previous moral inftruc-

he be able afterwards
integrity.

to underftand the beauty of

an eafy

and fimple

If our political inftitutors

had been but

half fo judicious in perceiving the niiumer in

which excellence

and worth were

to be generated, as they

have been ingenious and

in-

indefatigable in the

means of depraving mankind, the world,

ftead of a flaughter houfe,

would have been

a paradife.

Let us leave for a moment the general confideration of the

principle of oaths, to refleft
'

Their
ture

part;.

cular ftruc-

upon
,^

their particular ftrudure

nr-

and

the precifemeanmg of the term.

,

ablliaft prin-

They

take for granted in the

cipies affumed

by them
t'ue

to be

nrft place the exiftence of

an invinble governor of the world, and

the propriety of our addreffing petitions to him, both which a

man may deny, and What is the fituation

places this

yet continue a good

in

member of
of which

fociety.

which the

inflitution

we

treat

man ? But we muft

not fuffer ourfelves to be flopped

are alfo fo conftrudied as to take
it

by

trivial confiderations.

Oaths

for granted the religious fyftem of the country whatever

may

happen

to be.

Now what

are the

words with which we

are taught in this in?

theiV

mcon-

ftance to addrefs the creator of the usiiverfe

" So help

me God,

and the contents of

his holy

word."
2

thefcpiil'^ "^'^ "*

It is

the language of imprecation.

6^6

O
VI. V.
->

O AT H
down
It

S.

BOOK
'

precation.

pray him to pour

if I utter

his everlafting

wrath and

CHAP.
^

curfe

upon me,
of that

lie.

were to be wilhed that the

firft

name

man were

recorded,

who

invented this

mode

of binding

men men

to veracity.

He" had

furely himfelf but very

light and contemptuous notions of the Supreme Being,

who could
If
it

thus tempt

to infult him,

by braving

his juftice.

be

our duty to invoke his

thing
infupportably
all

blefling, yet there

muft furely be fomeand unnecefTarily

conditions.

profane

in

wantonly

putting

that

he

is

able to infliO:

upon us upon

CHAP.

637

CHAP.

VI.

OF LIBELS.
PUBLIC LIBELS.

INJUSTICE OF AN ATTEMPT TO PRESCRIBE

IN
ITS

THE METHOD
DISCUSSED

WHICH PUBLIC QUESTIONS SHALL BE

PUSILLANIMITY.

INVITATIONS TO
IN FAVOUR OF

TUMULT.

PRIVATE LIBELS.

REASONS

THEIR BEING SUBJECTED TO RESTRAINT.

ANSWER.

I. IT IS NECESSARY THE TRUTH SHOULD BE TOLD. SALUTARY EFFECTS OF THE UNRESTRAINED INVESTIGA-

TION OF CHARACTER.
SPEECH

OBJECTION: FREEDOM OF

CALUMNY, NOT OF ANSWER. FUTURE HISTORY OF LIBEL. 2. IT JUSTICE. IS NECESSARY MEN SHOULD BE TAUGHT TO BE SINCERE.

WOULD

BE PRODUCTIVE OF

EXTENT OF THE EVIL WHICH ARISES FROM A COMMAND TO BE INSINCERE. THE MIND SPONTANEOUSLY SHRINKS FROM THE PROSECUTION OF A LIBEL. CON-

CLUSION.

IN

the examination already beftowed

upon the

article

of he-

BOOK

VI.

refy political

and

religious *,
;

we have
if

anticipated one of the

v__^J_j

two heads of the law of libel

be admitted for valid,
it

and,

the arguments there adduced

will follow that

* Chap. Ill,

no punilhment can jufJy

be

63^

O
fee
, .

B E L

S,

BOOK VI.
CHAP. VI.
>
.

awarded againft any writing or words derogatory

to religioa

or political government.

Injudice of an attempt to prefcribe the

It

is

impo.flible to eftablifli
_

any

folid

ground of

diftindlion

upon

this fubjet, or to lay

down

rules in conformity to

which

method in which public

ciiieftions
fliall

the argument muft be treated.

I

It is

impofTible to

tell

me, when
I

hi

dif-

am

penetrated with the magnitude of the fubjedl, that

muft be

ciifTed

logical

and not eloquent

or

when

I feel

the abfurdity of the theit

ory

am

combating, that I muft not exprefs

in terms that

may

produce feelings of ridicule in

bid

my

readers.

It

were

better to for-

me

the difcuflion of the fubjed altogether, than forbid

it

me
its

to

defcribe
rits.

in the

manner

conceive to be moft fuitable to

fpecies of

meme,

It

would be a moft tyrannical

candour

to tell

"

You may

write againft the fyftem

we

patronjfe, provided
;

you

wall write in

an imbecil and inefFedual manner

you may en-

quire and inveftigate as

much

as

you

pleafe, pi'ovided,

when you
your

undertake to communicate the

ardour, and be

refult,

you

carefully check

upon your guard

that

you do not convey any of

your

own

feelings to

your readers."

Add

to this, that rules

of

diftindion, as they are abfurd in relation to the diflidents, will

prove a continual inftrument of ufurpation and

ruling party.
as are futile.

injuftice to the

No

reafonings will appear fair to them, but fuch

If I fpcak with energy, they wall

if I defcribe

deem me

inflam-

matory

and

cenfurable proceedings in plain and

homely, but pointed language, they will cry out upon

9.

me

as

buffoon.
It

O
It

B E L

S.

639
favoured by the

muft be truly a lamentable

cafe, if truth,

BnoK VL
'

many and patronifed by

the
lifts

the great, fhould prove too

It
is

weak

to enter

*"'"

with falfhood.

felf evident, that that

which

will

mk'^'!

'

ftand the teft

ftatutes.

of examination, cannot need the fupport of penal

After our adverfaries have exhaufted their eloquence

us, truth has

and exerted themfelves to miflead

and fimple ftory to
will not fail to put
tell,

a clear, nervous
all fides,

which,

if force

be excluded on

down their arts.

Mifreprefentation will fpeedily

vanifh, if the friends of truth be but half as alert as the advocates

offer,

of falfhood.
"

Surely then

it

is

moft ungracious plea to

We

are too idle to reafon with you,

we

are therefore de-

termined to fdence you by force."

So long

as the adverfkries

of

juftice confine themfelves to expoftulation, there

can be no ground

for ferlous alarm.

As foon

as

they begin to

ad

with violence

and

riot, it will

then be time enough to encounter them with

force.

There

is

however one
-I

particular clafs of libel that feems to de

Invitations to

mand
felf to

r a feparate confideration.

tumult,

AhbelmayeIthernotconfine.ltof religion or government, or

Its
it

any

fpecies of illuftration

may

leave illuftration entirely out of its view.

objedt
firft

may

be

to invite a multitude of perfons to aflemble, as the

ftep to-

wards
in

adts of violence.

public libel
eftabliftied

is

any

fpecies
is

of writing
j

which the wifdom of fome

it

fyftem

controverted

and

cannot be denied that a difpaflionate and fevere demonftraits

tion of

injuftice tends, not lefs

than the moft alarming tumult,

to

640

O
VI.

B E L

S.

BOOK
>>-,^

to the deilrudion of fuch inftitutions.

are the proper

But writing and fpeech

^,

and becoming methods of operating changes in

is

human fociety, and tumult

In the cafe then of the

an improper and equivocal method.

of
riot, it

fpecific preparations

fhould feem

that the regular force of the fociety

this interference

may lawfully
It

interfere.

But

may

be of two

kinds.

mayconfift of precauit

tions to counteract

all

tumultuous concourfe, or

may

arraign

the individual for the offence he has committed againft the peace

of the community.

The

firft

of thefe feems fufficiently comif vigilantly

mendable and wife, and would,

moft
all

exerted, be in

al-

cafes adequate to the purpofe.

The

fecond

is

attended

with fome difEculty.

libel

the
is

avowed

intention of

which

is

to lead to immediate violence,

lication in

altogether different

from a pub-

which the general merits of any

inflitution are treated

fall

wilh the utmofl freedom, and m.ay well be fuppofed to

different rules.

under

The

difficulty

here

arifes

only from the confiis

deration of the general nature of punifhment, which

to the true principles of mind,
as

abhorrent

and ought

to be reflrained within

narrow

limits as poffible, if not inftantly abolifhed *.

A difexifl

tindion to which obfervation and experience in cafes of judicial

proceeding have uniformly
led, is that

between crimes that

only in intention, and overt ads.

concerned, the former

So

far as prevention only is

cafes not lefs entitled
j

would feem- in many

to the animadverfion of fociety than the latter

but the evidence

of intention ufually refts

upon circumftances equivocal and mi-

Sec the following Book,

nute,

B E L

S.

C^i

oute, and the friend of juftice will tremble to eredl

any grave pro-

BOOK
>-

VI.
>
,

ceeding upon fo uncertain a

bails.

It

might be added, that he

^'

who
St.
is

fays that every honeft citizen of London ouglit to repair to

George's Fields to-morrow in arms, only fays what he thinks

beft to be done,

and what the laws of fmcerity oblige him

is

to

utter.

But

this

argument
is

of a general nature, and applies to

to the fuppofed crime

every thing that

denominated crime, not

of inflammatory invitations in particular.

action, does that v/hich he thinks
is

He

that performs

any

beft to be

done

and, if the

peace of fociety

make

it

neceffary that he fhould be reflrained

is

from

this

by

threats of violence, the neceffity

of a very painful

nature.

Itfliould be

remembered
is

that the
evil,

whole^of thefe reawill

fonings fuppofe that the tumult

an

and

produce more

difadvantage than benefit, which

is

no doubt frequently, but may

not be always, the cafe.

there
is

It

cannot be too often recolleded, that

in

no

cafe a right of

doing wrong, a right to punifh for

as well as

a meritorious adtion.
dual,

Every government,

every indiviat the peril

muft follow

their

own

apprehenfions of juftice,

of being miftaken, unjuft and confequently vicious*.

Thefe

rea-

fonings on exhortations to tumult, will alfo be found applicable with

flight variation to incendiary letters addrefled to private perfons.

/
But the law of
into
libel, as

we

have already

faid, diftributes itfelf PHvatc Hbds.

two heads,

libels againft

public eftablifhments and meafures

*nd libels

againft private charadter.

*

Thofe who have been willing

Book

II,

Chap. in.

to

'

<542

O
firft

B E L

S.

BOOK VI.
'
I

to admit that the

ought

to pafs unpuniftied,

have generally*

i aflerted the propriety of counterading the latter

penalties.

by cenfures and

It fhall be the bufinefs of the remainder of this chap-

ter to fliow that

they were erroneous in their decifion.

Reafons

in

The arguments upon which

iowcd
rial

their decifion

is

built

muft be
is

al-

favour of their being fub(efted to re"ftiaint,

to be both popular

and impreffive.

" There

no exter-

poffeflion

more

folid or

more
is

valuable than an honeft fame.

My
tion.

property, in goods or eftate,

Its

appropriated only

by convendebauched

value
;

is

for the moft part the creature of a

if I
it

imagination

and,

were

fufficiently wife

and philofophical, he
injury.

that deprived
xnflids a ftab

me

of

would do me very
charader
is

little

He

that

upon

my

much more

formidable

enemy.

It is

a very ferious inconvenience that

my

countrymen
If the

fhould regard
mifchief were

me

as deftitute of principle
it is

and honefty.

entirely to myfelf,
I

not poiTible to be regarded

with

levity.

muft be void of

all

fenfe of juftice, ifl

I

were

cal-

lous to the contempt and deteftation of the world.

to be a

muft ceafe

man,

if I

were unafFedled by the calumny that deprived

I

me
in

of the friend

loved, and left

me

perhaps without one bofom

which

to repofe

my

fympathies.

But

this is

not

all.

The
would
of

fame ftroke
it

that annihilates

my

character, extremely abridges, if

It is

do not

annihilate,

my

ufefulnefs.

in vain that I

exert

my

good

intentions

and

my

talents for the afliftance

Others, if
jiot liften

my

motives be perpetually mifmterpreted.

Men
he

will

to the arguments of

him they

defpife

will be

Ipurned

O
Ipurned during
life,

B E L
as

S.

643

and execrated

long

as his

memory

endures.

BOOK
^

vi.
'f

What

then are

we

to conclude but that to

an injury, greater than

to

robbery, greater perhaps than murder,

we ought

award an ex-

emplary punifhment

?"

The anfwer
illuftration

to this ftatement
:

may
firft,
it

be given in the form of an Anfwr.

that
it is

of two propofitions
;

neceflary the truth

fhould be told

fecondly, that

is

neceflary

men

fhould be

taught to be fincere.

Firft,

it

is

neceflary the truth fhould be told.

I
?

How

can

this

i- ft Is ne-

ceflary the

ever be done, if

be forbidden to fpeak upon more than one fide

ti"th fhoul*

be told.

of the

quefl;ion

The

cafe

is

here exadlly fimilar to the cafe of

If

religion

and

political eftablifhment.

we

mufl; always hear the

praife of things as they are,

and allow no

man to

urge an objec-

tion,

we may

j^e lulled

into torpid tranquillity, but

we

can never

be wife.

If a veil of partial favour

is

to

be drawn over the errors of

mankind,
gainer.

it is

eafy to perceive whether virtue or vice will be the

is

There

no

terror that

comes home

to the heart

of vice,

like the terror of

being exhibited to the public eye.

On the conits

trary there

is

no reward worthy to be beftowed upon eminent

ex-

virtue but this one, the plain, unvarniflaed proclamation of

cellence in the face of the world.

If

644

B E L

S.

If the imreftrained difcuffion

of abftrad

enquiry be of the

higheft importance to mankind, the unreftrained inveftigation of

Salutary effcftsofthe unreftrained
inveftigation

character
fallv told

is

fcarcely lefs to be cultivated.

If truth
...

were univerand wheels

of

..^-f.. men s difpofitions and

actions, gibbets
earth.

might be difmifled from the face of the

The knave un-

mafked would be obliged

to turn honeft to

in his

own

defence.

Nay, no man would have time

follow

grow a knave.

Truth would

him

in his

firft

irrefolute eiTays,

and public difapprobacareer.

tion arreft

him

in the

commencement of his

There
tremble

are

many men

at prefent

who

pafs for virtuous, that

at

the boldnefs of a project like this.

They would be
Their imbecility
is

detected in their effeminacy

and

imbecility.

the growth of that inaufpicious fecrecy,

which national manners

and

political inftitutions at prefent

draw over the adions of indireferve, there

viduals.

If truth

were fpoken without

would be

no fuch men

in exiftence.

Men

would

ad;

with clearnefs and

if

decifion, if they

had no hopes in concealment,

they faw at

every turn that the eye of the world was upon them.

How great

would

be the magnanimity of the

man who was

always fure to

be obferved, fure to be judged with difcernment, and to be treated

with

juftice

Feeblenefs of charader

would hourly
it

lofe its influ.

ence in the bread of thofe over

whom

now

domiaeers.

They

would

feel themfelves perpetually urged with an aufpicious vio-

lence to aflTume

manners more worthy of the form they bore.

Ta

O
To
is

F
it

B E L

S.

645

thefe reafonings

may perhaps

be rejoined, "This indeed

an interefting pidure.

If truth could be univerfally told, the

excellent nature
j

BOOK VI. CHAP VI

^

'

'

effefts

would no doubt be of the moft

. , .

but the

fi

eedom

of"

expedtation

is

to be regarded as vilionary.

fpecch would be produftive-

of calumny,
not of jufticc.

Not

fo

the difcovery of individual and perfonal truth

is

to be Anfwer.

efFeded in the fame manner as the difcovery of general truth,

by

difcuffion.

From

the coUifion of difagreeing accounts juftice

and reafon

will

be produced.

Mankind feldom think much of

coming
to think right at
laft.

any

particular fubjedt, without

" What, and

is it

to be fuppofed, that

mankind

will

have the

difcernment and the juftice of their

libel ?"

own

accord to rejed: the

Yes

libels

do not

at prefent deceive

mankind, from

their intrinfic

power, but from the

his

reftraint

under which they

is

labour.
light

The man who from

dungeon

brought to the
;

of day, cannot accurately dlftinguifh colours

but he that

has fuffered no confinement, feels no difficulty in the operation.

Such
to

is

the ftate of
their

mankind

at prefent

they are not exercifed

deficient in

employ

judgment, and therefore they are

tale

judgment.
preffion
;

The moft improbable

but then

now makes

deep im-

men would

be accuftomed to fpeculate upon

the poflibilities of

human

adion.

At

firft it

may

be, if

all

reftraint

upon the freedom of writing

to declare

Future
"
"^^

luT-

and fpeech were removed, and

men were encouraged

what

4-6

B E L

S.

BOOK VL what
CHAP. VI.

they thought as publicly as poffible, every prefs would be

r,

'

burdened with an inundation of fcandal.

their very multiplicity
if the lie

...
fuccefsful,

But the

ftories

'

by

would

defeat themfelves.

No

one man,

were

would become the

obje(St

of univerfal
dif-

perfecution.

In a fhort time the reader, accuftomed to the

fedion of character, would acquire difcrimination.

either detedl the impofition

He

would

by

its

internal abfurdity, or at lead

w^ould attribute to the ftory no farther weight, than that to

which

its

evidence entitled

it.

Libel, like every other

level, if
tical
it

human

concern, would foon find

Its

were delivered from the injurious interference of poli-

inftitution.

The

libeller,

that

is,

he

who

utters

an un-

founded calumny, either invents the ftory he

it

tells,

or delivers

with a degree of aifurance to which the evidence that has

offered itfelf to

him
his

is

by no means

entitled.

In each cafe he

would meet with

world.
himfelf.

proper punifhment in the judgment of the

his error

The confequences of

would

fall

back upon

He

would

either pafs for a malignant accufer, or for

rafti

and headlong cenfurer.

ftate
it

Anonymous

fcandal

would be
But,

almoft impoffible in a
If
it

where nothing was concealed.

pointlefs, fince,

were attempted,

would be wholly

where

there could be

no honeft and

rational excufe for concealment,

the defire to be concealed ^vould prove the bafenefs of the

motive,

"
.

^'

Secondly,

OF LIBELS.
Secondly, force ought not to intervene for the fuppreflion of
private ^
is

647

BOOK VL
'"T"?^^
2. It
IS

libels, '

becaufe
virtue

men

ouc;ht to learn to be fincere.

'-'

There

i necel-.

no branch of

more

effential

than that which confifts in

that
is

jf'"^',"]^"

iluuud be
'
J,^"g'^'^

giving language to our thoughts.

He

accuftomed to utter
to be
parti-

^^

what he knows
true,
is

to be falfe or to fupprefs

what he knows
If
I

in a perpetual ftate of degradation.

have had

cular opportunity to obferve

fail

any man's
to

vices, juftlce will

not

to fuggefl; to to

me

that I

ought

admonifh him of
might
injure.

his errors,

and

warn

thofe

whom

his errors

There may
as a vicious

be very

fufficient
I

ground for

my

reprefenting

him

man, though
to

may

be totally unable to eftablifh his vices fo as

make him

a proper fubjedl of judicial punifliment.

;

Nay,

it

cannot be otherwife
exadlly fuch as
vicious, or of an
ceafe, if every
it

for I ought

to

defcribe
it

his

charafter

appears to be, whether

be virtuous, or

ambiguous nature. Ambiguity would prefently

his fentiments.
It is

man avowed
:

here as in the

intercourfes of friendfhip

a timely explanation feldom fails to

heal a broil

mifunderftandings would not

grow

confiderable,

were we

not in the habit of brooding over imaginary wrongs.

Laws

for the fuppreflion of private libels are properly fpeaking

Extent of the
tvil

laws to reftrain

men from

the pradlice of fmcerity.

They create

arifcs

which from

command

a warfare between the genuine dictates of unbiafled private judg-

' be infincere.

ment and
rity

the apparent fenfe of the

principles of virtue,

community, throwing obfcuand

infpiring

upon the

an

indiffer-

ence to the prat^ice.

This

is

one of thofe confequences of

political

648

OF LIBELS.
VI.
'

BOOK
'

CHAP.vr.
v^

prefents political inftitution that r

itfelf at

every /

moment

mora-

lity is

rendered the victim of uncertainty and doubt.

Contra-

didtory fyftems of condudt contend with each other for the preference,

and

become

indiiferent to

them

all.

How

is it

pofll-

ble that I fhould imbibe the divine enthufiafm of benevolence

and

juflice,

when
confift

I
?

am

prevented from difcerning

M-^hat it is in

which they

Other laws afTume for the topic of

their

anlmadverfion adtions of unfrequent occurrence.

libels

But the law of

ufurps the office of diredting

me

in

my

daily duties, and,

by perpetually menacing me with the fcourge of punifhment,

undertakes to render

me

habitually a coward, continually go-

verned by the bafeft and moft unprincipled motives.

Courage

confifls

more

in this circumflance than In

any

other,

the daring to fpeak every thing, the uttering of which

may

con-

duce to good.

Adlions, the performance of v/hich requires an

inflexible refolution, call

upon us but feldom

affair.

but the virtuous

economy of fpeedh
tell

is

our perpetual

Every moralift can

us that morality eminently confifls in "the government of

the tongue." But this branch of morality has long been inverted.
Inftead of ftudying

what we

fhall tell,

we

are taught to confider

virtue,

what we

fhall

conceal.

Inflead of an adlive

" going

about doing good,"

we

are inflrudted to believe that the chief

end of

man

is

to

do no mifchief.

Inftead of fortitude,

we

are

carefully

imbued with maxims of

artifice

and cunning, mifnamed

prudence.

let

B E L

S.

649
are

Let us contraft the charader of thofe

men with whom we men

book
>-

vi.
^

accuftomed to converle, with the charadler of

CHAP vr
fuch as they
perceive
^'

ought to be, and will

be.

On

the one fide

we

perpetual caution, that fhrinks from the obferving eye, that conceals

with a thoufand folds the genuine emotions of the heart,

and

that renders us unwilling to approach the

it,

men

that

we

fup-

pofe accuftomed to read

charaiSers as ours are the

and

to

tell

what they

read.

Such

mere fhadows of men, with a fpecious

and
foul.
fhall

outfide perhaps, but deftitute of fubftance

fliall

Oh, when
be

we

arrive at the land

are,

of

realities,

when men

known

for

what they
!

by energy of thought and

intrepidity of
alike to

action

It Is fortitude, that

muft render a man fuperior

carefles

and

threats, enable

him

to derive his

happinefs from

within, and accuftom

affift

him

to be

upon

all

occafions

prompt

to

and

to inform.

Every thing therefore favourable

;

to forti-

tude muft be of ineftlmable value

difllmulation

every thing that inculcates

worthy of our perpetual abhorrence.

There

is

one thing more that

libel,

Is

of importance to be obferved The mmd

is,

upon

this

fubjed of

which

the good effeds that

would

(hrink3"froV

fpring from every man's being accuftomed to encounter falfhood don^JfaM.

with

its

only proper antidote, truth.

After

all

the arguments

that have been induftrioufly accumulated to juftify profecutlon

for libel, every
felf

man

that will retire into himfelf, will feel

him-

convinced of their infufficlency.

The modes
repel

in

which an

innocent and a guilty

man would
4

an accufatlon againft

them

650

O
VI.
1

B E L

S.

BOOK VI. them might

CHAP.

be expected to be oppofite

but the law of

r

libel

confounds them.

He
ill

that

was confcious of

r-

his reditude,

and

undebauched by
verfary,

fyftems of government, would fay to his adpleafe againft

" Publifh what you

me,

have truth on

my

fide,

and

will

confound your mifreprefentations."

His
I

fenfe of fitnefs

and

juftice

would not permit him

to fay,

"

will

have recourfe to the only means that are congenial to

will

guilt, I

compel you

to be filent."

man, urged by indignation

his ac-

and impatience, may commence a profecution againft

cufer
;

but

he may

be aiTured, the world, that

is

a difinterefted

fpeftator, feels

no

cordiality for his proceedings.

is,

The language
!

of their fentiments upon fuch occafions

not even
let

"

What

he dares

us hear what can be faid againft him."

Conclufion.

The arguments

in favour of juftice,
it

however

different

may
run
head

be the views under which

parallel to

is

confidered,

perpetually
this

each other.

The recommendations under

as thofe

are precifely the

fame

under the preceding, the genera-

tion of activity and fortitude.

The tendency of all

mind

falfe

fyftems
torpid.

of

political inftitution is to

render the

lethargic

and

Were we accuftomed
force

not to recur either to public or individual

that

but upon

occafions

unequivocally juftified
to

their

employment, we
reafon, for
difference

fliould then

come

have fome refped; for

we

fhould

know

its

power.

How

great muft be the

between him

who

anfwers

me with a writ of fummons

the fword and the
fliietd

or a challenge,^ and

him who employe

^^

OF LIBELS,
of truth alone
?

6st
is

He knows

that force only

to be encountered

book
CHAP.
^,.

vr. VI.
'>

with force, and allegation with allegation

and he fcorns
firfl

to

J.

change places with the offender by being the

peace.

to break the

He

does that which, were

it

not for the degenerate

habits of fociety,

would

fcarcely deferve the

name of
facred

courage,

dares to meet
truth,

upon equal ground, with the

armour of

an adverfary

who
calls

poffeffes

only the perifhable weapons

;

of falfhood.

He
;

up

his

underftanding

and does not

defpair of baffling the ihallow pretences of calumny.

He

calls

up

his firmnefs
is

and knows that a plain

ftory,

every word of
will carry

which

marked with the emphafis of

It

fincerity,

con-

vidion to every hearer.

be cultivated, fo long
as

were abfurd

to expet that truth fhould

it Is

we
It

are accuftomed to believe that

an
if

impotent incumbrance.

would be Impoflible

to negledt

it,

we knew

that

it

was

as impenetrable as

adamant, and as lafting

as the world.

CHAP,

652

CHAP.

VII.

OF CONSTITUTIONS,
DISTINCTION OF REGULATIONS CONSTITUENT AND LESUPPOSED CHARACTER OF PERMANENCE. OUGHT TO BE GIVEN TO THE FORMER INCONTHAT SOURCE OF THESISTENT WITH THE NATURE OF MAN.
GISLATIVE.

ERROR.

REMARK. ABSURDITY OF THE PERMANENCE. ITS FUTILITY. MODE TO

SYSTEM OF
BE PURSUED

IN FRAMING A CONSTITUTION. CONSTITUENT LAWS\

IN WHAT NOT MORE IMPORTANT THAN OTHERS. MANNER THE CONSENT OF THE DISTRICTS IS TO BE. TENDENCY OF THE PRINCIPLE WHICH REDECLARED. IT WOULD REDUCE THE NUMQUIRES THIS CONSENT. BER OF CONSTITUTIONAL ARTICLES PARCEL OUT THE

'

XEGISLATIVE POWER

AND PRODUCE THE GRADUAL EXTINCTION OF LAW. OBJECTION. ANSWER^

AT aiticle intimately ^

BOOK VT,
CHAP.VIL
'

-'^

/\ -/jL

conneded with the

fuegefted to us

political confidera-

Diftinftion of

tion of opinion *

is

by a dodrine which
It

regulations
conflituent

j^^g lately '

/-

been taught

relatively to conftltutions.

has been

and

legifla-

J *|^at the laws of everv regular ftate naturally diftribute

them-

felves

under two heads, fundamental and

adfcititious

laws, the

objed

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
object

6s3

of which

Is

the

diftrlbutlon

of poUtlcaF power and

BOOK
>.

vi.
j

direding the permanent forms according to which pubUc bufinefs

Is

^'

to be conducted

and laws, the

refult

of the deliberations
Suppofed charaaerof pennanence
that ouglit to

ef powers already J tr
in the
firfl

conftituted.
It

This diftindion being eftablifhed o

inftance,

has been Inferred, that thefe laws are of

very unequal Importance, and that of confequence thofe of the

firft clafs

^^ si'^" '.

ought to be originated with much greater folemnity,

and

to be declared

much

lefs fufceptlble

of variation than thofe

ofthefecond.

The French

national affembly of

1789 pufhed

this principle to the greateft extremity,

and feemed defirous o

the

providing every Imaginable

fecurity for rendering

It

work

they had formed Immortal.

could not be touched upon any

;

account under the term of ten years

every alteration

it

was

to

receive muft be recognifed as neceflary

affemblles of the ordinary kind
j

by two

fucceflive national

after thefe formalities

an affem-

bly of revlfion was to be elected, and they to be forbidden to

touch the conftltutlon In any other points than thofe which hadi

been previoully marked out for their confideratlon,-

It is
.

eafy to perceive that thefe precautions

, 1

ai-e
1

In diredt hofti-

lity

With the

... nii-<-ii*i> prmciples- eltabliihed m this

inconfifient

work.
this

"

-n/r

Man

with the na-

and for
Jufl

ture of

mau.

ever !"

was the motto of the labours of

affembly.

broken loofe from the thick darknefs of an abfoluta monarchy,

they affumed to prefcrlbe leffons of wlfdom to
all

future ages,.

They feem
2

not fo

much

as to

have dreamed of that purification

of intellea, that climax of improvement, which

may

very probablj;.

654

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
VI.
~j

BOOK
*
.,

bably be the deftiny of pofterity.

The

true ftate of

man,

as has

CHAP. VII.
been already demonftrated,
is,

not to have his opinions bound

down

in the fetters of an eternal quietlfm, but flexible

and un-

reflrained to yield with facility to the impreffions of increafing

truth.

That form of

fociety

"will

appear moft perfedl to an

enlightened mind, w^hich

Is leaft

founded in a principle of per-

manence.

But, if this view of the fubjeit be jufl, the idea of

is

giving permanence to what

called the conftitution

clafs

of any go-

vernment, and rendering one

of laws, under the appellation

of fundamental,

lefs fufceptible

of change than another, muft be

error.

founded in mifapprehenfion and

Source of the
error.

The
cal

error probably originally fprung out of the fomis of politifee eftablifhed

monopoly which we

over the whole civilifed

firfl

world.

Government could not juftly

;

derive in the

inftance

but from the choice of the people

(for the

or, to fpeak

more

accurately
is

former principle, however popular and fpecious,

in

reality falfe),

government ought

to be adjufted in

its

provifions
fee

to the prevailing apprehenfions of juftice and truth.

But we

government

at prefent adminiflered either in

whole or in part

by
the

a king atid a

body of

noblelTe

and

we

reafonably fay that

laws made by

thefe authorities are

one thing, and the laws

from which they derived

their exiftence another.

But we do

not confider that thefe authorities, however originated, are In

their

own

nature unjuft.

If

we had

neyer feen arbitrary and

fhould probably never

capricious forms of government,

we

have

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
have thought of cutting off certain laws from the code under the

6ss

name of conuitutional.
bodies of
affairs

n.

iTr.

When we

behold

..,..11 certam individuals

BOOK
CHAP.
^

vr. VII.

or

men

exercifing an exclufive fuperintendence over the

of a nation,

we

inevitably afk
is,

how

they came by their

But,
if

authority, and the anfwer

By

the conflitution.

we

faw no power

exifting in the ftate but that of the people,

having

a body of reprefentatives, and a certain number of

taries

official fecre-

and clerks adting in their behalf, fubjed to

their revifal,

and

renewable at their pleafure, the queflion,

this authority,

how

the people
itfelf.

came by

would never have fuggefted

A celebrated objedion that has been urged againft the governments of modern Europe
If
is

Remark,

that they

have no

conftitutions *.

by

this objedlion

it

be underftood, that they have no written

code bearing

this appellation,

and

that their conftitutions

have

been

lefs

an inftantaneous than a gradual produdlon, the

effential

crlticifa\

feems to be rather verbal, than of

other fenfe
it is

moment.

In any

to be fufpetSted that the

remark would amoiuit

are certainly

to an eulogium, but an euloglum to

which they

by

no means

entitled.

But

to return to the queftron of

admit or rejedl the diftimStion between conflitutional and ordi- penMiunce,

nary
legiflation,
it

...
not

permanence.
,

Whether we

Abfuidity oF thefyilcmof

is

lefs

true that the

power of

a people

* Rights of Man-

to

6^6

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
VI.
'

BOOK
'
>-

to

change their conftltutlon morally confidered, mufl be flrldly

conftitution.
al!

and univerfally coeval with the exiftence of a

The language
abfurdities.

of permanence in this cafe

is

the greateft of

It is
is

to fay to a nation, " Are you convinced that

fomething
It fhall

right,

perhaps immediately neceifary, to be done

,

be done ten years hence."

The

folly

of

this

fyllem

may

be farther elucidated, if farther

Either

elucidation be ncceffary,

from the following dilemma.

people

'

mufl be

governed according to their

own
The

apprelafl:

henfions of juflice and truth, or they mufl: not.

thefe affertions cannot be avowed, but
ciples of tyranny.

of

upon the unequivocal

be true, then
it is

prinas

But, if the

firfl:

jufl:

abfurd to fay to a nation. This government,

which you chofe

nine years ago,

is

the legitimate government, and the govern-

ment which your

to
infill

prefent fentiments approve the illegitimate

as

upon

their being

governed by the di^a of their remoteft

ancellors, or even of the mofl infolent ufurper.

Its futility.

It is

extremely probable that a national aflembly chofen In the

is jufl:

ordinary forms,

as

much empowered
leafl:

to

change the funda-

mental laws, as to change any of the of

legiflation.

important bi'anches

This fimdlion would never perhaps be dangerous

fl:ill

but in a country that

ariftocracy,

preferved a portion of

monarchy or

and

in fuch a country a principle

againfl:

of permanence

^vould be found a very feeble antidote

the danger.

The
true

OF CONSTITUTIONS,
true principle

657
vr.

upon

the fubjed

is,

that

no affembly, though BOOK

*

chofen with the moft imexampled folemnity, has a power to

^^

impofe any regulations contrary to the public apprehenfion of

right
;

and a very ordinary authority,

fairly originated,

will

be

fufEcient to facilitate the

is

harmonious adoption of a change that

didated by national opinion.

The

diftindlion of conftitutlonal

and ordinary

topics will always appear in pradtice unintelligible

and vexatious.

The

aflemblies of

more frequent recurrence

will

find ihemfelves arrefted in the intention of conferring

any emi-

nent benefit on their country, by the apprehenfion that they

fhall

invade the conftitution.

In a country where the people

are habituated to fentiments of equality

and where no

political

monopoly

is

tolerated,

there

is

little

danger that any national

aflembly fhould be difpofed to inforce a pernicious change, and

there
is ftill lefs

that the people fhould fubmit to the injury, or

fraall

not poffefs the means eafily and with

tranquillity to avert
is,
it.

interruption of public

The language of

reafon on this fubijedt

Suffer us
to

" Give us equality and juftlce, but no conftitution.

to follow without reftraint the dldates of our

own judgment, and

we improve

change our forms of

fecial order as fall as

in under-

fianding and knowledge."

The

opinion upon this head moft popular in France at the Mode

, _ _ ^

to be purfued in
conftitution.

time that the national convention entered upon

its

functions, framing a

was

that the bulinefs of the convention extended only to the

prefenting a draught of a conftitution, to be fubmitted in the

4P

fequel

658

DF CONSTITUTIONS.
VI.

BOOK
^
,

fequel to the approbation of the diftrids,

and then only

to,

be

j confidered as law.
examination.

This opinion

is

well deferving of a ferious

s

" not more

tha^a"others.

'^^^^

^^^

'^^^^

^^^^ fuggefts itfelf refpeaing It

is,

that, if

con-

-^itutional

laws ought to be fubjeded to the revifion of the

all

diftrids, then

laws ought to undergo the fame procefs, underall

.ftanding

by laws

declarations of a general principle to be

applied to particular cafes as they

may happen

to

occur,

and

even including

all

provifions for individual emergencies that will

It is

admit of the delay incident to the revifion in queftion.

egregious miftake to imagine that the importance of thefe
is

an

articles,

in a defcending ratio

from fundamental
It is poflible for

to ordinaiy,

and from

ordinary to particular.
to

the mofl odious injuftice

affembly.

be

perpetrated
it

by the

beft

conftituted

law

rendering

capital to

oppofe the dodrine of tranfubftantiation,

welfare,

would be more

injurious to the public

than a law

.changing the duration of the national reprefentative, from two

years, to one year or to three.

Taxation has been fhowii to be

an

article

rather of executive than legiflative adminiilration *;

fcarcely lefs

and yet a very oppreffive and unequal tax would be

ruinous than any fuigle meafure that could poffibly be devifed.

inwKatrranner the con-

jj

j^^v farther be remarked that an approbation demanded ^ ' ^

diflrids to certain conftitutional articles,

'^Ta\y^^ dutncts IS
"jit

from the
to

whether more

declared.

Book Y, Chap. L
,or

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
or
to
lefs

e^g

numei-ous,

will

be
for

either
that

real

or delufive according
If the
dlftrltSls

book
v

vr.

the

mode adopted
upon

purpofe.

be

^'

required to decide
negative,
it

thefe articles

by

a fnnple affirmative or

will then be delufive.

It is

impoflible for

any man

or body of men, in the due exercife of their underflanding, to

decide
fcarcely

upon any complicated fyftem

happen but that there
will be

in that

manner.

It

can

fome things

that they will.

approve and fome that they will dlfapprove.

if the articles

On

the other hand,

be unlimitedly propofed for difcuffion in the diftrlds,

it is

a tranfalion will be begun to which

termination.
if thefe

not eafy to forefee a

j

Some

diilrids will object to certain articles

and,
it

articles

be modelled to obtain their approbation,

is

poffible that the

very alteration introduced to pleafe one part of

lefs

the community, may render the code

acceptable to another.

How
rate

are

we

to be allured that the diffidents will not fet for themfelves

?

up a fepamight be

government

The

reafons that

offered to perfuade a minority of diftridls to yield to the fenfe

of a majority, are by no means fo perfpicuous and forcible,

as

thofe

which fometimes perfuade the minority of members

in a given aflembly to that fpecles of conceffion.

It

is

defirable in

all

cafes

of the pradical adoption of any Tendency

re-

of

the principle

given principle, that

we

fhould fully underftand the meaning of which

it

quires thi

the principle, and perceive the conclufions to which

leads.

Inevitably

confent.

This principle of a confent of diftrids has an immediate

tendency, by a falutary gradation perhaps, to lead to the diffo-

4P

lution.

eSo

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
lutlon of
to lee
it

BOOK VI.
/

all

government.

What

then can be more abfurd, than

embraced by thofe very men,

who

are at the

fame time
empire?

advocates for the complete

It is

legiflative unity- of a great

founded upon the fame

it

bafis as the principle

of private

judgment, which
the poffibiiity

is

to

be hoped will fpeedily fuperfede

of the adion of fociety in a coiledive capacity.

the mofi; important ads of the national repre-

It is defirable that

fentatives fhould be

fubjed to the approbation or rejedion of the

are,

diftrids

whofe
it is

reprefentatives they
defirable, that the

for

exadly the fame

reafon as

ads

of the diftrids themfelves

fhould, as fpeedily as pradicability will admit, be in force only fo

far as relates to the individuals

by

whom thofe ads are approved.

refult,

It would reduce the numbei- of

The

firft

confequence that would

not from the delu-

five, but the real eftablifhment of this principle,

would be the
articles.

conftitutional
articles

redudion of the conftitution

to a very fmall

number of

The
great

impradicability of obtaining the deliberate approbation of a

number of

diPcrids to a very complicated code,

itfelf.

would
ftate

fpeedily manifeft

In reality the conftitution of a

political

governed either

in

whole or in part by a

monopoly,

muft

necefTarily be complicated.

But what need of complexity

?

in a country where the people are deftined to govern themfelves

The whole
exceed two

conftitution

of fuch a country ought fcarcely to

articles; firft, a

fcheme for the divlfion of the whole

into parts equal in their population, and, fecondly, the fixing

of

ftated periods for the

eledion of a national aifembly

not to
fay

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
fay that the latter of thefe articles With.

g6i

may

very probably be difpenfed

book

vr.
'

CHAP.VII.

A fecond
we
reafon
is

confequence that
is

refults
It

from the

principle of which

parcel out thelegiOative

are treating

as follows.

has already appeared, that the powers

legiflative
arti-

no

lefs

cogent for fubmitting important

cles to the revifal

of the diftrids, than for fubmitting the confti-

tutional articles themfelves.

fort,
it

But
itfelf,

after a

few experiments of

this

cannot

fail

to fuggeft

that the

mode of fending laws

to the diftrids for their revifion, unlefs in cafes effential to the

general fafety,
it

is

a proceeding unneceffarlly circuitous,

and that

would be

better, in as

many

inftances as pofhble, to fuffer the

diftridts to

make laws

for themfelves without the intervention

of

the national affembly.

The

juftnefs of this eonfequence

is

im-

plicitly affumed in the preceding paragraph, while

we

ftated the
/

very narrow bounds within which the conftitution of an empire,

fuch as that of France for example, might be circumfcribed.
reality,

In
dif-

provided the country were divided into convenient

trlds with a

power of fending

reprefentatives to the
ill

general

affembly,
fue to the

it

does not appear that any

caufe

confequences would en-

common

from

thefe diflrids being permitted to

regulate their internal affairs, in conformity to their

own

appre-

henfions of juftice.

Thus,

that

which was

at firft

a great empire

with

legiflative unity,

would

fpeedily be transformed into a con-

federacy of

leffer republics,

with a general congrefs or Amphidly-

onic council, anfwering the purpofe of a point of cooperation

"Poi^

662

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
VI.
-

BOOK
>

upon extraordinary

occafions.

The

ideas of a great

empire and

legiflative unity are plainly the barbarous remains of the days of

military heroifm.

In proportion as political power

is

brought

home

to the citizens,

and fimplified into fomething of the nature

rival-

of parifh regulation, the danger of mifunderftanding and

'

fhip will be nearly annihilated.

In proportion as the fcience of

prefent myfterious appearances,
diftrids pliant

government
focial

is

divefted of

its

truth will

become obvious, and the

of reafon,

and

flexible to the dictates

and

produce

ji^

the giaaual eftimation of

third coufequence fufficiently *

'

memorable from the fame

principle
collected

is

the gradual extindion of law.

different provinces of
fole

great aflembly,
territory,

from the

an extenfive

and conftituted the

is

legiflator of thofe by whom

the territory

inhabited, immediately conjures

up

to itfelf

an idea of the vaft

multitude of laws that are neceffary for regulating the concerns

of thofe

whom

it

reprefents.

large city,
is

impelled by the
to
digeft the

principles of commercial jealoufy,

not

flov\r

vo-

lume of its by-laws and exclufive

of a fmall parifh,
living with

privileges.

But the inhabitants

that

fome degree of
real nature

fimplicity

which

beft correfponds

with the

and wants of a hu-

man

being,

would foon be

led to fufpedt that general laws

were

unnecelTary, and

would adjudge the

caufes

that

came before

them, not according to certain axioms previoufly written, but

according to the circumftances and demand of each particular
caufe.

It

was proper

that this confequence fhould be

mentioned
ia

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
IB this place.

66 v)
abolition of

The

benefits that will arife

from the

law

will

come

BOOK CHAP
^

vr.

to be confidered in detail in the following book.

VII /

'

The

principal objedlon that

is

ufually

made

to the idea

of

Objeftion.

confederacy confidered as the fubftitute of

poffibility that arifes

legiflative unity, is the

of the members of the confederacy detaching

themfelves from the fupport of the public caufe.

To

give this
tlie

objedion every advantage,

confederacy, like France,
nations,
is

let

us fuppofe that the feat of

placed in the midfl of furrounding

and

that the

governments of thefe nations are anxious

and violence
to fupprefs the infolent
this

by every means of
fpirit

artifice

of liberty that has flarted up

among

neighbour people.
Anfwer.

It is to

be believed that even under thefe circumftances the danreal.

ger

is

more imaginary than

The

national aflembly, being

precluded by the fuppofition from the ufe of force againft the

malcontent diftrids,

is

obliged to confine

itfelf to

expoftulation

and

it is

fufficiently obfervable that

our powers of expoftulation are

are confined to expof-

tenfold increafed the

tulation alone.

moment our hopes

They have

to defcribe with the utmoft perfpi-

cuity and fimphcity the benefits of independence; to convince

the public at large, that

all

they intend

is

to enable every diftrid,

and

as far as pofTible

every individual, to purfue unmolefted their

own

ideas of propriety;

and

that

under their aufpices there

fhall

be no tyranny, no

arbitrary punifliments, fuch as proceed

from

the jealoufy of councils and courts, no exadions, almoft no taxation.

Some ideas refpeding

this laft

fubjed

will fpeedily occur.

It

6%
BOOK VI.
CHAP. VI I.

OF CONSTITUTIONS.
It IS

not poffible but that, in a country refcued from the inve-

terate evils

of defpotifm, the love of liberty fhould be confider-

ably diffufed.

The

adherents therefore of the public caufe will

If a fmall

be many

the malcontents few.

number of

diftriits

wei?e fo far blinded as to be willing to furrender themfelves to

opprelfion and flavery,

it is

probable they would foon repent.

the

Their

defertion

would

infpire

more enlightened and

It

courageous with additional energy.

J^etacle to fee the

would be a glorious

champions of the caufe of truth declaring

fupporters.
It is

that they defired

that fo

none but willing

not pofTible

magnanimous

a principle fhould not contribute

more

to.

the advantage than the injufy of their caufe.

CHAP.

^^s

CHAP.
OF

VIII.

NATIONAL EDUCATION.

ARGUMENTS IN ITS FAVOUR. ANSWER. 1. IT PRODUCES PERMANENCE OF OPINION. NATURE OF PREJUDICE AND JUDGMENT DESCRIBED. 2. IT REQUIRES UNIFORMITY OF OPERATION. 3. IT IS THE MIRROR AND TOOL OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. THE RIGHT OF PUNISH-

ING NOT FOUNDED IN THE PREVIOUS FUNCTION OF IN-

STRUCTING.

MODE
the
article

in

which government has been accuftomed

of influencing opinion,
is

to

'BOOK vr. CH AJ'.VIU.

^^

interfere for the purpoie

by

'

the fuperintendence

it

has in a greater or lefs degree exerted in

It is

of education.

worthy of obfervation

that the idea

of this fuperintendence has obtained the countenance of feveral

of the moft zealous advocates of

relative to its propriety or

political reform.
is

The
on

queftion

impropriety

entitled

that account

to

the more

deliberate examination.

The arguments
*'

m
,

its
.

favour have been already anticipated. Arguments

^
ill

Can

It

be juflihable in thofe perfons,

who

its

favour,

are appointed
it is

to

the fundions of maglftracy, and whofe duty

to confult for

'4

0^

the

666

OF Nx\TIONAL EDUCATION.
the public welfare, to negled; the cultivation of the infant mind,

BOOK
^

VI.
'

CHAP. VI 11.
^

and

to fuffer

its

future excellence or depravity to be at the difIs it pofllble for patriotifm

polal of fortune

and the love of the

public to be

made

the charadleriftic of a whole people in any-

other

way

fo fuccefsfully, as

by rendering the
?

early

communicaour

tion of thefe virtues a national concern

If the education of

youth be

entirely confided to the

prudence of their parents or

it

the accidental benevolence of private individuals, will

not be

a neceffary confequence, that fome will be educated to virtue,

others to vice, and others again entirely neglected ?"
confiderations
it

To

thefe

has been added, " That the

maxim which

has

prevailed in the majority of civilifed countries, that ignorance of

the law

is

no apology
j

for the breach of

it,

is

in the highefl: de-

gree iniquitous
-

and that government cannot juflly punifh us

unlefs
it

for our crimes

againft

when committed,

have forewarned us

their commiffion,

which cannot be adequately done

without fomething of the nature of public education."

Anfwer.

The

propriety or impropriety of any proje<fl for this purpofe

its

muft be determined by the general confideration of

or injurious tendency.

beneficial

If the exertions of the magiftrate in

teft as

behalf of any fyftem of inftrudion will ftand the

condu-

cive to the public fervice, undoubtedly he cannot be juftified in

negledting them.
is

If

on the contrary they conduce

be made.

to injury,

it

wrong and

unjuftifiable that they Ihould

The

OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.
The
are,

667

injuries that refult

firfl

from a fyftem of national education

BOOK
CHAP
'

vi. VIII
'

in the

place, that all public eftablifliments include in

I.

It

produ-

them

the idea of permanence.

They endeavour

it

may

be to
is al-

ces pei-ma-

nence of opi-

fecure and to dlfFufe whatever of advantageous to fociety

'"O"-

ready known, but they forget that more remains to be known.

If they realifed the
introdu(5lion, they

moft

fubftantial benefits at the

lefs

time of their
lefs ufeful

muft inevitably become

and

as

they increafed in duration.

But

to defcribe

them

as ufelefs

is

very feeble expreffion of their demerits.

the flights of mind, and fix
It
it

They

adlively reflrain

in the belief of exploded errors.

has

commonly been

obferved of univerfitigs and extenfive

eftablifliments for the purpofe of education, that the

knowledge

taught there,

is

a century behind the knowledge which exifts

among
political

the unfliackled and unprejudiced

members of the fame

of proceeding
as

community.

The moment any fcheme

it

gains a permanent eftabllfliment,

its

becomes impreffed

one of
vio-

charafterlftic features

with an averfion to change.

its

Some

lent concuflion

may oblige

conductors to change an old fyf;

tem of philofophy

for a fyftem lefs obfolete

and they are then

as they

as pertinacioufly attached to this fecond

dodrlne

were

to

the

firft.

Real intelletual Improvement demands that mind

fhould as fpeedlly as pofTible be advanced to the height of

ledge already exifting

knowthe

among

the enlightened

members of

community, and
quifitions.

ftart

from thence in the purfuit of farther acIts

But public education has always expended

;

ener-

gies in the fupport of prejudice

it

teaches

its

pupils, not the

fortitude

4 0^2

66S

OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.
fortitude that fhall bring every propofitlon to the tefl of
tion, but the art of vindicating fuch tenets as

BOOK vr.
CHAP.VIir. *

examina-

v~^

may

chance to be

previoufly eilabUfhed.

We

ftudy Ariftotle or

Thomas Aquinas
detect their

or Bellarmine or chief juftice Coke, not that

errors, but that
abfurdities.

we may

our minds

may

be fully impregnated with their

This feature runs through every fpecies of public

;

eftablifhment

and even

in

the petty inftitution of

Sunday

fchools, the chief leffons that are taught, are a fuperflitious ve-

neration for the church of England, and to

bow

to every

man

in

a handfome coat.
tereft

All this

is

directly contrary to the true in-

of mind.

All this mull be unlearned, before

we

can begin.

to be wife.

Nature of
prejudice and-

jj {^ []^q charaderiftic

of mind to be capable of improvement,.

judgment deIc.iibed..

^^
he

individual furrenders the beft attribute of

man, the moment

refolves to adhere to certain fixed principles, for reafons not

now

prefent to his mind, but

which formerly were.

The
is

iur-

ftant in

which he

fluits

upon himfelf the

career of enquiry,
is

the

inftant of his injtelledual deceafe.

is

He

no longer a man; he

the ghoft of departed man.

There can be no fcheme more

egregioufly ftamped with folly, than that of feparating a tenet

from the evidence upon which

its

validity depends.
.

If I ceafe

from the habit of being

able to recal this evidence,

:

my

belief is

no

longer a perception, but a prejudice

;

it

may

influence

me

like a prejudice

but cannot animate

me

like a real apprehenfion-

of truth.

The

difference

between the

man

thus guided, and the

maa..

OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.
man
that keeps his

669

mind perpetually aUve,

fortitude.

is

the difference beis

BOOKVr.
CHAP. VIII.
*

tween cowardice and

The man who

in the beft

-y-.

.v

fenfe an intellelual being, delights to recoiled: the reafons that

have convinced him, to repeat them

to others, that they

diftindl

may pro-

duce conviction in them, and ftand more

his

and

explicit ia

own mind

and he adds to

this a willingnefs

to

examine

objedions, becaufe he takes no pride in confiflent

error.'

The

man who

is

not capable of this falutary exercife, to what valu-

able purpofe can he be

employed

Hence

it

appears that no vice

can be more deilrudlive than that w^hich teaches us to regard

any judgment
principle
that

as

final,

and not open

to

review.

The fame

applies

to

individuals applies to
at prefent

communities.
true, fo

There

is

no propofition,

apprehended to be

valuable as to juftify the

introdudion of an eftablifhment for the

purpofe of inculcating

it

on mankind.
;

Refer them to reading,

to converfation, to meditation

but teach them neither creeds

political.

nor catechifms, neither moral nor

Secondly, the idea of national education

1 r J attention to the nature 01 mind.

is

founded in an
,

in-

2- It requires

1T71

Whatever each man does for

uniformity of
operation,

himfelf is done well

dertake to do for

whatever his neighbours or his country unis

him

done

ill.

It

is

our wifdom to incite

in a ftate of per-

men

to

ad

for themfelves, not to retain

them

petual pupillage.
liften to the

He

that learns becaufe he defires to learn, will

inftrudions he receives, and apprehend their mean-

ing.

He

that teaches becaufe he defires to teach, will difcharge

his

670

OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.
VI,
'

BOOK
*

his occupation
political

with enthufiafm and energy.

But the moment

CHAP.VIII.
^

inftitution undertakes to affign to every

all

man

his place,

the fundlions of
ference.

will

be difcharged with fupinenels and indif-

Univerfities

and expenfive eftablifhments have long

Civil policy has given
to

been remarked for formal dulnefs.

>

me
ray

the

power

to appropriate
it

my

eftate

certain theoretical purI

pofesj but

is

an

idle

prefumption to think

can

entail

views, as

can entail

my

fortune.

Remove
reftrain

ah thofe obftacles

which prevent men from feeing and

them from pur-

fulng their real advantage, but do not abfurdly undertake to relieve

them from the adivity which what

I

this purfuit requires.

I

What
I efti-

I earn,

acquire only becaufe

defire to acquire

it,

mate

at its true

value

but what

is

thruft

upon me may make

It is

me
on

indolent, but cannot

make me

refpedable.

extreme

folly to

endeavour to fecure to others, independently of exertion

their part, the

means of being happy.

is

This whole

propofi-

tion of a national education,

founded upon a fuppofition which

has been repeatedly refuted in this work, but which has recurred

upon us

in a thoufand forms, that unpatronifed truth

is

inade-

quate to the purpofe of enlightening mankind.

3. It Is the TnL-ror and

Thirdly, the projed of a national education ought uniformly

to be difcouragcd
tional

tool of nati-

on account of
This
is

its

obvious alliance with na-

onal govern-

ment,

government.

an

alliance

of a more formidable naalliance

ture, than the old

ftate.

and much contefled

fo

of church and

Before

we

put
2

powerful a machine under the diredion

of

OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.
of fo ambiguous an agent,
is
it

671
it

behoves us to confider well what

will
Ml

BOOK VI.
CHAP. VIII.
^ '

that

we

do.

Government

not
its

r fail

to

employ
If

it

to

ftrengthen

its

hands, and perpetuate

inftitutions.

we

could

even fuppofe the agents of government not to propofe to themfelves

an objedt, which will be apt to appear in their eyes, not

eyil

merely innocent, but meritorious; the

happen.

would not the

lefs

Their views

as

inftitutors

of a fyftem of education,

will not fail to be analogous to their views in their political ca-

pacity

the data
will

upon which

their

conduct

as flatefmen

is

vin-

dicated,

be the data upon which

their

inflrudtions

are

founded.

It is

not true that our youth ought to be inftrufted to

venerate the conftitution, however excellent; they fhould be inftrudled to venerate truth;

and the conftitution only

fo far as

it

correfponded with their independent dedudtions of

the fcheme of a national education been adopted

truth."

Had

when
it

defpotifm

wa?
for

"

oft

triumphant,

it is

not to be believed that

could have
the.

'ver ftifled the voice

of truth.

But

it

would have been

moft formidable and profound contrivance for that purpofe that

imagination can fuggeft.
chiefly prevails,
it is

Still,

in the countries

where

liberty

reafonably to be aflumed that there are im-

portant errors,

and a national education

has the moft dired:

all

tendency to perpetuate thofe errors, and to form

minds upon

one model.

It

Is

not eafy to fay whether the remark, " that government The
it

right

of

puniiliing

nob

cannot juflJy punifli offenders, unlefs

have previoully informed

founded

them

672

OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.
is

BOOK VI. them what

,,

vuiue and what

It is to

is

offence," be entitled to a fepa-

rate anfwer.

be hoped that mankind will never have to

a leffon

the previous finiaion of

inftriifti ing.

learn

fo

important

through fo corrupt a

channel.

Government may reafonably and

equitably prefume that

men

who

live in

fociety

know

that
its

enormous crimes

are injurious to

the public weal, without

as fuch,
curates.

being neceffary to announce them

by
It

lav/s to

be proclaimed by heralds, or expounded by

has been alledged that "

mere reafon may teach me

not to ilrike

my

neighbour

but will never forbid

my

fending a

fack of wool from England, or printing the French conftitution

in Spain."

This objedion leads to the true diftindion upon the

fubjed.

All real crimes are capable of being difcerned without

All fuppofed crimes, not capable of being

the teaching of law.

fo difcerned, are truly

and unalterably innocent.

It is

true that

my own
now

underflanding would never have told

me

that the exit is

portation of wool

was a

vice: neither

do

I
it.

believe
It is

a vice

that a law has been

made

affirming

a feeble and

contemptible remedy for

iniquitous punifliments, to fignify to

mankind beforehand
remedy
is

that

you intend
evil
:

to inflid them.

Nay, the
;

worfe than the

deftroy

me if you pleafe

but do

not endeavour by a national education to deftroy in

ftanding the difcernment of juftice and injuftice.

my
The

underidea of

fuch an education, or even perhaps of the neceffity of a written

law, would never have occurred,
if

government and jurifpru-

dence had
into guilt.

never attempted the arbitrary converfion of innocence

CHAP.

'

673

CHAP.

IX.

OF PENSIONS AND SALARIES.

REASONS BY WHICH THEY ARE VINDICATED.
ITS

LABOUR

IN

USUAL ACCEPTATION AND LABOUR FOR THE PUBLIC COMPARED. IMMORAL EFFECTS OF THE INSTITUTION

OF SALARIES.
RIVED

SOURCE

FROM WHICH THEY ARE DE-

UNNECESSARY

FOR THE SUBSISTENCE OF THE

FUNCTIONARY FOR DIGNITY. &Ai,ARIS OF INFERIOR OFFICERS MAY ALSO BE SUPSEE]6Sl>. TAX-p
PUBLIC

ATION.

QUALIFICATIONS.
which deferves the matureft
.

A
the

article

by means of which

political

...... inmtutlon

ctonfideration,

and BOOK
CHAP.
to
*

does not
is

fail

vr. IX.

produce the moft important influence upon Ojiihion,

that of

mode of rewarding
all

public fervices.
Is

The mode which

of the public,
that

has

obtained in

European countries
to
afl:

that

of pecuniary reward.
is

He who

18

employed
falary.

in behalf
retires

recomis

penfed with a

He who

from

employment,

recompenfed with a penfion.

fyftem are well known.
It

The

arguments in fupport of
it

this
Reafons on
ftitution

has been remarked, " that

may

indeed be creditable to individuals to be willing to ferve their

of

falaries is

country without a rewai'd, but that

it is

becoming pride on the

part

founded.

^74

OF PENSIONS
they are well able to pay.
If

AND SALARIES.
which
one man, animated by the moft

part of the public, to refufe to receive as an alms that for

difmterefted motives, be permitted to ferve the public

upon

thefe

terms, another will afllime the exterior of difmtereftednefs, as a

ftep

towards the gratification of a fmifter ambition.

If

men

be

not openly and diredlly paid for the fervices they perform,

we

may

reft

aflured that they will

pay themfelves by ways ten

thoufand times more injurious.

He who
:

devotes himfelf to the

will therefore be in-

public, ought to devote himfelf entire

he

jured in his perfonal fortune,

and ought to be replaced.

Add

to this, that the fervants of the public ought

by

their appear-

ances and

mode of

living to

command
foreigners

refpedl both
;

from

their

own countrymen and from

country to provide*."

and that
it is

this

circum-

ftance will require an expence for

which

the duty of their

Labour
tatk)n

fn Its

Before this argument can be lufEciently eftimated,

it

will

be
its

M^dk- necclTary for us to confider the analogy between labour in

com-

public

moft ufual acceptation and labour for the public

are the points in

fervice,

whatdiiFer.

which they refemble and

the produce of which

in
is

which they

If I cultivate a field
fubfiftence, this is

neceflary for
firft

my
ob-

an innocent and laudable adion, the

jefb

it

propofes

is

my own

emolument, and

it

cannot be unreacontemplation

fonable that that object fhould be

much

in

my

The

fubftance of thefe arguments

may be found in Mr. Burke's Speech on

Oeconomical Reform,

while

OF PENSIONS
while the labour
Is

AND SALARIES.
If I cultivate a field the produce
fubfiftence, but

6ys

performing.

of which

is

not neceflary to

my

BOOK vi. CHAP IX

<
.^

which

propofe

>

to give in barter for a garment, the cafe then

becomes

different.

The
Its

adlion here does not properly fpeaking begin in myfelf.

is

Immediate objel

to provide food for another

intelle(Sl:,

and

it

feems

to be In

fome degree a perverfion of

that caufes

me

to

place in an inferior point of

adlion,

view the inherent quality of the

is

and

to

do that w^hich

in the

firft

inftance benevolent,
Still

from a

partial retrofped; to

my own

advantage.

the per-

verfion here, at leaft

to our habits of reflecting and judging,

does not appear violent.

that

The

adllon differs only in form

from

which

is direct.

employ

that labour in cultivating a field,

which muft otherwife be employed

in manufadturing a garment.

The garment

propofe

to

myfelf as the end of

my

labour.

We

are not apt to conceive of this fpecies of barter and trade as

greatly injurious to our moral difcernment.

But then

this Is

an adion

in the flighteft degree indired. are induced to

felfifh

It

does not follow, becaufe

we

do fome adions
motive, that
It

immediately beneficial to others from a

we we
the
is

can admit of

this in all inflances

with impunity.

does not

follow, becaufe

we

are fometimes Inclined to be felfifh, that

muft never be generous.

The

love of our neighbour

Is

great ornament of a moral nature.

The

perception of truth

the moft folid improvement of an Intelledual nature.

fees

He

that
is

nothing in the univerfe deferving of regard but himfelf,

a con-

676

OF PENSIONS AND SALARIES.

VI. IX.

BOOK
CHAP.

a confummate ftranger to the didates of immutable reafon.

that
is

He
it

XJJ

not influenced in his condufl:

is

by the

real

and inherent

natures of things,
is

rational to

no purpofe.

Admitting that

venial to

do fome adions immediately

partial
I
is

beneficial to

my

neigh-

bour from a
actions in
felf.

retrofped to myfelf, furely there muft be other

which

ought to forget, or endeavour to forget

my-

This duty

moft obligatory in adions moft extenfive in

If a thoufand
I

their confequences.

men

be to be benefited, I

ought to recoiled that

to reafon accordingly.

am

only an atom in the comparifon, and

Immoral

ef-

Thefe confiderations
of pcufious and

may

qualify "us to decide

.

upon the

article

feftsofthe inftitution of
falarits

falarics.

Surely

it

ought not
our
If

to be the

end of a

good

political inftitution to increafe

it

felfifhnefs,

inftead of
falary

fuffering
to

to dwindle and decay.

is

we pay an ample

him who

employed

in the public fervice,

how

are

we

fure

that he will not have more regard to the falary than to the

public

If

we pay

a fmall falary, yet the very exiftence of fuch

a payment

will oblige

men
;

to

compare the work performed and

the confequence that will refult the fervice of their country,
ill-

the reward beftowed

will

and

all

be

to drive the beft

firll

men from

a fervice

degraded by being paid, and then paid with an

timed parfimony.
falary exift,
idage.

Whether

the falary be large or fmall, if a

Its

many

will defire the office for the fake of

appen-

Fundions the moft extenfive

in their confequences will

it

be converted into a trade.

How

humiliating will

be to the

fundlonary

OF PENSiaN^S AND SALARIES.

fundionary himfelf,
amidft the complication and fubtlety
motives, to doubt whether the falary were not one of his induce^

677
of BOOKVI.

ments to the accepdng the

felf,
it is

office

If

he ftand acquitted to him-

however

ftill

to be regretted, that grounds fhould be

afforded to his countrymen,

his views.

which tempt them

to mifinterpret

Another confideratlon of great weight in

the fource

this inftance is that

:

of

fource from

which they"

from which

falaries are

derived

from the public

But there

a,e derived-:

revenue, from taxes impofed upon the community.

is

no

pradticable

mode of

colledting the fuperfluities of the

it

comthe

munity.

Taxation, to be ftridly equal, if

demand from

man
the
will

of an hundred a year ten pounds, ought to demand from, of a thoufand a year nine hundred and ten.

man

Taxation

always be vuiequal and oppreffive, wrefting the hard earned

die gripe

niorfel fro o

of the peafant, and fparing him moftlimits

whofe

fuperfiuities

moft defy the

of juftice.

will not fay

that the

man

of clear difcernment and an independent mind,

:

would

rather ftarve than be fubfifted at the public coft

it

but

I,

will fay, that

is

fcarcely poffible to devife

any expedient

for-

his fubfiftence that

he would not rather accept.

Meanwhile the
perable.

difficulty

under

this

head

is

by no means

infu- unneceffwy
fiHence of"

The

majority of the perfons chofen for public employ-

meat, under any fituation of mankind approaching to the

preient, will poffefs a perfonal fortune adequate to their fupport.

funaionary

Thofe

6yB

OF PENSIONS AND SALARIES.

vr.
^

BOOK
V

Thofe feleded from

a different clafs, will probably be feleded

CHAP. IX,

for extraordinary talents,

which

will naturally lead to extraordi-

nary refources.

It

has been deemed difhonourable to fubfift

;

upon

private liberality

but this difhonour

is

produced only by

the difficulty of reconciling this

tual independence.
It is free

mode

of fubfiftence and intellecthat

from many of the objections

I

have been urged againft a public ftipend.

ought to receive
in affairs

your

fuperfluity as

my
it

due,

while

am employed
;

more important than that of earning a fubfiflence

fame time
to

but at the
perfonal

receive

with a

total indifference to
is

advantage, taking only precifely what

necelfary for the fupply

of

my

wants.

He

that liftens to the didates of jufliceand turns

a deaf ear to the didates of pride, will wifh that the conftitution

of his country fhould

viduals,

caft

him

for fupport

on the

virtue of indiat

rather

than provide for his fupport

virtue will, in this as in
it

the

public

cxpence.

That

all

other inftances,
if

increafe, the

more

is

called into adlion.

?"

" But what

he one
at

have a wife and children

be
infufficient.

Let

many

aid him, if the aid of

Let him do in his lifetime what Eudamidas did

his deceafe, bequeath his daughter to

be fubfifled by one friend,

is

and

his

mother by another.
that
is

This

the only true taxation,

able, affeffes

which he

able,

and thinks himfelf

on

himfelf,

not which he endeavours to difcharge upon the fhoulders of the

poor.
It is a flriking

example of the power of venal governments

fcheme of ferving the public
the ancient republicans,

in generating prejudice, that this

fundions without
5

falaries, fo

common among

OF PENSIONS
llcans,

AND SALARIES.
not to be believed that thofe readers
*

679

fliould

by

liberal

minded men of the prefent day be

EOOK VI.
CHAP.

deemed impradicable.

It is

IX,
'

who

already pant for the abolition of government and reguall

lations in

their branches, fhould hefitate refpedliag fo eafy

this defirable objedl.

an advance towards
that the fafety of the

Nor

let

us imagine
fervices
fit

community

will

depend upon the

of an individual.

In the country in which individuals

for

the public ferviee are rare, the poll of honour will be

that
to
fills

his,

not

an

official fituation,

but that from his clofet endeavours

waken

the fleeping virtues of mankind.

it

In the country where

they are frequent,

the employment
to

will not be difficult

by

the fliort duration of

compenfate for the flendernefs of the means

It is

of him that
that

fills it.

not eafy to defcribe the advantages

mufl

refult

from

this

proceeding.

The

public fundlionary

would

in every article

of his charge recollel the motives of

public fplrit and benevolence.

He

would hourly improve

in the

energy and

difintereftednefs of his charader.

The

habits created

by a

frugal fare and a chearful poverty, not hid as

now

in

obfcure retreats,

but held forth to public view, and honoured

with public efteem, would fpeedily pervade the community, and

aufpicioufly prepare

them

for

ftill

farther improvements.

The

objedion, " that

it is

neceffiiry for

him who
and to

als

on the

for

dignu>v

part of the public to

make

a certain figure,

live in a ffyle

calculated to excite refped," does not deferve a feparate anfwer.

The whole

fpirit

of this

treatife is in

dired

hoftility to this

ob-

jedioru

686

OF PENSIONS AND SALARIES.

jedion.
,

BOOKVL
CHAP.
V

If therefore
.

it

have not been anfwered already,

an aniwer in
r
.

it

IX.

would be vain

to attempt

this place.

It is

recorded

of the burghers of the Netherlands

the Auftrian yoke, that they

who

confpired to throw off

came

to the place of confultation

:

each

man

with his knapfack of provifions

who

is

there that
?

feels inclined to defpife this fimplicity

and honourable poverty

The

abolition of falaries

would

doubtlefs render neceflary the

fimplification

and abridgment of public bufmefs.

This would

be a benefit and not a difadvantage.

Salaries of
inferior offifcers;

It will farther

be objeded that there are certain fundionaries

in the lower departments of government, fuch as clerks and taxgatherers,

whofe employment

is

perpetual,

and whofe fub-

fiftence otight for that reafon to be

made

the refult of ^heir

its

em-

ployment.

If this objedtion

were admitted,

confequences

would be of fubordinate importance.

a tax-gatherer
trade
;

The

office

of a clerk or

is

confiderably fimilar to thofe of mere barter and

it

and therefore to degrade

altogether to their level,

would

have

little

refemblance to the fixing fuch a degradation upon

offices

that

demand the moft

elevated mind.

The annexation

of a ftipend to fuch employments, if confidered only as a matter

of temporary accommodation, might perhaps be endured.

nay alfo be fuperfeded.

But the exception,

great caution.
neceffity.

if admitted,
is

ought to be admitted with

affair
it,

He

that

employed in an

of public

ought

to feel,

while he difcharges

Us true charader.

OF PENSIONS AND SALARIES.

tader.

68i
office

We

fliould

never allow ourfelves to undertake an

a

BOOK CHAP
y

vr.

IX
'

of a public nature, without feeling ourielves animated

public zeal.

with, a

We

fliall

otherwife difcharge our trufl with com-

parative Coldnefs and negledt.

Nor

is

this all.

The

abolition Taxauon.

of

falaries

would

lead to the abolition of thofe offices to

neceffiiry.

which

falaries are

thought

If

we had

neither foreign wars

;

nor domeftic ftipends, taxation would be almoft unknown

if we had no

and,

taxes to collect,

we

fhould want no clerks to keep

political inftitu-

an account of them.
tion

In the fimple fcheme of

which reafon

di<51;ates,

we
and,

could fcarcely have any burdenif

fome

offices to difcharge

we had any

that
light

'

ere fo in

their abftrait nature, they

might be rendered

by the per-

petual rotation of their holders.

If

we

have no

falaries,

for a

flill

ftronger reafon

we ought

to

Quallikations,

have no pecuniary

qualifications, or in other

words no regula-

tion requiring the pofTeffion of a certain property, as a condition to

the right of electing or the capacity of being eledled.

It is

an

uncommon

llrain

of tyranny to

call

upon men

to appoint for

themfelves a delegate^ and at the fame time forbid them to

appoint exadly the

office.

man whom

they
is

may judge

fittefl

for the

Qualification in both kinds

the moft flagrant injuflice.

It fur-

It afferts the

man

to be of lefs value than his property.

nifties to the candidate a

new

flimulus to the accumulation of

fet in

wealth

and
It

this paffion,
tells

when once
4 S

motion,

is

not eafily
qualifica-

allayed.

him, " Your

intelledlual

and moral

tions

682

OF PENSIONS AND SALARIES.

VI. IX.
J

BOOK
CHAP.
'

tions

may

be of the higheft order

but you have not enough of

the non-eletor
it

the means of luxury and vice."

To

holds the

moft deteftable language.

unfortunate
;

It fays,

"

You

are poor

you

are

the inftitutions of fociety oblige

:

you

to be the per-

petual witnefs of other men's fuperfluity

becaufe
;

you
fhall

are fiank

thus low,

we

will trample you yet lower

lifts

you

not even

be reckoned in the of

for a

man, you

fhall

be pafled by as one

whom

fociety

makes no account, and whofe welfare and

recollesft."

moral exiftence fhe difdains to

CHAP.

683

CHAP.

X.

OF THE MODES OF DECIDING A QUESTION ON THE PART OF THE COMMUNITY.

DECISION BY LOT, ITS ORIGIN

OF DISCRETIONARY RIGHTS
OF DUTY.

DITY

DECISION BY AND HYPOCRISY. DECISION

FOUNDED IN THE SYSTEM IMPLIES THE DESERTION BALLOT INCULCATES TIMIBY VOTE, ITS RE-

COMMENDATIONS.

w
tion,

HAT has been here faid

three principal
ballot or

upon the

fubjel of qualifica-

tions, naturally leads to a

few hnportant obfervations

forti-

bookvi. CHAP. X.
^

'j

'

upon the by

modes of conducing eledion, bj

by

vote.

The

idea of fortition
It

was

firfl

introduced

by the didates of
reafon pioufly

Dfcifion
loti its

by

origin

fuperftition.

was fuppoied

that,

when human

acknowledged

its

infufficiency,

the Gods, pleafed with fo un-

feigned a homage, interfered to guide the decifion.

gination
is

This imato philo-

now

exploded.
that,

Every man who pretends

wherever
fortition
is

fophy will confefs

decifion
tation.
is

introduced,

the

exclufively guided

by the laws of impulfe and

is

gravi-

Stritly Ipeaking there

no fuch thing
2

as contingence.

4 S

But,

684

OF THE MODES OF DECIDING A QUESTION

VI.

BOOK

But, fo far as relates to the exercife of apprehenfion and judg-

^__^__1^

ment on
by

the particular queftion to be determined,

all

decifioa

lot is the decifion

of contingence.

The

operations of impulfc^

and gravitation
principle
;

either proceed

from a blind and unconfcious

it is

or, if

they proceed from mind,

mind executing

general

laws,
caprice.

and not temporifmg with every variation of

human

founded

m
in
is

All reference of public queftions and eledlons to lot includesit

difcretionary

two

evils,

moral mifapprehenfion and cowardice.

There
corre-

no

fituation in

which we can be placed

There
is

that has not

its

fpondent duties.

no

alternative that can be offered toit

our choice, that does not Include in

a better and a worfe.

as the idea

The

Idea of fortltion derives

from the fame root

of

difcretionary rights.
flition,

Men, undebauched by

the leffons of fuper-

would never have

recourfe to the deeifion

by

lot,

were

they not impreffed with the notion of indifference, that they

had a right
choice
;

to

do any one of two or more things offered to their

rid themfelves

and that of confequence, in order to

it

of
the

uncertainty and doubt,

was

fufficiently allowable to refer

It is

decifion of certain matters to accident.

that this idea

of great importance
will never arrive at

fhould be extirpated.
till

Mind

the true tone of energy,

cretion are

we

feel that

moral liberty and diall

mere

creatures of the imagination, that in

cafes

our duty

is

precife,

and the path of juflice fmgle and dired.

'

But,

'

ON THE PART OF THE COMMUNITY.

But, fuppofing us convinced of this principle, if
defert

CBs

we

afterwards

BOOK vr.
'^\
>.

it,
.^

this

is

the moft contemptible cowardice.

Our

defer-

tion either antes

'r

irom our want of energy

implies the

to enquire, to

com-

defertion of

pare and to decide, or from our want of fortitude to defpife the

"

mconveniences that might attend upon our compliance with

what

oiu:

judgment didates.

Ballot
tion.

Is

mode of

declfion

ftill

more

cenfurable than forti

Decifion
ballot
:

by

T r r It is icarcely pofiible to con'ceive or

mi

political inuitution

that includes a

more
" that

diredl
ballot

and

explicit patronage

of

vice.

It

has been
enable a

faid,

may

in certain cafes be neceflary to

man of a

feeble character to a6t

with

eafe

and Indepen-

dence, and to prevent bribery, corrupt influence and fadtion."

Vice
feeble
is

Is

an

ill

remedy

to apply to the diminution of vice.

'
_

inculcates

timidity i
;

and

Irrefolute

charader might before be accidental

it

ballot

a contrivance to render

permanent, and to
true cure for a
firmnefs,

fcatter its feeds

over a wider furface.

The

want of conftancy

and

public
if

fpirit is to infpire

not to infpire timidity.

perfpicuity.
it

Truth,

communicated

to the

mind with

Is

a fufE-

clent bafis for virtue.

To

tell

men

that
Is

is

neceflary they

fhould form their decilion by ballot,

neceflTary

to

tell

them

that

It

Is

they Ihould be vicious.

If fortitlon taught us to defert our duty, ballot teaches us to and

iiypo-

draw a

veil

of concealment over our performance of

It.

It points

out to us a method of ading unobferved.

It incites

us to

make

a myfl:ery

686

OF THE MODES OF DECIDING A QUESTION,

&c.

BOOK
CHAP.

VI. X.
'
'^

myflery of our icntiments.

If

it

did this in the moft trivial

,

article, it

would not be eafyto bring the mifchief

limits

it

would pro-

duce within the

of calculation.

But
It calls

it

dilates this conto difcharge

;

du3: in our moft important concerns.

upon us

our duty to the public with the moft virtuous conftancy

the fame time directs us to hide our difcharge of
it.

but

at

One

of the

moft admirable principles in the ftrudure of the material univerfe,

is its

tendency to prevent us from withdrawing ourfelves

Political inftitution

from the confequences of our own .actions.

that iliould attempt to counteradl this principle,

would be the

only true impiety.

How
to

can a

man have

the love of the public

?

in his heart, without the didates of that love flowing to his lips

When we
with

diret

men
they

ad

with fecrecy,

we

dired them to

ad

frigidity.
till

Virtue will
fhall

always be an
to

unufual fpedacle
all

among men,
to

have learned

be at

times ready-

avow

their

adions and affign the reafons upon which ther

ar.e

founded.

Declfion

by
it

If then fortition and ballot be inftltutlons pregnant with vice,

. .

vote, its re-

commendations.

foUows, that
;

all

focial

dccifions

fhould be

made by open

vote

that,

wherever ^we have a fundion

to difcharge,

we

fhould refled on the

mode

in

which

it

ought

to be difcharged j

and

that,

whatever condud

we

areperfuaded to adopt, efpecially

in affairs of general concern, fhould be adopted in the face of

the world.

AN

ENQUIRY
CONCERNING

POLITICAL JUSTICE.
BOOK
CHAP,
VII.

OF CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS,

r,

LIMITATIONS OF THE DOCTRINE OF PUNISHMENT

WHICH RESULT FROM THE

OF MORALITY.
DEFINITION OF PUNISHMENT.

PRINCIPLES

NATURE

OF CRIME.

RE-

TRIBUTIVE JUSTICE NOT INDEPENDENT AND ABSOLUTE NOT TO BE VINDICATED FROM THE SYSTEM OF NATURE.
SION.

DESERT

A CHIMERICAL PROPERTY.

CONCLUBOOK Vii.
*

THE
tal

fubjed of puniihment

is

perhaps the mofl fundamen-

in the fclence of politics.

benefit.
It

Men

aflbciated for the fake

^~~'

of mutual protedion and

I

has already appeared, that

the

688

LIMITATIONS OF THE
the internal affairs of fuch aflbciations are of infinitely greater
^
'

BOOK VII.
CHAP.
\
^

I.

importance than their external

adlion

*.

It

has appeared that the

of fociety in conferring rewards and fuperintending

is

opinion

of pernicious

efFet

j-.

Hence
its

it

follows that govern-

ment, or the adion of the fociety in

fcarcely be of

corporate capacity, can

it is

any

utility,

except fo far as
;

requifite for the

fuppreflion of force

by

force

for the prevention of the hoftile

attack of one

member of the

fociety
is

upon

the perfon or property

of another, which prevention

criminal juftice, or punilhment.

ufually called

by the name of

Definition of

Before

we

can properly judge of the neceflity or urgency of

this action ot

government,

it

wul be

oi

lome importance

to conI

fider the precife import of the word punifhment.

may
com-

employ

force to counterad: the hoftility that

I

is

adlually

mitting on me.

may employ

force to

compel any member of

the fociety to occupy the poft that I conceive moll conducive to

he
and

general advantage, either in the

failors,

mode

of impreffing foldiers

or

by obliging a

military officer or a miaifter of ftate

I

to accept or retain his appointment.

may

put an innocent
is

man

to death for the

common

good, either becaufe he

infedled

with a
it

peftilential difeafe,

or becaufe fome oracle has declared

eflential

to the public fafety.

None of

thefe,

though they

confift in the exertion of force for

fome moral purpofe, comes

Punifhment
is

within the Import of the word punifhment.

* Book V, Chap. XX.
t Book V, Chap.

XIL Book VI, /#/.

generally

DOCTRINE OF PUNISHMENT.
generally ufed to figniiy the voluntaiy inflidion of evil
vicious being, not merely becaufe the public advantage
it,

6S9

upon

book
t

vir.
^''

demands
and

'^

^'

but becaufe there

is

apprehended to be a certain

fitnefs

propriety in the nature of things, that render fufFering, abftrad-

edly from the benefit to

refult,

the fuitable concomitant of vice.

The

juftice

of punifliment therefore, in the ilrid import of

Nature of

the word, can only be a deduction from the hypothefis of freewill,

and muft be

falfe,

if

human adions when we

be neceflary.

Mind,
Is
'

as

was

fufficiently apparent

treated of that fubjed *,

is

an agent, in no other

fenfe than matter

an agent.

It

operates
line

and

is

operated upon,
firft, is

and the nature, the force and

of

diredion of the

exadly

in proportion to the nature, force

and

line of

diredion of the fecond.

is

Morality in a rational and

defigning

mind

not effentially different from morality in an

inanimate fubftance.
fitted to

man

of certain intelledual habits

is

be an

affaflin,

a dagger of a certain

form

is fitted

to be

his inftrument.

The one

or the other excites a greater degree

as
its

of difapprobation, in proportion
purpofes appears to

fitnefs

for

mifchievous
I

be more inherent and dired.

view a

dagger on this account with more difapprobation than a knife,

which

is

perhaps equally adapted for the purpofes of the

aflliffin

becaufe the dagger has few or no beneficial ufes to weigh againft

thofe that are hurtful,

and becaufe

it

has a tendency

by means

Book IV, Chap. VI.

4T

of

690

LIMITATIONS OF THE
of aflbciation to the exciting of
evil

BOOK VII. pTT APT

'/

thoughts.

view the
,

aflaiTm
.

with more
to

difapprobation than, the dagger, becaufe he

it

is

more

be feared, and

is

more

difficult

to

change his vicious

ftrufture or take from him

his capacity to injure.

The man

is

propelled to at

by

neceffary

caufes

and

irrefiftible

motives,

which, having once

occurred, are likely to occur again.

The

dagger has no quality adapted to the contradion of habits, and,

though

it

have committed a thoufand murders,

is

not

at all

more

likely (unlefs fo far as thofe murders, being

known, may
comthe
the

operate as a flight affociated motive with the poffeffor) to

mit murder

again.

Except

in the articles here

fpecified,

two

cafes are

exadly

parallel.

The

aflaflin

cannot help
-

murder he commits any more than the dagger..

Retributive

Thcfc arguments are merely calculated

fpicuous light a principle, which
is

to fet in a

more per-

independent

admitted by

many by whom
;

the doftrine of neceflity has never been examined

that the

only meafure of equity

is utility, is

and

vt^hatever

is
is

not attended
fo evident a
will

with any beneficial purpofe,

propofition that

not

juft.

This

few reafonable and

rejedl
it.

reflecting

minds

be

found inclined to
another?

Why
ov^m

do

inflll

fufFering

on

If neither

for his
?

benefit

nor the benefit of

others, can that be right

Will refentment, the mere indigna-

tion

and horror

have conceived againft vice, juftify

?

me

in

putting a being to ufelefs torture

" But fuppofe

only put an
either to

end

to his exifl:ence."

What, with no profpedt of benefit

himfelf

DOCTRINE O^ PUNISHMENT.
himfelf or others
?

691

The
is,

reafon the

mind

eafily reconciles Itfelf

lefs

BOOK
v

Vll.
>

to this fuppofition

that

we

CHAP. L
conceive exiftence to be
a
in

bleiTing than a curfe to a being incorrigibly vicious.

But

that cafe the fuppofition does not

fall

within the terms of the

benefit.
It

queftion

am

in

reality conferring a

has been

afked, " If
folitary,

we

conceive to ourfelves two beings, each of them

firft

but the

virtuous and the fecond vicious, the

firft

Inclined to the higheft adls of benevolence. If his fituation

were

changed for the

injuftice,

foclal, the

fecond to malignity, tyranny and

firft
is

do we not

feel that the

entitled to felicity in

preference to the fecond

queftion.
fition.
It Is

?"

If there be

any

difficulty in

the

wholly caufed by the extravagance of the fuppo-

No

being can be either virtuous or vicious

who

has no

opportunity of influencing the happinefs of others.

indeed, though

He may
ftate
;

now

folitary,

recoUeft or Imagine a fecial

it

but

this fentiraent

and the propenfities

generates can fcarcely

at

be vigorous, unlefs he have hopes of being

reftored to that ftate.
as a

fome future time

The

true folitaire cannot be confidered

moral being, unlefs the morality

relation to his

we

contemplate be that
advantage.

which has
that be

own permanent

But,
is

if

our meaning, punifhment, unlefs for reform,

pecu-

liarly abfurd.

His condudl
miferable
:

is

vicious, becaufe

It

has a tendency

to render

him

ihall

we

inflit

calamity upon him,

for this reafon only becaufe

he has already inflided calamity

upon himfelf?
tary

It is diflrcult

for us to imagine to ourfelves a foli-

intelledlual

being,

whom

no future accident

fhall

ever

4T

render

692

LIMITATIONS OF THE
focial.
It
is

EOOKVTI. render
t

difficult

for us to feparate
;

even in idea

'

'j

virtue and vice

from happinefs and mifery

and of confequence

not to imagine that,

when we

beftow a benefit
;

upon

virtue,

we

bellow

it

where

it

will turn to account

and^
it

when we beftow

a benefit

upon

vice,

we beftow

it

where

will be unproduftive.

For thefe reafons the queftion of a folitary being will always

extravagant and unmtelligible, but will never convince.

be

not to be
vindicated from the fyftem of
nature.

It

has fometimes been alledged that the very courfe of nature

has annexed fufFering to vice, and has thus led us to the idea of
puniftiment.
great caution.

Arguments of
It

this fort

muft be

liftened to

with
our

was by reafonings of a

fimilar nature that

:

anceftors juftified the practice

of religious perfecution

" Heretics
;

and unbelievers

are the objeds of

God's indignation

it

muft
has

therefore be meritorious in us to mal-treat thofe

whom God

curfed."

We

know

too

little

of the fyftem of the univerfe, are

too liable to error refpeding

the whole, to
imitation of
entitle us to

it,

and

fee too fmall a portion

of

form our moral principles upon aa

to be the courfe

what we conceive

of nature.

It is

an extreme error to fuppofe that the courfe of nature

arbitrarily adjufted

Is

jbmething

by

a defigning mind.
exift,

Let us once

conceive a fyftem

of percipient beings to

and

all

that

we know of the hiftory of man follows from that conception Mind beginning to exift as fo many inevitable confequences.
muft have begun from ignorance, muft have received idea
2
after

idea.

DOCTRINE OF PUNISHMENT.
idea,

69:

muft have been

liable to

erroneous conclufions from im-

BOOK vir.
*

perfc<a' conceptions.

We

fay that the fyftem of the univerfe has

>

annexed happinefs

to virtue

and pain

to vice.

We
The

fliould fpeak

more

accurately if

we

faid, that virtue

would not be
ceafe.

virtue

nor

vice be vice, if this

principle,

connexion could

office

of the

whether mind or whatever

is

elfe,

to

which the univerfe

owes
is

its

exiftence,

lefs

that of fabricating than condudlino-

not the creation of truth, and the connecting ideas and pro-

pofitions

which had no

original relation to each other, but the

is

rendering truth, the nature of which

unalterable, an

adive

and vivifying

principle.

It

cannot therefore be good i-eafoning

to fay, the fyftem of nature annexes unhappinefs to vice, or in

other words vice brings

fore
it

its

own punifhment
by

along with

it,

there-

would be unjuft

in us not

a pofitive interference to

render that punifliment double.

Thus

it

appears, whether

we

enter phllofophically into the

Defert a chi-

principle of

human

adlions, or mei-ely analyfe the ideas of redi-

^'
perty,^,

tude and juftice which have the univerfal confent of mankind,

that, accurately fpeaking, there is

no fuch thing

as

defert.

It

cannot be juft that

fo far as
it

we fhould

inflid: fuffering

on any man, except

ftrid:

tends to good.

Hence

it

follows that the

acceptation of the

word punifhment by no means

of reafoning.
it

accords with
I

any found

principles
in,

It

is

right that

fhould

inflid fuffering,

every cafe where

can be clearly fhown that.

fuch

694

LIMITATIONS OF THE
fuch Inflllion will produce an overbalance of good.
*

BOOK VIT. CHAP I

'

But
guilt

this in-

fliftion bears

no reference

to the

mere innocence or

of the

perfon upon
fubjedl of
it,

whom
if
it

it is

made.

An

innocent

man

is

the proper

tend to good.

A guilty man
To

is

the proper fubjedl

of

it

under no other point of view.

is

punifli

him upon any

hypothefis for what

paft

and irrecoverable and for the con-

fideration of that only,

muft be ranked among the wildeft con-

ceptions of untutored barbarifm.

.cipline is

Every man upon

whom

dif-

adminiftered,

is

to be confidered as to the rationale

of

ihis difcipline as

innocent.

Xerxes was not more unreafonable

fea,

when he

lafhed the

waves of the

than that

man would

be

who

inflidted fufFering

on

his fellow,

from a view

to the paft,

and not from a view

to the future.

Condufion.

jj is

of the utmoft importance that

we

fhould bear thefe ideas

the theory

conftantly in

mind during our whole examination of

of punifhment.

This theory would in the paft tranfadions of

totally diiTerent,
if

mankind have been

felves of
all

they had divefted them;

emotions of anger and refentment

if

they had con-

fidered the

man who

torments another for what he has done, as

upon par with

the child

who beats

the table

if they

had figured

to their imagination,

and then properly eftimated, the man,

who

fhould fhut up in prifon fome atrocious criminal, and afterwards

torture

him

at

ftated

periods, merely in

confideration of the
pofli-

iibftrad congruity of crime

and punifhment, without any

ble

DOCTRINE OF PUNISHMENT.
hie

6gs

benefit
as

to

others

or

to-himfelf;

if

they had regarded

folely

BOOK
*-

vil.
I

CHAP.
Inflidlion

that

which was to be regulated

by

a difpafit-

fionate calculation of the future, without fulfering the paft, in

felf confidered, for a

moment

to enter into the account.

P.

696

H A

p.

ir.

GENERAL DISADVANTAGES OF COERCION.

CONSCIENCE IN MATTERS OF RELIGION CONSIDERED

IN
BUT

THE CONDUCT OF
OF DUTY
OF OUR
CION.

LIFE.

BEST PRACTICABLE CRITERION

OF

NOT THE DECISION

OTHER MEN

OWN UNDERSTANDING.

TENDENCY OF COER-

ITS VARIOUS CLASSES CONSIDERED.

ideas of

"

AVING

thus precluded

all
it

punlfhment or

retri-

bution ftriaiy fo called,

difculTion

belongs to us in the farther

of this interefting fubjedl, to think merely of that

coercion,

which has ufually been employed

againft perfons con-

vidted of pall injurious aSion, for the purpofe of preventing future mifchief.

And

here

we

will firft confider

all

what

is

the

quantity of evil

which accrues from

fuch coercion, and

fecondly examine the cogency of the various reafons

this coercion is

by which

recommended.

It will

not be poffible wholly to

in the

avoid the repetition

of fome of the reafons which occurred

preliminary difcuflion of the exercife of private judgment*.

But thofe reafonings

advantage from a

will

now

be extended, and derive additional

fuller

arrangement.

* Book

II,

Chap. VI.
It

GENERAL
It
is

DUS AD VANTAGES OF COERCION.

fliid

697

commonly
r
,

that
r,

no man ought
,

to
,.

be compelled in
n
.

BOOK

V[I.
II.
<

matters 01 religion to act contrary to the diCLates of his confcience.

T,

CHAP.
ages

Religion

,.

is

a principle

which the

pradlice of

all

Confcieucein matters of religion confideied

:

has deeply imprefled upon the mind.

his

He

that difcharges

what

own

apprehenfions prefcribe to

him on

the fubjedt, ftands

approved to the tribunal of his

own mind,

and, confcious of

redtitude in his intercourfe with the author of nature,

fail

cannot

to obtain the greateft of thofe advantages,

whatever
It is

may

be

their

amount, w-hich religion has to beftow.

in vain that

I endeavour

by perfecuting
a true.

ftatutes to

compel him to refign a

perfe-

falfe religion for

Arguments may convince, but

religion,

cution cannot.

The new

which

oblige

him
it

to profefs

contrary to his convidlion, however pure and holy

its

may

be in

own

nature, has

no

benefits in ftore for

him.

The

fublimefl

worfhip becomes transformed into a fource of corruption,

it is

when
Truth
firft:
itfelf,
*

not confecrated by the teftimony of a pure confcience.

is

is

the fecond objel in this refped, integrity of heart

its

the

or rather a propofition, that in

abftrad nature

is
it

truth

converts into rank falfhood and mortal poifon, if

be profefTed
It is

with the

lips

only, and abjured

by the underftanding.
Inftead of elevating
tlie

then the foul garb of hypocrify.

mind

above fordid temptations,

it

perpetually reminds the worfhipperInftead of

of the abjedl pufillanimity to which he has yielded.

filling

him with

facred confidence,

it

overwhelms with confufion

andremorfe.

The

69S

GENERAL DISADVANTAGES
The inference that has
criminal law
that
its
is

been made from thefe reafonings

affairs

is,

that^

eminently mifapplied in
is civil

of religion, and
this inference

true province
It is

mifdemeanours.

But

is falfe.

only by an unaccountable perverfion of reafon,

is

that

men

have been induced to affirm that religion

the facred

province of confcience, and that moral duty

to the decifion of the magiftrate.

may be

left

undefined

What,

is it

of no confequence
their bittereft;
?

whether

be the benefador of
I

my

fpecies, or

enemy

whether
I

be an inform.er, or a robber, or a murderer

whether

be employed as a foldier to extirpate

my fellow beings,
property to their

or be called
extirpation
?

upon

as a citizen to contribute
I
tell

my

whether

the truth with that firmnefs and

fail

unreferve which ardent philanthropy will not

fupprefs fcience
left I

to infpire, or
left I

be convicted of blafphemy, and fad

?

be

convided of a

libel

whether

contribute

my

efforts for

the

furtherance of political juftice, or quietly fubmit to the exile of

a family of whofe claims

am

an advocate, or

to the fubverfion
?

of liberty for which every can be more

clear,

man

fhould be ready to die

Nothing

than that the value of religion, or of any

lies

other fpecies of abftrad opinion,

I fhould

in

its

moral tendency.

If

be ready to

fet at

nought the

civil

power

for the fake

it

of that

which

is

the means,
?

how much more when

rifes

in

contradiction to the end

Beft praai-

Of

all

human

concerns morality

is

the moft interefting.

:

It is

tenon of duty;

the pei^petual affociate of our tranfadions 2

there

is

no

fituation

in

OF COERCION.
In

699

which we can he placed, no

alternative that can be prefented

is

BOOK
1.

vii.
"

to our choice, refpeding

which duty
duty
?

filent.

"

What

is

the

!.

ftandard

of morality and

" Juftice.

Not the
;

arbitrary

decrees that are in force in a particular climate

but thofe laws

of eternal reafon that are equally obligatory wherever

be found.

man

is

to

" But the rules of juftice often appear to us obfcure,

;

doubtful and contradidlory

deliver

what

criterion fhall be applied to

criterions
"05 the deof
=

us

from

uncertainty ?"

There are but two

cillons

poflible, the decifions of other

men's wifdom, and the decifions

of thefe
is

'^'' n^^"

of our

own

underftanding.
?

Which

conformable to
?

the nature

of man

Can we furrender our own underftandings

However we may

ftrain after implicit faith, will not confcience

is

in fpite of ourfelves whifper us, " This decree

this decree
is

equitable,

and

founded in miftake

?"

Will there not be in the

minds of the

votaries of fuperftition, a perpetual diffatisfadion,,

a defire to believe a
If

what

is

didated to them, accompanied with

want of that

in

which

belief confifts, evidence

and convidion
fort

we

could furrender our underftandings, what

of beings

ihould

we become
:

By

the terms of the propofition

we

fliould

not be rational

the nature of things

is

would prevent us from

reafon,

being moral, for morality

the

judgment of

employed

in determining on the effeds to refult from the different kinds

of

condud we may

obferve.

Hence

it

follows that there

is

no

criterion of

duty to any

man

^"f of onts-

own

undei'.

but in the exercife of his private judgment.

Whatever attempts
to

ft^nding.

4U

700

GENERAL DISADVANTAGES
him from any courfe of
,
,

LOOK'VII, to prefcribe to his condudl, and to deter

CHAP. n.
*_v
>

aiSion

by

penalties

and

threats, is

an execrable tyranny.
fet

_,

There
ordi-

may

be fome

men

of fuch inflexible virtue as to

It is

human

nances

at defiance.

generally believed that there are others

it

fo depraved, that, vrere

not for penalties and threats, the

whole order of
But what
will

fociety v/ould be fubverted

by

their excefles.

become of the
firft,

great mafs of

mankind,
as the

who

are
?

neither fo virtuous as the

nor fo degenerate

fecond

They
vians
is

are fuccefsfully converted

by

pofitive laws into latitudina-

and cowards.

They

yield like

wax

to the

imprefhon that
of duty
refift,

made upon them.

Diredled to infer the .precepts

from the
and too
the

didla of the magiftrate,

they are too timid to

It is

fliort

fighted to detect the impofition.

thus that
a tedious

mafs

of mankind

have

been

condemned

to

imbecility.

Tendency of
eoercion.

There

IS

no

criterion of

duty to any

man

but in the exercife

of his private judgment.

lighten the

Has

coercion any tendency to en-

judgment

Certainly not.

Judgment

is

the per-

ceived agreement or .difagreemeiit of

'

two

ideas, the

perceived

'truth or falfhood

of any propofition.

Nothing can

aid this per-

ception, that does not fet the ideas in a clearer light, that does

not aiford

new

evidence of the fubfhantialnefs or unfubftaatial-

nefs of the propofition.

ftt
3X.

The

dived:
fears,

tendency of coercion

is

to

our underftanding and our

variance with each other.

our duty and our weaknefs

fpirited

And how poor

a refuge

does

OF COERCION.
does coercion afford
there
?

701
is

If

what you require of me

prove
I,
it

duty, are

BOOK
v

Vll.
;

no reafons

that will

to be fuch

If

you underftaud
inftrud

more of

eternal juftice than

and are thereby

fitted to

me, cannot you convey the fuperior knowledge you

your underftanding into mine
one
vv'ho is intelledually a
I,
?

pollers

from

Will you

fet

your wit againft

better

child,

and becaufe you are

informed than
tyrant
?

aflume,

not to be
?

my
The

preceptor,
I

but

my
of

Am
if
firft

not a rational being

Could
?

refift

your argufyftem

ments,

they were demonrtrative

odious

coercion,

annihilates the underftanding of the fubjedt,

that adopts
is
it.

and

then of

him

Drelfed in the fupine prerogatives

of a mafter, he

excufed from cultivating the faculties of a

this, if

man.

Vv''hat

would not man have been, long before

the

proudeft of us had no hopes but in argument, if he

refort

knew of no
facultle?,

beyond, and

if

he were obliged to fliarpen his

as the

and colled
pofes
?

his powers,

only means of efiecling his pur-

Let us refled for a moment upon the

fpecies of argument, if
It

argument
its

it is

to be called, that coercion employs.

avers to
I

vidlm

that

he muft

necefllu-ily

be in the wrong, becaufe

am more
implies in

vigorous and more cunning than he.

fide

Will vigour and

cunning be always on the

its

of truth

Every fuch exertion

This contefl

nature a fpecies of conteft.

it is

may

be

decided before

brought
it is

to

open

trial

by the defpair of one

thief that

of the

parties.

But

not always

fo.

The

by m-ain
force

702

GENERAL DISADVANTAGES
force furmounts the flrength of his purfuers, or

BOOK VII.

by ftratagem antt
argument
refrain
is

v-U

CHAP.

II.

ingenuity efcapes from their

toils,

fo far as this

vahd, proves the juflice of his caufe.

indignation

"Who can

from
?

when he
feel,

fees

juftice thus

miferably proftituted
the

Who

does not

the

moment

the conteft begins,

?

full

extent of the abfurdity that this appeal includes

to decide

It is

not eafy

which of the two

is

moft deeply

to be deplored, the

magiftracy, the reprefentative of the fecial fyftem, that declares

war

againft one of

its

members, in the behalf of

In the
firft

juftice, or in

the behalf of oppreffion.

afide her native

we

fee truth

throwing

arms and her

level

intrinfic advantage,

and putting

herfelf

upon

with falfhood.

In the iecond

we

fee

falfhood confident in the cafual advantage fhe poflefTes, aitfully

extlnguifhing the

new born

light that w^ould

fhame her in the

is

midft of her ufurped authority.

The

exhibition in both

that

of an infant cruihed in the mercilefs grafp of a giant.

fophiftry can be

No

more palpable than that which pretends

an impartial hearing..

to bring

the

two

parties to

Obferve the confiftency-

of this reafoning.

We

firft

vindicate political coercion, becaufe

the criminal has committed an oiFence againft the

at large, and. then pretend,, while

community
of

we

bring

him

to the bar

the community, the offended party, that

impartial umpire.
is

we

bring

him

before an

Thus

in England, the king

by

his attorney

the profecutor, and the king by

his reprefentative is the

judge*
I

How
The

long

fhall

fuch odious inconfiftencies impofe on mankind

againft the

purfuit

commenced

fuppofed offender

is

the

OF COERCION.
pojffe

P3
CHAP
t

comitatns^

the armed force of

tlie

whole, drawn out in fuch BOOKVir.

portions as

may

be judged neceflary

and when feven millions

'

II
,

of

men have

got one poor, vmaffifted individual in their power,

at leifure to torture

they are then

or to

kill

him, and to make

his agonies a fpedacle to glut their ferocity.

The argument

agalnft political coercion

is

equally good againft If

various

clafles

coa

the inflidion of private penalties between matter and flave, and

iideied.

between parent and

child.

There was

in reality, not only

more
trial

of gallantry, but more of reafon in the Gothic fyftem of

by

duel, than in thefe.

The

trial

oi force

is

over in thefe, as
is

we have

already faid,
is

before the exertion of force

begun.

All that remains

to inflid
it

the leifurely inflidion of torture,

my

power
This

being placed in

my

joints

and
an
lies

my

fmews.

whole argument may be fubjeded

to

irrefiftible

dilemma.

The

right of the parent over his child

either in his fuperior

ftrength or his fuperior reafon.

If in his flrength,
all

we have
him
I

only

to apply this right univerfally, in order to drive

morality out
confide.

of the world.
It is a

If in his reafon, in that reafon let

poor argument of
juftice

my

fuperior reafon, that

felt in

am

unable

to

make

be apprehended and

the moft ncceflarr

cafes,

without the intervention of blows.

Let us confider the efFed that coercion produces upon

tTic

mind of him

againft
;

whom

it

is

employed.
It

It

cannot begin

with convincing

it is

no argument.

begins with producing

the

704

GENERAL DISADVANTAGES OF COERCION.

VII.
J

BOOK
<

the fenfatlon of pain, and the fentiment of diflafte.

It

begins

with violently alienating the mind from the truth with which

we

wifh

it

to be impreffed.

It

includes in

it

a tacit confeffion

of imbecility.

If

he

who employs

coercion againft

me

could

mould me

to his purpofes

by argument, no doubt he would.

is

He
he

pretends to punifh
really punifhes

me

becaufe his argument

is

important, but.

me

becaufe his argument

weak.

CHAP.

705

CHAP.
OF

III.

THE PURPOSES OF COERCION.

NATURE OF DEFENCE CONSIDERED.

STRAINT
ADVERSITY
FOR REFORMATION.

COERCION FOR SUPPOSED USES

RE-

OF

DEFECTIVE UNNECESSARY.
I.

COERCION

FOR EXAMPLE

NUGATORY.

THE NECESSITY OF
UNJUST.

POLITICAL COERCION ARISES FROM THE DEFECTS OF

POLITICAL INSTITUTION.

2.

UNFEELING

CHARACTER OF THIS

SPECIES OF COERCION.

ROCEED we to
propofes
to

confider three principal ends that coercion

reftralnt,

book vil
>^

itfelf,

reformation

and example.
affirmative fide

,'

Under each of

thefe heads the arguments

on the

muft be allowed

to be cogent, not irrefiftible.

Under each of

them

confiderations will occur, that will oblige us to doubt uni-

verfally of the
fhall take
it

propriety of coercion.
that

In this examination I

for granted

the perfons with

whom

am
may
by

reafoning allow, that the ends of reflraint and example

be

fufficiently
is,

anfwered in confiftency with the end of reformawithout the punifliment of death.

not allowea in the
firfl

tion, that

To

thofe

whom

this

is

inllauce, the fubfequent

t^afonings will only apply with additional force.

ll,e

OF
The
firft

THE PURPOSES
all

and moft innocent of

is

the clafles of coercion

is

that vvrhich
little

employed
any

in repelling adlual force.

This has but

but
1

to

do

v^ith

fpecies of political
firft

inftitution,

may

neverthelefs

deferve to be

confidered.

In this cafe
is

am

employed (fuppofe,

for example,

drawn fword

pointed at

my own
to enfue.

breaft

or

that

of another, with

threats

of inftant

deftrution) in preventing a mifchief that feems about inevitably

In this cafe there appears to be no time for experiyet even here meditation will not leave us without

ments.

And

our

difficulties.

The powers of
truth

reafon

and truth are yet

unfathomed.
in
lefs

That

which one man cannot communicate

than a year, another can communicate in a fortnight.

The
It.

fhorteft

term

may have
faid

an underftanding commenfurate to

When

Marius

with a ftern look and a commanding

countenance to the foldier that was fent

to
alTaffinate
!"

down

into his

dungeon
kill
j

him, " Wretch, have you the temerity to

to
flight

Marius

and with thefe few words drove him

It

was, that he had fo energetic an idea comprefTed in his mind,

as to

make

its

way with

irrefiftible

force to the

mind of

his

executioner.
this idea, can

If there

were falfhood and prejudice mixed with

is

we

believe that truth

for the
all

not more powerful than

fpecies, if

they
all

It

would be well

human

they were

in this refped like Marius,

accuftomed to place an Intrepid

confidence in the fingle energy of intelled.

Who

fhall

fay
?

what there

is

that

would be Impoffible
far the

to

men

with thefe habits

Who

fhall fay

how
6

whole

fpecies

might be improved,

were

OF COERCION.
were they accuftomed to defpife force in others, and did they
refufe to

..^^

BOOKVir
^

employ

it

for themfelves

.'

But the coercion

different.
is

we

are

here

confiderine
.

is

exceedinelv

Coercion for
rcftraint

It is

employed
at prefent
its

againft an individual

whofe violence

over.

He

is

engaged in no

hoftility againft the

is

community or any of
thofe occupations
to none.

members.

He
man

quietly purfuing

which are

beneficial to himfelf,
is

and injurious

Upon what
?

pretence
?

this

to be the fubjedl of
?

violence

For

reftraint
it is

Reftraint

from what

" From fome

This
is

future injury

which

to be feared he will

commit."

the very argument which has been employed to juftify the moft execrable of
fition, the
all

tyrannies.

By what

reafonings have the inqui-

employment of fpies and the various kinds of public

?

cenfure diredted againft opinion been vindicated

is

Becaufe there

an intimate connexion between men's opinions and their con:

dudl

becaufe immoral fentiments lead by a very probable con-

fequence to immoral actions.

There

is

not more reafon, in

many

cafes at leaft, to

apprehend that the

man who

has once

committed robbery
diflipates his

will

commit

it

again, than the

man who
accuftomed

property

at the

gaming-table, or

who

Is

to profefs that

upon any emergency he

will not fcruple to

have

recourfe to this expedient.

that,

Nothing can be more obvious than

whatever precautions

may

be allowable

vv^ith

refped

to

the future, juftice will reludantly clafs

among

thefe precautions

4X2

any

--o8

OF
VII.
III.
J

THE PURPOSES
my
n

BOOK
CHAP.
>-

any violence
.

to be
,

committed on
,

neighbour.
tTr,

Nor
not

are they

oftener unjuft than they are luperhuous.

Why

r ^r arm myleli

with vigilance and energy, inftead of locking up every

man

whom my

imagination

may

bid
?

me

fear, that I

may

fpend

my
to

days in undifturbed inactivity

If communities, inftead of afpiring,

vaft territory,

as they have hitherto done, to embrace a

and

glut their vanity with ideas of empire,

were contented with

fmall

diftrit

with a provifo

of confederation in cafes of
live

neceffity,

every individual would then

under the public eye,

and the difapprobation of his neighbours, a fpecies of coercion,

not derived from the caprice of men, but from the fyftem of
the univerfe, emigrate.

would

inevitably oblige

him

either to

reform or to
is,

The fum of

the argument under this head

is

that all

coercion for the fake of reftraint

punifhment upon fufpicion,

a fpecies of punifhment, the moft abhorrent to reafon, and arbitrary in

its

application, that can be devifed.

for leforma-

The
pofe to

fccoud objcd which coercion

itfelf is

may

be imagined to pro-

UOR.

reformation.

We

have already feen various

it

objedions that

may

be offered to

in this point

of view.

Coercion cannot convince, cannot conciliate, but on the contrary

alienates the

mind of him

againft

whom

it is

employed.

Coer-

cion has nothing in

common

with reafon,

and therefore can

virtue.

have no proper tendency to the generation of

is

Reafon
ftate-

omnipotent

if

my condua

be wrong, a very fimple

ment, flowing from a clear and comprehenfive view, will make

OF COERCION.
it

709
that can

appear to be fuch

nor

is

there
is

any perverfenefs

BOOKVir.
^

refift

the evidence of which truth

capable.

But

to this

it

maybe

anfwered, "that this view of the fubjed

it

Suppofcd
iifes

of ad=

may

indeed be abftradledly true, but that

is

not true relative

^^'"y

to the prefent
requifite
fpecies,

imperfedion of

human

faculties.

The grand

for the reformation

and improvement of the human

It is

feems to confift in the roufmg of the mind.

for

this reafon that the fchool

of adverfity has fo often been conIn an even courfe of eafy and

But,

fidered as the fchool of virtue.

profperous circumftances the faculties fleep.

when

great

and urgent occafion

rifes to

is

prefented,

it

fhould feem that the

Difficulties

mind

the level of the occafion.

;

awaken vigour
happen
that the
faculties

and engender ftrength

and

it

will frequently

more you check and

fwell,
till

opprefs me, the

more

will

my

they burft

all

the obftacles of oppreffion."

The

opinion of the excellence of adverfity

If

is

built

upon a

very obvious miftake.

we

will diveft ourfelves

is

of paradox
a bad thing,

and Angularity,
but that there
exift
is

we

ihall

perceive that adverfity

elfe that is

fomething

worfe.

Mind

can neither
It will

nor be improved without the reception of

ftate.

ideas.

improve more in a calamitous, than a torpid

fometimes be found wifer
at the

A man
who
feverity
it is

will

end of his

career,

has been
is

treated with feverity, than with negle<5l.

But becaufe

one

way

of generating thought,

it

does not follow that

the beft.
It

OF
It

THE PURPOSES
fhown
that coercion abfolutely confidered
is

has already been

injuftlce.
defeclive
:

Can

injuftice

be the beft
?

mode

of difleminating princi-

ples of equity
is

and reafon
all

Oppreffion exercifed to a certain extent

things.

the moll ruinous of

What

is it

but this, that has habi-

tuated

mankind
?

to

fo

much
that

ignorance and vice for fo

in
its

many

thoufand years
ftate is

Can

which

genuine and unlimited

the worft,
all

become by a
?

certain modification

and diluting

the beft of
fufFers
it,

things

All coercion fours the mind.

He

that

is

pradlically perfuaded of the

want of
he
is

a philanthropy

fufficlently enlarged in thofe

with

whom

moft intimately

connected.
tions,

He

feels that juftice prevails

only with great limitajuftice.

and that he cannot depend upon being treated with

The

leflbn

which coercion reads

reafon.

to

him

is,

" Submit

to force,

and abjure

Be not

dlredted

by the convictions of your

underftandlng, but

by

the bafeft part of your nature, the dread

injuftice

of prefent pain, and the pufillanimous terror of the

others."
Pruffia
It

of

was thus Elizabeth of England and Frederic of

adverfity.

were educated in the fchool of

profited

The way

in

which they
in their

by

this difcipllne

was by finding refources

own

minds, enabling them to regard

againft them.

unmoved
this

the

violence that
poffible

was employed

Can
If
it

be the beft
it is

mode of forming men

to virtue

be, perhaps

farther requlfite that the coercion unjuft,

we

ufe fhould be flagrantly

lie

fmce the improvement feems to

not in fubmiffion,

but refiftance.

But

OF COERCION.
But
it

711

is

certain that truth

is

adequate to awaken the mind

confift in a certain
.

BOOKVir. CHAP. Ill

v
<'

without the aid of adverfity.

Truth does not

,

unncceflary.

number of unconneded
their reaUty

propolitions, but in evidence that

If I
it?

fhows

and

their vahie.

apprehend the value of any

it

purfuit, fhall I not

engage in
?

If I apprehend

clearly,

fliall

not engage in

it

zealoufly

If you

would awaken

my

mind

in the

moft

effectual

manner,

tell

me

the truth with energy.

it

For that

purpofe, thoroughly underftand

yourfelf, impregnate

your mind

with

its

evidence, and fpeak from the clearnefs of your view, and

the fulnefs of convidtion.

in

Were we accuftomed

to

an education,
told in a

which truth was never negledled from indolence, or

treacherous to
its

way

excellence, in

which the preceptor fubjeted

himfelf to the perpetual difcipline of finding the

nicate
it

way

to

commu-

with brevity and force, but without prejudice and acricannot be doubted, but fuch an education would be
effedual for the improvement of the mind, than all

mony,

it

much more

the modes of angry or benevolent coercion that can be devifed.

The

laft

objed which coercion propofes

is

example.

Had

le-

Coercion for

giflators confined their

views to reformation and

reftraint, their

exertions of power, though miftaken,

would

ftill

have borne the

prefented
itfelf

ftamp of humanity.
as a ftimulus

But, the
fide,

moment vengeance

on the one
other,

or the exhibition of a terrible exgreat.

ample on the

no barbarity was then thought too

Ingenious cruelty was bufied to find

new means of

torturing the

victim, or of rendering the fpedacle impreffive and horrible.

It


OF
It
III.

712

THE PURPOSES OF
purpofe.

BOOK VII.
CHAP.
V

has long fince been obferved that this fyftem of policy conits

flantly fails of

Farther refinements in barbarity pro-

1.

nugatory,

duce

a certain impreffion fo long as they are

new, but

this

im-

preffion foon vaniihes,

is

and the whole fcope of a gloomy invention

exhaufted in vain

*.

The

reafon of this

phenomenon

is

that,

whatever

may

be the force with which novelty

ftrikes the

ima-

gination, the unchangeable principles of reafon fpeedily recur,

and
to

aflert their

indeftrudible empire.

We feel
or

the emergencies
feel,

which we

are expofed,

and we

feel,

we think we
Whatever

the

dictates of truth direding to their relief.

ideas

we
fin-

form

in oppofition to the mandates of law,

we

draw, with

cerity,

though

it

may

be with fome mixture of miftake, from the

unalterable conditions of our exiftence.

We compare
its

them with

the defpotifm which fociety exercifes in the

corporate capacity, and

more frequent is our comparifon, the

indignation againft the injuftice to
is

greater are our

murmurs

and

which we are expofed. But

indignation

not afentiment that conciliates; barbarity poflefles

none of the

attributes

of perfuafion.

It

may

terrify;

but

it

can-

not produce in us candour and

injuftice,

docility.

Thus
all
it

ulcerated with

our

diftrefles,

our temptations, and

the eloquence of

feeling prefent themfelves again and again. Is

any wonder they

ihould prove vitorious?

The

neceffity

With what tepugnancc

c

fhall

we

contemplate the prefent forms

efpoliticalco-

ercion arifes from the defefts of polltical inftitu-

human

fociety, if '
"^

we

recoiled that the evils which they thus

t dellt

* Becceria, Dei Delitti

Pene,

mercilefsly

OF COERCION.
mercllefsly avenge,

713

owe

their exiftence to the vices of thofe very

BOOK vir.
'
>

forms?

It is

a well

known

principle of fpeculative truth, that true

to us

felf love

and
*.

fecial prefcribe

exadlly the fame fpecies of

in fpeculation

condudl

Why is

this

acknowledged
?

and perpe-

tually contradided in practice

Is

there
to his

any innate perverfenefs

in
is

man

that continually hurries

;

him

own
till

deftrudtion

This

impoffible

for

man

is

thought, and,
to

thought began, he

had no propenfities either

good or

evil.

My propenfities
made upon me,

are

the fruit of the imprefSons that have been

the

good always preponderating, becaufe the inherent nature of

things Is

more powerful than any human

men,
is

inftitutions.

The

ori-

ginal fin of the worft

tions, the oppofitlon

in the perverfenefs of thefe inftitu-

they produce between public and private

good, the monopoly they create of advantages which reafon

diredls to be left in

common.

What

then can be more fhamelefs

than for fociety to make an example of thofe v^hom fhe has

goaded

to the breach of order, inftead of

amending her own

inftitutions,

which, by ftraining order into tyranny, produced the

can
tell

mifchief

Who

how
of

rapid
civil

would be our progrefs

delinquency,
if

to-

wards the
enter

total annihilation

we
?

did but

upon

the bufmefs of reform in the right

manner

Coercion for example,

is

liable

to

all

the fame objedlons as

2. unjuft.

coercion for reftraint or reformation, and to certain other ob-

jedions peculiar to

itfelf.

It

is

employed

againft a perfon not

Book IV, Chap. IX.

now

714
CHAiMII.
^ V
'

OF THE PURPOSES OF COERCION.

in the commlffion of ofience, '

BOOK VII. now

and of

whom we

can only ^

fufpett that he ever will ofFeucl. It fuperfedes argument, reafon and

conviction, and requires us to think fuch a fpecies of condudl our

duty, becaufe fuch

is

the good pleafure of our faperiors, and be-

caufe, as v/e are taught

Unfeeling
this fpecies of

by the example in queftion, they

if

will

make

us rue our ftubbornnefs

it IS

we

think otherxvife.

In addition
to fuffer as

to this

to be

remembered
I

thit,

when

am made

coercion.-

an example to others,

am

treated

myfelf with fupercilious

If

neglel, as if I vpere totally incapable of feeling and morality.

you
be
in
is

inflit

pain upon me, you are either jufl or unjuft.

If

you

juft, it

fhould feem neceffary that there fhould be fomething

me

that

makes me the

fit

fubjed of pain, either

defert,

which
laftly

abfurd, or mifchief I

may

be expeded to perpetrate, or

a tendency
fuffering I
it

to reformation. If

any of

thefe be the reafon

is

why the
:

vmdergo

is

juft,

then example

out of the queftion

it

may

be an incidental confequence of the procedure, but

its

can

form no part of

principle.

It

muft furely be a very

inartificial

and injudicious fcheme for guiding the fentiments of mankind

to fix

upon an

individual as a fubjedt of torture or death, refpedt-

ing

whom

this

treatment has no dired;

fitnefs,

merely that

we

may

bid others look on, and derive inftrudion from his mifery.
will derive additional force

This argument

from the reafonings of

the following chapter.

CHAP.

7^5

HA

P.

IV.

OF THE APPLICATION OF COERCION.

PELINQUENCY AND COERCION INCOMMENSURABLE

EX-

TERNAL ACTION NO PROPER SUBJECT OF CRIMINAL ANIMADVERSION HOW FAR CAPABLE OF PROOF. INIQUITY OF THIS STANDARD IN A MORAL AND IN A POLITICAL

VIEW.

PROPRIETY OF A RETRIBUTION TO BE MEASURED

BY THE INTENTION OF THE OFFENDER CONSIDERED.

WOULD OVERTURN CRIMINAL LAW WOULD ABOLISH COERCION. INSCRUTABILITY, I. OF

SUCH A PROJECT

MOTIVES

DOUBTFULNESS OF HISTORY
2.

DECLARATIONS
OF

OF SUFFERERS.

OF THE FUTURE CONDUCT OF THE

OFFENDER

THE

UNCERTAINTY OF EVIDENCE EITHER FACTS OR THE INTENTION. DISADVANTAGES

SUIT.

O?

THE DEFENDANT IN A CRIMINAL

FARTHER

confideratlon, calculated to fhow, not only

TRAP

BOOK

vii.
^\r

the abfurdlty of coercion for example, but the iniquity of

is,

coercion in general,

that delinquency

and coercion are in

all

and coercion
furable.

*afes incommenfurable.

No
4

ftandard of delinquency ever has

been or ever can be difcovered.

,

No
2

two crimes were ever

alike;

aud

7i6

OF
IV,

THE APPLICATION
them
.

BOOK VII. and

CHAP.
<

therefore the reducing

clafles,

explicitly or implicitly to gene-

ral

which the very idea of example

-.,...
implies,
is

abfurd*

Nor

is it lefs

abfurd to attempt to proportion the degree of fufFer-

ing to the degree of delinquency,

difcovered.

when

the latter can never be

Let us endeavour to clear in the moft fatisfadtory

truth of thefe propofitions.

manner the
ac
|jg

External
tion

no proper fubjeaof

Man,
'

like

every other machine the operations of which can ^

'

xosAt the obiedt of our fenfes,

may

be

faid, relatively,

not ab-

fionT'^''"'

folutely fpeaking, to confift

internal.

of two
his

parts, the external

is

and the
;

The form which

adions afTume
is

one thing

the
it

principle
is poflible

from which they flow

another.
;

With

the former

we

Ihould be acquainted

refpedling the latter there

is

no

fpecies of evidence that can adequately

inform

us.

Shall

we

proportion the degree of fufFering to the former or the

the injury fuflained
intention conceived

latter, to
ill

by the community, or

to the quantity of

by

the offender

Some

philofophers, fenfible

of the infcrutability of intention, have declared in favour of our

attending to nothing but the injury fuftained.

The humane and

benevolent Beccaria has treated this as a truth of the utmoft importance, " unfortunately negledted
inftitutors,

by the majority of

political

and preferved only

in the difpaffionate. fpeculation of

philofophers *."
"*

"

^tejla

una

di quelle palpabili

verhuyche per una maravigliofa combinazione

di circqflanze non fono

con decija ficurezza conofciuie, che da alctini poch'i penfatori d'ogni ficolop

iiomini d' ogni tiazione, e

Dei

Delltti e delle Pene.

1%

OF COERCION.
It Is true that

71-7

we may

In

many
and
1

inftances be tolerably informed

that there will

BOOK VII.
CHAP.
IV.
>
-

refpedting external actions,

i-rr

at

firft

fight

appear to be no great dithculty in reducmg them to general

rules.

hawfarcapable of proof.

Murder, according

to this fyftem, will be the exertion of

any

fpecies

of action affedting

my

neighbour, fo as that the condifficulties

fequences terminate in death.

are

The

of the magiftrate

much

abridged upon this principle, though they are by no

It is

means

annihilated.

well

known how many

fubtle difqui-

fitions, ludicrous

or tragical according to the temper with which

we

view them, have been introduced to determine in each partir

inftance,

cular

whether the

adion
It

were or were

not

the

real occafion

of the death.

never can be demonflratively

afcertained.

But, difmiffing this

difficulty,

how

complicated

is

the iniquity

iniquity of
in

of treating all inftances alike, in

death of another
?

which one man has occafioned the

amoral:

Shall

we

abolilh the imperfect diftindlions,

.

which the moft odious tyrannies have hitherto thought themfelves

compelled to

admit,

between
?

chance

medley,

man-

flaughter and malice prepenfe

Shall

we

inflid;

on the man

who,

in endeavouring to

fave the

life

of a drowning fellow

creature, overfets

a boat and occaflons the death of a fecond,

the fame fufFering, as on

is

him who from gloomy and vicious

his benefa.d:or
is
?

habits
in a poli^,

incited to the

murder of

In reality the injury and

in thefe
is

ticalview,

fuftained

by
;

the

community

by no means the fame

by the community

two

cafes

the injury fuftained

to

be

raeafured.

7i8

OF
VII. rneafured IV.
-

THE APPLICATION
.

BOOK
CHAP.

by
,

the antlfoclal difpofitionsof the offender, and, if

.

that

were the right view of the

fubjetSt,

by the encouragehis

ment

afforded to fimllar dlfpofitions

from

impunity.

But

this leads us at

once from the external adion to the unlimited

confideration of the intention of the ador.

The

iniquity of

the written laws of fociety

is

of precifely the fame nature, though

not of fo atrocious a degree, in the confufion they adlually introduce between varied intentions,
unlimited.
as
if this

confufion were

The

delinquencies recited

upon

a former occalion,

of " one

man

that

commits murder,

to

remove a troublefome
will otherwife

obferver of his depraved difpofitions,

teradt

who

coun-

and expofe him

to the

world

a fecond, becaufe he canis

not bear the ingenuous fincerity with which he

vices
;

told

of his
;

a third,

from

his intolerable

envy of fuperior merit

adverfary meditates an

fourth, becaufe he

knows

that

his

ad

pregnant with extenfive mifchief, and perceives no other

mode

by which

its

perpetration can be prevented

life

a
;

fifth,

in defence
thefe,

of his father's
either

or his daughter's chaftity

and any of

from momentary impulfe, or any of the

infinite fhades

of

deliberation*;"
entitled to a

are delinquencies

all

of them unequal,

and

very different cenfure in the court of reafon.

Can

a fyftem that levels thefe inequalities, and confounds thefe differences,

be produdive

of good

That we may render men

beneficent towards each other, fhall

we

fubvert

the very nature

Book

II,

Chap. VI,

p. 131.

,of

OF COERCION.
of right and wrong
?

719

Or

is

not this fyftem, from whatever pre-

BOOK
^

vil.

fences introduced, calculated in the moft powerful

manner

to

JJ

produce general injury?

than to infcrlbe as

Can

there be a

more

flagrant injury

we do

in effefi:

upon our
which the

courts of judgment,
principles of right

" This

is

the Hall of Jufticc, in

and wrong are daily and fyftematically

flighted,

and Offences of

a thoufand different magnitudes are confounded together, by

the infolent fuplnenefs of the legiflator, and the unfeeling felfilhnefs of thofe

who have

engroffed the produce of the general

!"

labour to their fole emolument

But fuppofe, fecondly,

that

we

v/ere to take the intention of Propnety of

a retribution to be mca^'""^"^

the offender, and the future iniury to be apprehended, as the

^
_ _

^y

'^'=

ftandard of inflidllon.

This would no doubt be

a confiderable

intention of

the offender

improvement.

This would be the true mode of reconciling

if for

conCdsied.

coercion and juftice,

reafons already afllgned they were

It
is

not in their
defired

own

nature incompatible.

earnefi;Iy

to

be
be

that this

mode of
It is

adminiftring retribution iliould

ferioufly attempted.

to be

hoped

that

men

will

one day

attempt to eftablifh an accurate criteinon, and not go on for ever,

as they

have hitherto done, with a fovereign contempt of equity

and reafon.

This attempt would lead by a very obvious procefs

all

to the abolition of

coercion.

It

would immediately

lead to the abolition of

all

criminal law. Sudi

a pro-

An

enlightened and reafonable judicature would have recourfe,

overturn ;-

in order to decide

upon the

caufe before them, to no code but

the

-20

OF THE APPLICATION
VII.
TT7-

^TT

BOOK

the code of reafon.

They would

feel

the abfurdlty of other

-p

v__J__J;

men's teaching them what they fhould think, and pretending to

underftand the cafe before
It

happened, better than they

who

had

all

the

circumftances of the cafe under their infpeaion.

feel

They would

the abfurdity of bringing every error to be

compared with

a certain
it

number of meafures

previoufly invented,

and compelling
lliortly

to agree

with one of them.

this topic *.

But we

fhall

have occafion to return to

would

aboHfTi

The
mining

greateft advantage that

would

refult

from men's

deter-

coercion.

to

govern themfelves in the fuffering to be

inflidted

by

the motives of the offender and the future injury to be apprehend-ed,

would
it is

confift

in to

their

being taught

how

vain and

iniquitous
infcrutabiHty I. of motives.

in
it

them

attempt to wield the rod of retribu-

tion.

Who

is

that in his fober reafon will pretend to aflign

the motives that influenced

me

in

any

article

of

my

conduct,
penalty

and upon them to found a grave, perhaps a

againft

capital,

me

The

attempt would be prefumptuous and abfurd,

even though the individual

longeft obfervation of

who was
character,

to

judge me, had made the

my

and been moft intimately

acquainted with the feries of

my

actions.

How

often does a
it

man
to

deceive himfelf in the motives of his conduft, and affign

one principle

when

it

in reality proceeds

from another

Can
fuffi-

we

expert that a mere fpedator fhould form a judgment

ciently corred,

when he who

has

all

the fources of information

* Chap. VIII.

in

OF COERCION.
in his "hando,
is

721
not to this hour a

neverthelefs miftaken
I

Is it

'EOOK vir.

CHAP.
'

IV.
'

di/pute
to

among

philofophers whether

be capable of doing good

my

neighbour for his

it is

own

fake

"

To

afcertain the intention

'

of a

man

necefiary to be precifely informed of the adual

impreffion of the objeds

difpofition of his

upon

his fenfes,

and of the previous

in different perfons,

mind, both of which vary

at different

and even in the fame perfon

times, with a rapidity

commenfurate to the
flances *."

fuccelTion of ideas, paffions

and circumit

Meanwhile the

individuals,

whofe

office

is

to

judge of

this infcrutable

my fiery,

are pofTeffed of

no previous

knowledge, utter flrangers

their only lights

to the perfon accufed,

and collecting

from the information of two or three ignorant

and prejudiced

witneffes.

What

a vafl train

of adual and pofTible motives enter into the

incited
to defiroy the life of

hiftory of a

man, who has been

tell

another

Can you
and

how much

In thefe there

was of appre?

hended

juflice

how much

of inordinate felfifhnefs

how
?

much

of fudden paffion, and

how much
of that

of rooted depravity

how much
taneous

of intolerable provocation, and

?

how much

of fpon-

wrong

how much

fudden

infanity

which

" ^iijia

[I'i'itenziofie]

dipende dalla imprefflone attuak degli oggctti,

.

et

dalla pre-

cedente difpofizione della

mente

ejfe

variano in tutti gli iiominl

e in

ciafcun tiomo colla

I'elocijfiwa fuccefflone delle idee,

delle pojfiotii,

e delle circoflaiize."

He

adds,

"

Sarebbe

dtinque necejfario
fnicva /t'gge

formare non Joh im

codice particolare

per ciafcun

citladino,

ma una

'

ad ogni delitto."

4 Z

hurries

723
hurries the

OP THE APPLICATION
mind
into a certain ation

by a

fort

of incontinence

of nature almoft without any affignable motive, and

doubtful tiefs

how much

of incurable habit

Confider the uncertainty of hiftory.

Do
by

of

hjttor)'

we

not

ftill

difpute

whether Cicero were more a vain or a virtu-

ous man, whether the heroes of ancient

Rome were

impelled

vain glory or difmterefted benevolence, whether Voltaire were

the ftain of his fpecies, or their moft generous and Intrepid

benefaftor

Upon

thefe

fubjedts

moderate

men

perpetually
heart.

quote upon us the impenetrablenefs of the

human

Will

moderate

men

pretend that

we have

not an hundred times

more

evidence upon which to found our judgment In thefe cafes, than

In that of the
declarations

man who was

tried laft

week

at the

Old Bailey

This part of the fubjedt will be put in a ftriking light, if

recoiled the narratives that have been written
criminals.

we

of

fuifeiers.

by condemned

In

how different

a light do they place the tranfadions

that proved fatal to them,

from the conftrudion

?

that

was put

upon them by

their judges

And

yet thefe narratives were

written under the moft awful circumftances, and

many of them

without the

leaft

hope of mitigating

their fate,

and with marks of

his (lender

the deepeft fincerity.

V/ho

will fay that the

judge with
to

pittance of information

was more competent

decide

upon

the motives, than the prifoner after the fevereft fcrutlny of his

own mind ?
juft

How

few are the

trials

which an humane and a

man

can read, terminating In a verdid of guilty, without

uncontrolable repugnance againft the verdid
fight
?

feeling an

If

there be

any

more humlliatmg than

all

others,

it is

that

of

a miferable

OF COERCION.
againfl

72J

a miserable vidlim acknowledging the jufllce of a fentence, BOOKVIT.

which every enlightened reafoner exclaims with horror.

v___J__J

But

this is not

all.

The

motive, '

when

afcertained, '

is

only /

f* ture conduct

^^^/\

a fubordinate part of the queftion.

fociety can equitably animadvert, if

The
it

point

upon which only

^^der"'

had any jurifdidlion in

infcrutable than that
inquifition

the cafe,

is

a point, if poflible,

ftill

more
legal
all

of which

we have

been

treating.

into the

minds of men, confidered by

agreed to condemn.

itfelf,

rational enquirers
to

have

What we want

afcertain

is,

not the

intention of the offender, but the chance of his offending again.

For
But,
is

this

purpofe

we

reafonably enquire
this,

firft
is

into his intention.

when we have found

our tafk

but begun.

This

one of our

materials, to enable us to calculate the probability

of his repeating his offence, or being imitated by others.

this

Was

an habitual

ftate

of his mind, or was

?

it

crifis

in his hiftory

likely to

remain an unique

What
is

effedt has

experience pro-

duced on him, or what likelihood

there that the uneafmefs

and

fuffering that attend the perpetration of

eminent wrong
?.

may
fame

have worked a falutary change in

his

mind

Will he hereafter

be placed in circumftances
enormity
?

that fhall propel

him

to the

Precaution

is

in the nature of things a ftep in the-

higheft degree precarious.

Precaution that confiffs in inflidling.

all

injury on another, will at

tinles

be odious to an equitable
all

mind.

Meanwhile be

it

obferved, that

which has been

faid

upon

the uncertainty of crime, tends to aggravate the injuflice

4 Z

2-

of

24

OF

THE APPLICATION
Since the crime

of coercion for the fake of example.

upon
as the

which

animadvert in one

man

can never be the fame

avv^ard a

crime of another,

it is as if I fliould

grievous penalty

againft perfons with one eye, to prevent

any man in future from

putting out his eyes

by

defign.

Uncertanity of evidence :

Qnc more argument

calculated to prove the abfurdity of the

attempt to proportion delinquency and fufFering to each other

fads

j^j^y

be derived from the imperfedlion of evidence.

to

The

veracity

of witneffes will be
continual doubt.

an impartial fpedator a fubjed of

fo far as
relates

Their competence,

to juft

obfervation and accuracy of underftandlng,

doubtful.

will be

flill

more

Abfolute impartiality

it

would be abfurd

to expedl

from them.

How

much

will eveiy

word and every

it is

adlion
?

come

diftorted

by the medium through which

tranfmitted

The

guilt of a man, to fpeak in the phrafeology of law,

I

may

be

proved either by dired or circumftantial evidence.

near to
the body of a man newly murdered.
I

am found
his

come out of

apartment with a bloody knife in

my

hand or with blood upon

my

clothes.

If,

under thefe circumftances and unexpededly

I falter in
is

charged wuth murder,

tion in

my

fpeech or betray perturba-

my

countenance, this
is

an additional proof.
in England,

Who

does

not
lefs

know
a
life

that there

not a

man
is

however blameit

he
?

may

lead,
is

who

fecure that he fnall not end

at

the gallows

This

one of the moil obvious and univerfal

In what
is

bkflings that civil government has to beftow.

called

diret

OF COERCION.
dired evidence,
it Is

725

neceflaiy to identify the perfon of the ofi'ender.

are there

How many
demned upon

inftances

upon record of perfons conafter

BOOK vrr. CHAP IV

^

this evidence,
?

who

their death

have been

proved entirely innocent

in the

Sir

Walter Raleigh, when a prifoner

Tower, heard fome high words accompanied with blows

his

under

window.

He enquired

of feveral eye witnefles

who en-

tered his apartment in fucceffion, into the nature of the tranfa(5tion.

But the ftory they

that

told varied in fuch material circumftances,

he could form no juft idea of what had been done.

He

applied this to prove the vanity of hiftory.

The

parallel

would

have been more ftriking

if

he had applied

it

to criminal fuits.

But fuppofmg the external

to be afcertained,

ation, the

firfl;

part of the queflion

or the intestion.

we have

next to difcover through the fame

the intention.

garbled and confufed

medium

How
my

few men

fhould

choofe to entruft with the drawing up a narrative of

fome
few,

delicate

and interefting tranfadion

of

life ?

How

though, corporally fpeaking, they were witnefies of what

juftly defcribe
?

was done, would

port and interpret

my

motives, and properly re-

iny
to

life,

my fame

my words And yet in an affair, that involves and my future ufefulnefs, I am obliged to truft
cafual obferver.

any vulgar and

man

properly confident in the force of truth, would con-

DIfadvantages of tliedefend^"} '" a enminal fiiit.

fider a public libel

upon

his charadler as a trivial misfortune.

is

But

a criminal

trial

in a court of juftice

inexprelTibly different.

Few
men,

726

OF THE APPLICATION OF COERCION.

thus circumftanced, can retain the neceflary prefence of

BOOK VII. men,

'

mind and freedom from embarraffment.

with a cold and unwilling ear that their
crime charged againll
in the palTions of
trial.

But,

if

they do,

it

is

tale is heard.

If the

them be

atrocious, they are half condemned

their caufe
is is

mankind, before
interelling to
;

brought to a
firft

All that

is

them

decided amidft the

burft of indignation

and

it is

well if their ftory be impaitially

eftimated, ten years after their

body has mouldered in the grave

trial

Why,
panion

if a confiderable

time elapfe between the

and the exe-

cution, do
?

we

find the feverity of the public

changed into comhe do not beat his

For the fame reafon that a mafter,

if

flave in the

moment of refentment,
at all.

often feels a repugnance to the

as is

beating

him

Not

fo

much,

commonly

fuppofed^

from

forgetfulnefs of the offence, as that the fentiments of reafon

feels in a

have time to recur, and he

confufed and indefinite

man-

ner the injuftice of coercion.

fliow, that a

Thus every
crime
is

confideration tends to

man

tried for a

a poor deferted individual

with the whole force of the community confpiring his ruin.

culprit that efcapes,

The

however confcious of innocence,

lifts

up his
fenfes,

hands with aftonifhment, and can fcarcely believe his

having fuch mighty odds againft him.
defires to fhake off
It is

eafy for a

man who

an imputation under which he labours, to talk

trial
;

of being put on his

this ordeal,

but no
a
trial

man
was.

ever ferioufly wifhed for

v/ho

knew what

CHAP.

1^1

CHAP.

V.

OF COERCION CONSIDERED AS A TEMPORARY

EXPEDIENT.
ARGUMENTS IN ITS FAVOUR. ANSWER. IT CANNOT FIT MEN FOR A BETTER ORDER OF SOCIETY. THE TRUE

REMEDY TO PRIVATE INJUSTICE DESCRIBED IS ADAPTED TO IMMEDIATE PRACTICE. DUTY OF THE COMMUNITY
IN THIS

RESPECT. DUTY OF

INDIVIDUALS.

ILLUSTRA-

TION FROM THE CASE OF

lENCE.

ViTAR

OF

INDIVIDUAL DE-

WANT

APPLICATION. DISADVANTAGES OF ANARCHY OF SECURITY OF PROGRESSIVE ENQUIRY.

OF DESPOTISM.

CORRESPONDENT DISADVANTAGES

ANARCHY AWAKENS, DESPOTISM DEPRESSES THE MINDFINAL RESULT OF ANARCHY HOW DETERMINED. SUPPOSED PURPOSES OF COERCION IN A TEMPORARY
VIEW.

REFORMATION

EXAMPLE

RESTRAINT.

CONCLUSION.

T
It IS

HITS much
as

for the general merits of coercion confidered

an inftrument to be applied in the government of men.

BOOKVir. CHAP V
'^

time that

we

fhould enquire into the arguments

by which

it

may

be apologifed as a temporary expedient.

No

introdudlion

feemed

728

OF COERCION CONSIDERED
proper to
a
this

BOOK VII. feemed more CHAP V.

^'_

enquiry
fcale;

tlian

fuch a review of the

^'

'-J

fubjedl
fpii'ed

upon

comprehenfive

that the reader

might be in-

with a fuitable repugnance againft fo pernicious a fyftem,

to refift
its

and prepared firmly

ceffity

admiffion in

all

cafes where its ne-

cannot be clearly demonftrated.

Aigumentu'c
its

"JIiq

arguments in favour of coercion

It

as a

temporary expedient
fuitable

favour.

are obvious.
tire

may

be alledged that, "

however

an en-

immunity

in this refpet
it is

may

be to the nature of mind abfo-

lutely confidered,

impracticable with regard to

fpecies
is at

men

as

we
are

now
full
evil,

find them.

The human

prefent infeded with a

injuftice.
:

thoufand vices, the oifspring of eftabllfhed

of faditious appetites
inveterate

They

and perverfe habits

headftrong in

in felfilhnefs, without

fympathy and forbear-

ance for the welfare of others.

In time they
;

may become

ac-

commodated

to the lefTons of reafon

but

at prefent

they would

be found deaf to her mandates, and eager to commit every fpe-

Mes of

injuftice."

Anfwcr.
'

One of
'

the remarks that moft Irrefiftibly fuggeft themfelves

is,

men '^^for'^a
of'fociet'y.'^'^

upon

this ftatement

that coercion has

no proper tendency
fliall

to

prepare

men

for a ftate in

which coercion

ceafe.

It is
it is

ab-

furd to expert that force fhould begin to do that which

office

the

of truth to

finifli,

fhould

fit

men by

feverity

and violence
fchools

to

enter with

more favourable

aufpices into

the

of

reafon.

But,

"

AS A
pofed

TEMPORARY EXPEDIENT.
BOOK
.

-29
VII.
"^

But, to omit this grofs mifreprefentation in behalf of the fuputility

of coercion,
is

it is

of importance in the

firft

place to
to thofe

^^'

obferve that there

evils the cure
is

a complete and unanfwerable

remedy

ledy'trpri-

of which has hitherto been fought in coercion, that defcHbedf

within the reach of every

it.

community whenever they

is

fliall

be

perfuaded to adopt

There

ftate

of fociety, the outline of

which has been already fketched

its

*, that

by

the

mere

fimplicity of

ftruCture

would

infallibly lead to the

extermination of offence

ftate,

in

which temptation would be almoft unknown, truth

to the level of
all

brought

down

apprehenfions, and vice fufEfober conthat

ciently checked

by the general difcountenance and

demnation of every fpedator.

Such are the confequences

craft

would

neceflarily fpring

from an abolition of the

and myftery

of governing; while on the other hand the innumerable murders that are daily committed under the fandion of legal forms,
are folely to be afcribed to the pernicious notion of an extenfive
territory
;

to the

dreams of glory, empire and national

greatnefs;,

which have hitherto proved the bane of the human

without producing
dividual.
.

fpecies,

folid benefit

and happinefs

to a fmgle in-

Another obfervation which

fuggefts,
is,

this

confideration

immediately

adapted immediate
1/

t>

that

it

is

not, as the objedion fuppofed,

by any

pmaice.

means

necelTary, that

mankind fnould

pafs through a ftate of

purification,

and be freed ^from the vicious propenftties which

*

Book V, Chap. XXII,

p.

563.
ill

730

OF COERCION CONSIDERED
VII.
'

BOOK
>

ill

conft'ituted

governments have implanted, before they can be

to

difmifled

from the coercion

In that cafe their

which they

are at prefent fubif it

jeded.

ftate vv^ould

indeed be hopelefs,

were neceflary that the cure fhould be efFeded, before

at liberty to difcard thofe pradices to

we were
owes
its

which the

difeafe

moft alarming fymptoms.

But

it is

the charaderiftic of a well

its

formed

fociety, not

only to maintain in

members

thofe virtues
errors,

with which they are already indued, but to extirpate their

and render them benevolent and juft to each other.

It frees

us
us,

from the

influence of thofe

phantoms which before milled

fhows us our true advantage as confifting in independence and

integrity,

and binds us by the general confent of our fellow

ci-

tizens to the dilates of reafon,

iron. It
is

more

ftrongly than with fetters of

not to the found of intelledtual health that the remedy fo

itfelf,
ill

urgently addrefTes

as to thofe

who are

infeded with difeafes

of the mind.

The

propenfities of

mankind no otherwife tend

to poflpone the abolition of coercion, than as they prevent

them

from perceiving the advantages of political fimplicity.

The mo-

ment

in

which they can be perfuaded

is

to adopt

any

rational plan

for this abolition,

the

moment

in

which the

abolition ought to

be efFeded.

Duty

of the

^ farther confequence that may be deduced from the principles

that havc here been delivered, is that coercion of a domeftic kind can

community in
this refpeft.

in no cafe be the duty of the community.

The community is always

to extirpate oiFence

competent to change^

its

inftitutions,

and thus

in

AS A
in a

TEMPORARY EXPEDIENT.
more
rational

731

way

infinitely

and

juft than that

of coercion,
as a tern-

If in this fenfe coercion has been

deemed neceflary

book vii. CHAP V

v__^__J

porary expedient, the opinion admits of fatisfadtory refutation.

Coercion can

at

no time,

either

permanently orprovifionalIy,make

part ofany political fyflem that is built

upon the principles of reafon.

But, though in this fenfe coercion cannot be admitted fo

as a

much
mull

Dutyof indlviduals.

temporary expedient, there

is

another fenfe in which

it

be fo admitted.

Coercion excrcifed in the name of the Hate

upon

its

refpedive members cannot be the duty of the combut coercion

munity

may

be the duty of individuals within the

individuals
is,

community.
difplay with

The duty of
all

in the

firft

place, to

poffible perfpicuity the advantages

of an im-

proved

ftate

of fociety, and to be indefatigable in deteding the

live.

imperfedtions of the conftitution under which they

the fecond place,
it

But, in

behoves them to

recolle(fl:,

that their efforts

cannot be expected to meet with inflant fuccefs, that the progrefs of knowledge has in
all

cafes

been gradual, and that their oblith^e

gation to promote the welfare of fociety during

intermediate
its

period

is

net

lefe real,

than their obligation to promote

future

and permanent advantage.

not be effedually procured,
curity.

In reality the future advantage canif

we

be inattentive to the prefent fe-

But, as long as nations fhall be fo far miftaken as to enterritory, coercion

It is

dure a complex government and an extenfive

will be indifpenfibly neceffary to general fecurity.

therefore
in.

the duty of individuals to take an adive fhare

upon

occafion,

fo-

73J

OF COERCION CONSIDERED
ib

BOOK VII. CHAP V

'
I

much

coercion, and in fuch parts of the exifting fyftem, as

'j

ihall

be fufficient to prevent the inroad of univerfal violence and

It is

tumult.

unw^orthy of a rational enquirer to fay, " thefe

things are neceflary, but I

am

not obliged to take

my

Ihare in

them."

If they be neceflary, they are neceflary for the general

of confequenae
ajre

good

virtuous,

and what no

jufl:

man

will

refufe to perform.

liludration

T^e

from the caie

dutv of individuals ^

is

in this refpet fnnilar to the duty

It
is

afwar:

of independent communities upon the fubjel of war.

well

known what
this head.

has been the prevailing policy of princes

under

Princes, efpecially the mofl: ative

and enter-

prifmg among them, are feized with an inextinguifliable rage

for

augmenting

their dominions.

The

mofl:

innocent and inis

olFenfive
fufficient

condudl on

the part of their

their

neighbours

an in-

fecurity againfl;
their

ambition.
plaufible

They

indeed feek
;

to
is

difguife

violence under

pretences

but

it

well

known

that,

where

.no fuch pretences

occur, they are

not on that account difpofed to drop their

-purfuit.

Let us

fuppofe then a land of freemen invaded by one of thefe ^efpots.

What

condudt does

it

behove them to adopt?

We

are not yet

wife enough to make the fword drop out of the hands of our
oppreflx)rs

by the mere
neither to

force of reafon.

Were we

refolved, like

quakers,

oppofe nor obey them,

:

much

bloodfhed
refult.

might perhaps be avoided

but a

more

lafting evil

would

They would

fix garrifons in

our country, and toi-ment us with

perpetual

AS A
perpetual
'

TEMPORARY EXPEDIENT.
Suppofing even
itfelf
it

733
bookvii. >CHAP V
'

inJLiftlce.

were granted

that, if the

invaded nation fhould condudt

with unalterable conftancy

upon the
of their

principles of rcafon, the invaders

it

would become
little.

tired

fruitlefs ufurpation,

would prove but

At prefent

we

have to do, not with nations of philofophers, but with

nations of

men whofe

virtues are alloyed with weaknefs, fludu-

ation and inconftancy.

At prefent

it is

our duty to confult refped:-

ing the procedure which to fuch nations would be attended with

the moft favourable refult.
It is

therefore proper that

we

fhould

choofe the
to

leaft

calamitous

mode of

obliging the

enemy

fpeedily

withdraw himfelf from our

territories.

The

cafe of individual defence

is

of the fame nature.

It

does

of individual
defence.

not appear that any advantage can refult from

adequate to the difadvantages of

my

fuffering

my forbearance, my own life or

firfl

that of another, a peculiarly valuable

as
it

member of the community

ruffian

may

happen, to become a prey to the

it.

who

inclines to deftroy

Forbearance in
its

this cafe will

be the con-

dud
b

of a fmgular individual, and

efFed

may

very probably

trifling.

Hence

it

appears, that I ought to arreft the villain

in the execution

of his defigns, though at the expence of a

certain degree of coercion.

The
and

cafe of

an offender, whtD appears to be hardened in

is

guilt, Appllcatioi.

to trade in the violation of fecial fecurity,

I

clearly parallel

to thefe.

ought to take up arms againft the defpot by

whom my
country

734

OF COERCION CONSIDERED
country
Is

BOOK VII. CHAP V

V. ,.
.^

invaded, becaufe

my

capacity does not enable

defift,

me by

>

arguments to prevail on him to

and becaufe

my

country-

men

will not

preferve their intelledual independence in the

midft of opprefTion.

For the fame reafon

ought to take up

arms againft the domeftic

to

fpoiler, becaufe I

am

unable either

perfuade

him

to defiil, or the

community
fecurity

to adopt a juft

political inftitution,

by means of which

might be main-

tained confiltently with the abolition of coercion.

To

underftand the
to

full

extent of this duty

as
it is

it

is

incumbent

upon us

remark

that

anarchy

ufually underftood, and a

well conceived form of fociety without government, are exceedingly different from each other.
Britain

If the

government of Great

were

diifolved

to-morrow, unlefs that diffolution were

the refult of confiftent

vioufly difleminated

and digefted views of political

the inhabitants,
it

juftice pre-

among

would be very

far

from

leading to the abolition of violence. Individuals, freed

from

the terrors

by which they had been accuftomed

to

be

rcftrained,.

and not yet placed under the happier and more

rational reftraint

of public infpedion, or convinced of the wifdom of reciprocal

forbearance,
individuals,

would break out

into

ads of

injuftice,

while other

who

defired only that this Irregularity fhould ceafe,.

its

would

find

themfelves obliged to affociate for

forcible fup-

prefTion.

We
and

fhould have

all

the evils attached to a regular

government,
tranquillity

at the

fame time that

we were

deprived of that

leifure

which

are

its

only advantages.
It

AS A
It

TEMPORARY EXPEDIENT.
'

735

may

not be ufelefs In this place to confider more accurately

hitherto

than

we have

BOOK vri. CHAP V

'

done the

evils

of anarchy.

Such a review

>

,^

will afford us a criterion

by which

to difcern, as well the

tlie

com-

Difadvantages of anarchy ;

parative value of different inftltutions, as

precife degree of

coercion whioh mufl be employed for the exclufion of univerfal

violence and tumult.

Anarchy

in

Its

own
But
is

nature

Is

an

evil
It

of fhort duration.
the

The
it

want of fc
curity:

more

horrible are the mifchiefs

it is

inflils,

more does

haflen to a clofe.
confider both

neverthelefs neceffary that

it

we

fhould

what

the quantity of mifchief

is

produces in a
it

given period, and what

clofe.

the fcene in which

Is

promifes to

The

firfl

vldim

that

facrificed at its fhrine is perfonal

fecurity.

Every man who has a

foe.

fecret foe,

ought to dread the

dagger of that
multitudes of

There

is

no doubt

that In the worll anarch v

obfcurlty.

men

will fleep In

happy

But woe

to

him who by whatever means

excites the envy, the jealoufy or

!

the fufplcion of his neighbour

Unbridled ferocity Inftantly

Indeed the principal
evil

marks him

for

Its

prey.

This

Is

of

fuch a Hate, that the wifeft, the brighteft, the moft generous

and bold
fuch a

will often be

moft expofed to an Immature

fate.

In

of progreffiv?
ciitjuiiy,

ftate

we muft

bid farewel to the patient lucubrations of

oil.

the philofopher and the labour of the midnight

like the foclety in

All

is

here,

which

It

exifts,

Impatient and headlong.

its

Mind

will frequently

burft forth, but

appearance will be like the

corrufcations of the meteor, not like the mild illumination of

the

735;

OF COERCION CONSIDERED
the fun.
ble in

BOOK VII.
CHAP. V. ^
'

Men, who

ftart

forth into fudden energy,

wiU rsfem-

'j

temper the

ftate that

brought them to

this

unlooked for

greatncls.

They

will be rigorous,
will often

unfeeling and fierce; and

their
incite

ungoverned paffions

not flop

at

equality,

but

them

to grafp at powers.

Conefpondent difadvan-

With

all

thefc evils,

we muft
,

not haftily conclude, that the

^

tagesof defpotim,

mifchiefs of anarchy are worfe than thofe

qualified to produce.
is

which government

is

With

refpeft to perfonal fecurity anarchy

certainly not worfe than

is

defpotifm, with this difference that

defpotifm
it

as perennial as anarchy is tranfitory.

Deipotifm, as
its

exifted

under the

Roman

emperors, marked out wealth for

vidim, and the

guilt

of being rich never failed to convidt the

accufed of every other crime.

centuries.-

This defpotifm continued for

Defpotifm^ as
full

it

has exifted' in modern Europe, has

been ever
courtiers

of jealoufy and- intrigue, a tool to the rage of

and the refentment of women..

He

that dared utter a

word

againft the tyrant, or endeavour to inftrud: his

countrymen

in their interefts,

was never
to a

fecure that the next

moment would
.

not conduct

him

dungeon.

Here defpotifm wreaked her

fblitude
this all.

vengeance

at leifure,

and forty years of mifery and

were fometimes

infufficient to fatiate her fury.

all

Nor was

An

ufurpation that defied

its

the rules of juftice,

was obliged
all its

to

purchafe

own

fafety

by

affifting

tyranny through

fub-

ordinate ranks.
age,

Hence

the rights of nobility, of feudal vafTal-

of primogenittjre,
I

of

fines

and inheritance.

When

the

philofophy

AS A
fpirit

TEMPORARY EXPEDIENT.
ihall

737

philofophy of law
its

be properly underftood, the true key to

and

its

hiftory will be found, not, as

fome men have

BOOK vii. CHAP V

'

'.

fondly imagined, in a defire to fecure the happinefs of mankind,

but in the venal compadl by which fuperior tyrants have purchafed the countenance and alliance of the inferior.

There

is

one point remaining in which anarchy and defpo- Anarchy

tifm are ftrongly contrafted with each other.

Anarchy awakens

podfm"de-'^"

mind,

difFufes
it

energy and enterprize through the community, mLd!

its fruits,

though

does not effed: this in the beft manner, as

forced into ripenefs, muft not be

expeded

to

have the vigorous

ftamina of true excellence.

But

in defpotifm

mind

is

trampled
that pro-

into an equality of the mofl odious fort.

Every thing

mifes greatnefs

is

deftined to

fall

under the exterminating hand

is

of fufpicion and envy.

to excellence.
fpecies of

In defpotifm there

no encouragement
where every

Mind

delights to expatiate in a field

eminence
all

is

within

its

reach.

A
its

fcheme of policy,
dufi:,

under which
affords
it

men are

fixed in clafTes or levelled with the

to

no encouragement

enter on

career.

The

in-

habitants of fuch countries

brutes.

are

but a more vicious fpecies of

Oppreflion ftimulates them to mifchief and piracy, and

itfelf only in

fuperior force of mind often difplays

deeper treachery

or more daring injuflice.

One of the moil

interefting queftions in relation to

anarchy

is

Fnial refuii

of anarchy

that

738

OF COERCION CONSIDERED
that of the

BOOK VIT.
CHAP.
V

manner
as

in

which
this

it

may

be expe(ted to terminate.
are
as

V.
-<

'

The

poffibihties

to

termination

wide

as

the

various fchemes of fociety which the

conceive.

human

imagination can
;

Anarchy may and has terminated

in defpotifm

and

in that cafe the introdudion of anarchy will only ferve to afflit

us with variety of evils.

tifm, a milder

It

may

lead to a modification of defpo-

and more equitable government than that which

has gone before.

lead t9 the beft

And

it

does not feem impoffible that

fociety, that the

it

fhould

form of human
able to

moil penetrating
it

philofopher

is

conceive.

Nay,

it

has fomething in

that fuggefls the likenefs, a diftorted

and tremendous

likenefs,

of true

liberty.

Anarchy has commonly been generated by the

It is

hatred of oppreffion.

accompanied with a

fpirit

of inde-

pendence.

It

difengages

men from
them

prejudice and implicit faith,

to

and

in a certain degree incites

an impartial fcrutiny into

the reafon of their aftions.

how

deter-

The

fcene in

which anarchy
r

fhall

terminate principally de

mined,

pends upon the

All

ftate

of mind by which

it

has been preceded.

is,

mankind were

in a ftate of anarchy, that

ftate

without governIt

ment, previoufly to their being in a

not be
difficult to

of policy.

would

find in the hiftory of almoft every country a

period of anarchy.

The

people of England were in a

ftate

of

anarchy immediately before the Reftoration.

ple
to

The Roman peotheir feceftion

were

in a ftate of

anarchy

at the
it

moment of
follows

the Sacred Mountain.

Hence

that

anarchy

is

neither

AS A
neither fo
as
it

TEMPORARY EXPEDIENT.
fo
ill

-39

good nor

a thing

in relation to

its

confequences,

BOOK
^

vil.
'

has fometimes been reprefented.

It is

not reafonable to exped: that a

fliort

period of anarchy

{liould

do the work of

a long period of inveftigation

it

and philoprejudice

fophy.

When we
It

fay, that
this

dlfengages

men from

and

implicit faith,

muft be underflood with much allow-

ance.

tends to loofen the hold of thefe vermin

it

upon the
into philo-

mind, but
fophcrs.

does not inftantly convert ordinary

prejudices,
that
it

men

Some

were never
;

fully

incorporated
it

with the

intellectual habit,

deftroys

but other prejudices

arms with fury, and converts into inftruments of vengeance.

Little

good can be expected from any

fpecies

of anarchy that
In order to

fhould

fubfift for inftance

among American

favage.

anarchy being rendered a feed plot of future

juftice, reflexion

and enquiry muft have gone

before, the regions of philofophy

political truth

muft have been penetrated, and

fchool to mankind.
It is

have opened her

for this reafon that the revolutions of

is

the prefent age (for every total revolution

a fpecies of anarchy)

promife
period.

much

happier effeds than the revolutions of any former

For the fame reafon the more anarchy can be held at

it

bay, the more fortunate will

gain by precipitating the

be for mankind.
;

Falfhood

may

crifis

but a genuine and enlightened

philanthropy will wait with unaltered patience for the harveft

of inftrudion.

The

arrival

of that harveft
5

may

be flow, but

it

is

74

OF COERCION CONSIDERED]
VII. V.
'

BOOK
*

is infallible.
.

If vieilance

and wifdom be

fuccefsful in their pre-

CHAP.
,

fent oppofition to anarchy, every benefit will be ultimately obtained, untarnifhed with violence, and unftained with blood.

Thefe obfervatlons are calculated

to lead us

to an accurate

eftimate of the mifchiefs of anarchy, and prove that there are

forms of coercion and government more injurious in their

tendency than the abfence of organifation
that there are other forms of
itfelf.

They

alfo

prove

government which deferve

in ordi-

nary

cafes to

be preferred to anarchy.
evils
is

Now

it is

incontrovertibly

clear that,

where one of two

leaft.

inevitable, the wife

and

juft
juft

man

will choofe the

Of

confequence the wife and

man, being unable

as yet to introduce the

form of

fociety

which

his underftanding approves, will contribute to the fupport

as is neceflary to

of fo much coercion,
anarchy.

exclude what

is

worfe,

Siippofed purpofes of coercion in

a tempoiaiy icw

If then conftraint as the antagonill of conftraint

_

muft in cerit

tain cafcs

and under temporary circumftances be admitted,

is

an interefting enquiry to afcertain which of the three ends of

coercion already enumerated muft be propofed

by the

individuals

by

whom

coercion

is

employed.

And

here

it

will be fufficient

very briefly to recolledt the reafonings that have been ftated

under each of

thefe heads.

reformation

It

cannot be reformation.

To

reform a

man

is

to

change the
fentimeats

AS A

TEMPORARY EXPEDIENT.
Sentiments

741

fentiments of his mind.

the better or the worfe.

may

be changed either for be changed by the

BOOK
>

vir.
'
'-<

They can only

CHAP V
^

operation of falfhood or the operation of truth.

Punifhment we,
the individual,
is

have ah'eady found,

injuftice.

at leaft fo far as relates to

The

inflition

of

ftripes

upon

my
us.

body can throw no

I

new

light

upon the queftion between

paflion,

can perceive in

them nothing but your

take.

your ignorance and your mif-

If

you have any new

;

light to offer,
fail,

any cogent arguments

to introduce

they will not

If

if

adequately prefented, to pro-

duce their

efFel.

you be

partially informed, ftripes will not

fupply the deficiency of your arguments.

extent or narrownefs of your wifdom,
it is

Whatever be the
the only inftrument

by which you can hope

which you do not
but the truths
derftanding.

to

add to mine.

You
done,

cannot give that

I

pofTefs.

When

all

is

have nothing

you

told

me by which

to derive light to

my

un-

The

violence with

which the communication of

them was accompanied, may

prepofTefs

me

agaiirft

giving them

an impartial hearing, but cannot, and certainly ought not, to

make
to

their evidence appear greater than

it.

your ftatement was able

make

Thefe arguments

are conclufive againft coercion as

an inftrument of private or individual education.

But confidering the "

that,

fubjed: in a political ideas I

view

it

may

oe faid,

however ftrong may be the

am

able to

commuand

nicate to a

man

in order to his reformation,

he

may

be

reftlefs

impatient of expoftulation, and of confequence

it

may

be ne^
ceflarv

743

OF COERCION CONSIDERED
ceflary to retain

BOOK VII.
t ^
->

him by

force,
It

till I

can properly have

inftilled

thefe ideas into his

mind."

muft be remembered that the idea

here

is

not that of precaution to prevent the mifchiefs he might

perpetrate in the

mean

time, for that belongs to another of the

three ends of coercion, that of reftraint. But, feparately from this

idea, the

argument

is

peculiarly weak. If the truths I have to

if

com-

municate be of an energetic and impreffive nature,

forward perfpicuous and diftint in

they ftand
it

my own
It
is

mind,

will be

ftrange if they do not at the outfet excite curiofity and attention

in

him

to

whom
at

they are addrefTed.

my

duty to choofe a
to betray
I

proper feafon

which

to

communicate them, and not

ill

the caufe of truth

by an

timed impatience.

This prudence

fhould infallibly exercife,

interefting to myfelf j

if

my

object
I

were
lefs

to obtain

fomething

why
man

fhould

be

quick fighted
?

when

plead the caufe of juftice and eternal reafon

It is

a miferable

way

of preparing a

for

convilion, to compel

him by

violence to hear an expoflulation

which he

is

eager to avoid.
lofe

Thefe arguments prove, not that we fhould

formation,
ceffary
;

fight of re-

if

coercion for any other reafon appear to be ne-

but that reformation cannot reafonably be

made

the ob-

ject of coercion.

example

Coercion for the fake of example

juftly maintained.

is

a theory that can never be

The
is

coercion propofed to be employed, con-

fidered abfolutely,

either right or
its

wrong.

If

it

be right,
If

it

fhould be employed for

own

intrinfic

recommendations.

it

be

'AS

TEMPORARY EXPEDIENT.
fort

743

be wrong, what

of example does
is

it

difplay
to

To do

a thing
to day,

cooK vir. CHAP V

^

for the fake of example,

in other will

words

do a thing

in order to

prove that

do a

fimilar thing

to-morrow.

This muft always be a fubordinate

confideration.

No

argument
it

has been fo grofsly abufed as this of example.

We

fcund

un-

der the fubjed of war * employed to prove the propriety of

my

doing a thing otherwife wrong, in order

fite

to

convince the oppo-

party that

fliould,

when

occafion offered, do fomething

befl;

elfe that

was

right.

He

will difplay the

example,

who

care-

fully

ftudles the principles of juillce,

and affiduoufly pradlfes

them.

A better

effed will be produced in

human

fociety

by

my

confcientious adherence to them, than

fpecific expetation refpetlng

by

my

anxiety to create a

my

future

condud.

This argu-

ment

will

be

fllll

farther inforced, if

we

recoUedl what has aldif-

ready been
ferent cafes,
rules.

faid

refpeding the inexhauftible differences of

impolTibility of reducing

and the

them

to general

The
already

third

objedl of coercion according to the enumeration

is reftraint.

reiliaint.

made
is

If coercion be in
it

any

cafe to be

ad-

mitted, this

the only objed

can reafonably propofe to

in this point of

itfelf.
it is

The
liable

ferious objccflions to

which even

view
:

have been ftated in another ftage of the enquiry f

the

amount
alfo

of the neceffity tending to fuperfede thefe objections has

confidered.
* Book V, Chap.

been

XVI,

p.

518.

f Chap.

III.

The

744

OF COERCION CONS IDE RED,

The fubjed
of this chapter
is

&c.

of greater importance, in pro-

portion to the length of time that

Conclulion.

may

poflibly elapfe, before

any

confiderable part of

mankind

fhall

be perfuaded to exchange the

prefent complexity of political inftitution for a

mode which

fhall

fuperfede the neceffity of coercion.

It is

highly unworthy of the

caufe of truth to fuppofe, that during this interval I have no adive

duties to perform, that I

am

not obliged to co-operate for the

its

prefent welfare of the community, as well as for

neration.

future rege-

The temporary

obligation that arifes out of this cir-

cumftance exaflly correfponds with what was formerly delivered

on the
a given

fubjet of duty.

Duty

is

the beft poffible application of

*.

power

to the

promotion of the general good

difpofition of the

But
I

my
am

power depends upon the

furrounded.
If I

men by whom
It

were

inlifted in

an army of cowards,

might
fhould

be

my

duty to

retreat,

though abfolutely confidered

it

have been the duty of the army to come to blows.

poffible circumflance
It is

Under every
by

my duty to advance the general good

I

the beft means

will admit.

which the circumftances under which

am

placed

Book IV, Chap. VI,

p.

308, 9.

CHAP.

'

745

CHAP. VL

SCALE OF COERCION.
ITS SPHERE DESCRIBED.

^^ITS

SEVERAL CLASSES.

DEATH
INSTI-

WITH TORTURE.
THIS POLICY IN STITUTIONS IN

DEATH ABSOLUTELY. ORIGIN OF THE CORRUPTNESS OF POLITICAL INTHE INHUMANITY OF THE

TUTORS.

ITS ATROCIOUSNESS.

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. ITS ABSURDITY PRIVATION OF FREEDOM. DUTY

OUR NEIGHBOUR AN INFERIOR CONITS

OF REFORMING

SIDERATION IN THIS CASE.

PLACE DEFINED.

MODES OF RESTRAINT.
MENT.

INDISCRIMINATE IMPRISON-

SOLITARY IMPRISONMENT.

ITS SEVERITY. ITS

1.

MORAL
TION.

EFFECTS.

SLAVERY. BANISHMENT.
2.

SIMPLE

BANISHMENT.

TRANSPORTATION.

3.

COLONISA-

THIS PROJECT HAS MISCARRIED FROM UNKINDNESS FROM OFFICIOUSNESS. ITS PERMANENT EVILS.
RECAPITULATION.

is

time to proceed to

t"he

confideratlon of

certain

in-

BOOK VII.
CHAP, VL

ferences that

may Le deduced from

;

the theory of coercion

^-

which has now been deUvered

5

nor can any thing be of greater

importance

746

SCALEOFCOERCION.
VII.
J

BOOK
*

Importance than thefe inferences will be found to the virtue, the

happinefs and improvement of mankind.

Its fphere de-

And,

firft, it

evidently follows that coercion

is

an

fcnbed.

ad of ^ painful

neceffity, inconfiftent

with the true charater and genius of mind,

is

the pradice of which

temporarily impofed upon us by the cor-

ruption and ignorance that reign

among mankind. Nothing can

as a fource of

be more

abfurd than to look to

it

improvement.

It

contributes to the generation of excellence, juft as

much

as the

keeper of the courfe contributes to the

fleetnefs

of the race.
it,

No-

thing can be more unjuft than to have recourfe to

but

upon the

moft undeniable emergency.

coercion, and applying
it

Inftead of multiplying occafions of

as the

remedy of every moral

it

evil,

the
li-

true politician will anxioufly confine

mits,

within the narroweft

its

and perpetually feek to dimrnifh the occafions of

employ-

ment.

There

is

but one reafon

is,

by which

it

can in any cafe be

apologifed, and that

large
fliall

where the

fuffering the offender to be at

fecurity.

be notoriouily injurious to the public

Its

feveral

Secondly, the confideration of reftraint as the only juftifiable

claffes.

ground of coercion,
criterion

will furnifh us with a fimple

and fatisfudory
the
fuffering,

by which

to

meafure the juHice of

inflided.

Deatli with

The

inflidlon of a lingering and tormenting death cannot

be

vindicated

upon

this hypothefis

for fuch inflidion can only be

didated

SCALE OF COERCION.
didated by fentiments of refentment on the one hand, or by the
defire to exhibit a terrible

747

book
^
'

vir.
J

example on the

other.

To
out

deprive an offender of his

it

life

in

any manner

will appear Death

lutcly.

abfo.

to be unjuft, fmce
this to

will always be fufficiently pradicable with-

prevent

him from

farther offence.

Privation of

life,

though by no means the

always be confidered
petual clofe

greateft injury that can be infliifled,

mull

as a

very ferlous injury

fmce

it

puts a perall

upon the profpedts of

the fufferer, as to

the en-

joyments, the virtues

and the excellence of a human being.

In the ftory of thofe

vote to deftrudtion,

whom

the mercilefs laws of Europe de

we

fometimes meet with perfons

who

fubfe-

quently to their offence have fucceeded to a plentiful inheritance, or

who
a

for

fome other reafon feem

to

have had the

faireft

profpeds

of tranquillity and happinefs opened upon them. Their ftory with

little

accommodation may be confidered

If there be

as the ftory

of every

offender.

any man

whom

it

may

be neceffaiy for
is

the fafety of the whole to put under reftraint, this circumftance

a powerful plea to the humanity and juftice of the leading

bers of the

memmoft:

community

in his behalf.

This

is

the

man who

ftands in need of their affiftance. If they treated

nefs inftead of fupercilious

him with kindif

and unfeeling negled,

they made

him underftand
to

Vv'ith

how much reiudance they had

been induced

employ the

force of the fociety againft him, if they prefented

truth to his

mind with

calmnefs, perfpicuity and benevolence, if

they

74S

SCALE OF COERCION.
VII.
>
^

BOOK
L

they employed thofe precautions which an humane dirpofitioa

CHAP. VL

would not

^ fail

to fuggeit, to keep

ry

r r from him the motives ot co:>

,

ruption and
fallible.

obftinacy, his

reformation would
his

be almoft in-

Thefe are the profpedis to which

entitle

wants and his misthefe profpeds

fortunes powerfully
that the

him

and

it is

from

hand of the executioner

cuts

him

off for ever..

It is

a miftake to fuppofe that this treatment of crrmihals tends

to multiply crimes.

On

the contrary

few men would enter upoa

a courfe of violence vdtL the certainty of being obliged by a flow

and patient procefs to amputate

of-

their errors.

It is

the uncertainty

punifhment

under the exifting forms that multiplies crimes.

Remove
that
a.

this uncertainty,

and

it

would be

as reafonable to

expect

man would
may

wilfully break his leg, for the fake of being

cured by a fkilful furgeon.

phyfician
difplay,
it is

Whatever gentlenefs the

not to be believed that

intelledual

men

can part

with rooted habits of

confiderable paino.

injuilice

and

vice without the fenfation

of

OriglaoftHs
policy
:

The

true reafbns in confequence of

whurh

thefe forlorn

and

deferted
'ruptnefs'^of

members of
are,

the
firft,

community

are brought to

an igno-

minious death,
tutions

the peculiar iniquity of the civil infti-

IkutTens:'"'

of that community, and, fecondly, the fupinenefs and

In republican and fimple forms of gorare, the

apathy of their fuperiors.

vernment punifhments are

\inknown.

punifhment of death
there
is

is

almoft

On

the other

hand the more

in

any country of
inequality

SCALE OF COERCION.
ir>equality
rr^

749

The more

and oppreffion, the more punifhinents , ^ ncr

1

are multiplied.

BOOK vii.
CHAP.
-^

the inltitutions or lociety contradiu; the

genume

VI.
-

lenti-

ments of the human mind, the more feverely

avenge their violation.

is it

neceflary to
in the in-

At the fame time

the rich and titled

members of
oehold with

the community, proud of their fancied eminence,

total

the inftitu-

unconcern the deftrudlion of the

recolle<St
it

deftitute

and

the wretched, difdaining to

trinfic

that, if there
is

be any in-

difference

between them,

the offspring of their

different

circumftances, and that the

man whom

they

now

fo

much

defpife,

would have been

as

accompliihed and fufceptible

as they, if

they had only changed fituations.

When we

behold

a firing of poor wretches brought out for execution, juftice will

prefent to our affrighted fancy
all

the

hopes and

poffibilities

which

are thus

brutally

extinguilhed, the genius, the daring

invention, the unfhrinking firmnefs, the tender charities and ar-

dent benevolence, which have occafionally under

lacrificed at the fhrine

this

fyftem been

of torpid luxury and unrelenting avarice.

The

fpecles of fuffering
is

commonly known by
alfo profcribed

the appellation

Corporal puiiiniment.

of corporal punifhment
effablifhed.

by the fyflem above

it is

Corporal punifhment, unlefsfo far as

intended

for example, appears in one refpel in a very ludicrous point of

view.

It is

an expeditious

mode of

proceeding, which has been

invented in order to comprefs the effedl of

much

reafoning and
neceffary,

long confiiaement, that might otherwife have been

into a very fhort compafs.

In another view

it is

not poflible to
exprefs

750

SCALE OF COERCION.
exprefs the abhorrence
it

BOOK vri. CHAP VI

ought to

create.

The genuine
man.

pro-

penfity of

man

is

to venerate

mind

in his fellow

With
its

what
efforts

delight
for

do we contemplate the progrefs of

intelled,

the

difcovery of truth, the harveft of virtue that

genial influence of infl:rudion, the

fprings
that
is

up under the

wifdom

generated through the

?

medium

of unreftrided communi-

cation

How

completely do violence and corporal inflitlion

?

reverfe the fcene

From this moment

fide

all

the
fee

wholfome avenues

of mind are clofed, and on every

we

them guarded with

a train of difgraceful pafllons, hatred, revenge, defpotifm, cruelty, hypocrify, confpiracy and cowardice.

Man becomes the enemy

of

man

the flronger are feized with the lull of unbridled do-

mination, and the weaker fhrink with hopelefs difguft from the

approach of a fellow.

With what

feelings

muft an enlightened

obferver contemplate the furrow of a lalh imprinted

upon the

body of a man

What
?"

heart beats not in unifon with the fub-

lime law of antiquity,

"

Thou
is

flialt

not inflid ftripes upon the

body of a Roman

There

but one alternative in this cafe on

the part of the fufferer.

Either his

mind muft be fubdued by

the

arbitrary didates of the fuperior (for to

him

all is

arbitrary that

does not ftand approved to the judgment of his

ing)
;

own

underftand-

he

will

be governed by fomething that

that
is

is

not reafon, and

afhamed of fomething

not difgrace

or elfe every

pang

he endures will excite the honeft indignation of his heart and

fix the clear difapprobation of his intelled, will

produce con-

tempt and alienation, againft

his puniiher.

The

SCALE OF COERCION.
The
^

yji
:

iuftice
Is

of coercion

Is

built

upon r

this fimple prlnclDle r r r

CHAP.

1^<^0K vir. VI.

Every man

bound

to

employ fuch means

as

fliall

fuggeft themit

felves for preventing evils fubverfive

firft

of general fecurlty,

being
all

afcertained,

either

by experience or reafoning,

that

milder methods are Inadequate to the exigence of the

conclufion from
this principle
is,

cafe.

The
cer-

that

we

are

bound under

tain urgent circumftances to deprive the offender of the liberty

'he has abufed.
us.

Farther than this no circumftance can authorlfe

is

He

whofe perfon

imprifoned

(if that

be the right kind

;

of feclufion) cannot interrupt the peace of his fellows

inflidion of farther evil,
is

and the

when

his

power

to injure

is

removed,

the wild and unauthorlfed didate of vengeance and rage, the

fport of unqueftioned fuperiorlty.

wanton

When
there
is

indeed the perfon of the offender has been

firfl:

felzed,

Duty of reforming our neighbour

an inferior
confideratioD
in this cafe

a farther duty incumbent

on

his puniflier, the

duty of

reforming him.
tlon.

But

this

makes no

part of the diredl confidera-

The duty of

every
is

man

to contribute to the Intelledlual

health of his neighbour

it

of general application.

Befide which

is

proper to recoiled what has been already demonllrated,

that coercion of

no

fort

Is

among

the legitimate

means of

re-

formation.

Reftrain the offender as long as the fafety of the

prefcrlbes
it,

community
inftant

for this
to his

Is

juft.

Reftrain

him not an
for this
is

from a fimple view

own improvement,

contrary to reafon and morality.

Meanwhile

752

"SCALE OT COERCION.
Meanwhile
ftraint

there

is

one circumftance by means of which

clofely connected.

re-

and reformation are

is

The

perfon of

Its place dc-

Icribcd.

the offender

to be rellrained as long as the public fafety

would

be endangered by

his liberation.
as

But the public

propenfities

fafety will ceafe

to be endangered, as foon

his

and

difpofitions
refults

have undergone a change.

The

connedlion which thus

it

from the nature of

things, renders

neceflary that, In deciding

upon

the fpecies of rellraint to be irapofed, thefe

two circum-

flances be

confidered jointly,

how

the perfonal liberty of the

offender

may

be

leafl

intrenched upon, and

how

his reformation

may

be hefl promoted.

Modes cf
ftraint.

re

The moll common method

of the liberty he has abufed

purfued in depriving the offender

to eredl a public jail in

is

which
left

Indifcrimi-

nate impri-

offenders of
to

every

defcription are

thruft

together,,

and

rocment.

form among

themfelves what fpecies of fociety

they can.

Various circumftances contribute to imbue them with habits

of indolence and
effort
is

vide,

and

to

difcourage induflry
foften thefe

and no
It

made

to

remove or

circumftances.

cannot be neceffary to expatiate upon the atrocioufnefs of

fyftem.
Jails are to a

this

proverb feminaries of vice

and he muft

be an

uncommon
or a

proficient in the paflion

and the pralice of

does not

iiTJuftice,

man

of iublime virtue,

who

come out of

hem

a nauch worfe

man .than he

entered.

Aa

SCALE OF COERCION.
An
adive obferver of mankind *, with the pureft Intentions,
a very particular attention to this fubjed,

753

cook
>

vii.
j

and who had paid

ftruck with the

was

mifchievous tendency of the reigning fyflem,

public to a fcheme of folitary
free

prifonment.

and

called

the attention of the

imprifonment.
eftablifhed

But

this,

though
to very

from the defeds of the

mode,

is liable

weighty objeQions.

It

muft

ilrike
It

every refleling mind as

uncommonly

tyrannical

^^^ feverity.

and

fevere.

cannot therefore be admitted into the fyftem of

topic of our enquiry.

mild coercion which forms the

fecial animal.

Man

Is

How

far

he

Is

neceflarily fo will appear, If

we

confider the

fum of advantages

refulting

from the

focial,

and of

which he would be deprived

in the folitary
Is

ftate.

But, Indefocial

pendently of his original ftrudure, he

habits.

eminently

by

his

Will you deprive the

man you
?

imprifon, of paper and

the arguments
in

books, of tools and amufements favour of folitary imprifonment

fhould be called off from his
obliged to enter into himfelf.
is,

One of
it Is

that

neceflary the offender

wrong

habits of thinking,

and

This the advocates of

will be

folitary

imprifonment probably believe

moft effectually done, the

fewer be the avocations of the prifoner.

is

But

let

us fuppofe that he

indulged In thefe particulars, and only deprived of fociety.

?

How many men are there that can derive amufement from books
"We
are in this refpe<St the creatures of habit,

and

it is

fcarcely to be

expeded from ordinary men

*

that they fliould

mould themfelves

Mr. Howard.

5D

to

754

SCALE OF COERCION.
vri. VI.
J

BOOK
CHAP.

to

any

fpecies

of employment, to which in their youth they were

wholly

ftrangers.

But he that

is

moft fond of ftudy has

his

mo-

ments when

ftudy pleafes

no longer. The
of

foul yearns with inex-

preffible longings for the fociety

its like.

Becaufe the public

fafety unwillingly commands the confinement of an offender, muft

he for

that reafon never light

up

his countenance with a fmile

Who

can

tell

the fufferings
?

of him who is condemned to unintertell

rupted folitude

Who

-can

that this

is

not, to the majority

of mankind, the
flit
?

bittereft

torment that

human

ingenuity can inthis

No
:

doubt a mind truly fublime would conquer

incon-

venience

but the powers of fuch a mind do not enter into the

prefent queftion.

Its

moral

From
fidered,

the examination of folitary imprifonment in

itfelf

con-

EfFeds.

we

are naturally led to enquire into

its

real

tendency as

to the article of reformation.

To

be virtuous

it is

requifite that

we

fhould confider

men and
is it

their relation to each other.

As a

preliminary to this ftudy

neceflary that
?

we

fhould be fhut

out from the fociety of

men

Shall

we

be moft eifeftually

formed to

juftice,

benevolence and prudence in our intercourfe

?

with each other, in a ftate of folitude

Will not our

?

felfifh

and

unfocial difpofitions be perpetually increafed

What

temptation

has he to think of benevolence or juftice

tunity to exercife
it ?

who

has no oppor-

The
is

true foil in

which atrocious crimes are

dilpofition.

found

to germinate,

gloomy and morofe

Will

his heart

become much

either foftened or
I

expanded,

who

breathes

the atmofphere of a dinngeon

Surely

it

would be

better in this

reipedl

SCALE OF COERCION.
refped to Imitate the fyftem of the univerfe, and,
teach juftice and humanity, tranfplant thofe
into a natural
if

y^^

we would BOOK vir.

^^'^^',

we would

teach

>.

and reafonable

ftate

of

fociety.

Solitude abfo-

lutely confidered

may

inftigate us to ferve ourfelves, but not to

ferve our neighbours.

tions,

Solitude, impofed

under too few limitaidiots,

may

be a nurfery for

madmen and

but not for ufe-

ful

members of fociety.

Another Idea which has fuggefted

relegation of offenders
is

Itfelf

with regard to the

Slavery,

from the community they have injured,

to a ftate of flavery or hard labour.
Is

that of reducing

them

The
As
ill

true refutation of this fyftem

faid.

anticipated in

what has been

unneceflary.
Inexpreflibly
Is

already

To

the fafety of the

community

it is

a means to the reformation of the offender

conceived.

it Is

Man

Is

an

intellectual being.

There

no way

to

make him
Is

virtuous, but In calling out his intelledual powers.

to

There

no way

make him

virtuous, but

by making him

Independent.

He

muft ftudy the laws of nature and the necef^

fary confequence of adtions, not the arbitrary caprice of his

fuperior.

Do you
vj'ith.

defire

that I fhould
;

work

Do

not drive
it

me
to

to

It

the

whip

for,

if

before I thought
alienation.

better

be

idle, this

will but

increafe
it

my

Perfuade
choice.
It

my
can

underftanding, and render

the fubjed of

my

only be by the moft deplorable perverfion of reafon, that

we
of

can be induced to believe any fpecies of flavery, from the flavery

5

756

SCALE OF COERCION.
in our
1

BOOKVII. of the fchool boy to that of the moft unfortunate negro CHAP. VI. , T v ii r t ^ ^ Weft India plantations, favourable to virtue.

Banifliment.

^
tried

fchemc greatly preferable to any of thefe, and which has been

under various forms,
is

that of tranfportation, or banifhment.

is liable

This fcheme under the moft judicious modifications

objedion.
It

to

v^rould
lo.
it

be ftrange

if

any fcheme of coercion or

violence were not

But

it

has been

made appear

ftill

more

exceptionable than

will be

found

in its intrinfic nature,

it

by the

crude and incoherent -circumftances with which

has ufually

been executed.

I,

Simple

Baniffiment
citizen

in

its

fimple

form

baniftiment.

whofe refidence we deem injurious

....

is

evidently unjuft.
in our

The

own

country,

we
s.Tranfportation

have no right to impofe upon another.

Banifliment has fometlmes been joined with flavery.

Such

was

the practice of Great Britain previoufly to the defedion of

her American colonies.

refutation.

This cannot ftand in need of a feparate

}.

Coioniza-

The

true fpecles of baniffiment

is

removal to a country yet

tioii

unfettled.

The

labour by which the untutored

vicious habits of a corrupt fociety,

mind
is

is

beft

weaned from the

not which
is is

the labour,

prefcribed

by the mandate of a
fubfiftence.

fuperior, but

which

impofed by the neceffity of

The

firft

fettlement

of

SCALE OF COERCION.
of

757

Rome by Romulus and

whether
of a

his

vagabonds

is

happy image of book vii.

>

this,

we

confider

it

as a real hiftory, or as the ingenious

'

fidtion

man

well acquainted with the principles of mind.

Men who

are freed

from the injurious

inftitutions

of European

government, and obliged to begin the world for themfelves, are

in the dire<5t road to be virtuous.

Two

circumftances have hitherto rendered abortive this rea- This projea

Firft,

fonable projel.
fpecies of colony

that the

mother country purfues

this

Hed
nefs

with her hatred.

Our

chief anxiety

is

in reality

to render

its

refidence odious and uncomfortable, with the vain

idea of deterring offenders.

Our

chief anxiety ought to be to

their happlnefs.

fmooth

their difficulties,

and contribute to

We
ought
If

fhould recoUedl that the colonifls are

to feel

men

for

whom we

no fentiments but thofe of love and compafFion.

we

were

reafonable,

we

fhould regret the cruel exigence that obliges

us to treat

them

in a

manner

unfuitable to the nature of

mind

and having complied with the demand of that exigence,

we

fhould next be anxious to confer upon them every benefit in

our power.

But we

are unreafonable.

We

harbour a thoufand

favage feelings of refentment and vengeance.

We

thruft

them
to-

out to the remoteft corner of the world.

perifh
refult

We

fubjedl

them

by multitudes with hardfhip and hunger.

of mature
refleiftion"

Perhaps to the

baniihment to the Hebrides, would

appear as effectual as banifhment to the Antipodes*

5
Secondly,,

758
Secondly,

SCALEOFCOERCION.
it

is

abfolutely neceffary

upon the

principles here

explained that thefe colonifts, after having been fufficiently pro-

vided in the outfet, ihould be

left

to themfelves.

We

do worfe
v^rith

than nothing,

if

we

purfue them into their obfcure retreat

inftitutions.

the inaufpicious influence of our European

It is

mark of the profoundeft ignorance of the nature of man,

pofe that,
if left to

to fup-

themfelves, they

would

univerfally deftroy

each other.

On

the contrary,

new

fituations

make new minds.

The

woril criminals

when

turned adrift in a body, and reduced

to feel the churlifh fang of neceffity, conduiSt themfelves

upon

reafonable

principles,

and often proceed with a fagacity and

to the blufh.

public

fpirit that

might put the proudeft monarchies

Its

permaevils.

Meanwhile

let

us not forget the inherent vices of coercion,

fubjedl
is

nent

which prefent themfelves from whatever point the

viewed.
Colonization feems to be

the moft eligible of thofe

it is

expedients which have been Hated, but

fiderable difficulties.

attended with con-

The community judges of

a certain indi-

vidual that his refidence cannot be tolerated

fiftently

among them con-

with the general

fafety.

In denying him his choice

among

other communities do they not exceed their commiflion?

What

treatment fhall be awarded him,

?

if

he return from the

difficulties are

banilhment to which he was fentenced

calculated to bring back the

Thefe

mind

to the abfolute Injuftlce

of

coercion, and to render us inexpreffibly anxious for the advent

of that policy by which

it

fhall

be abolifhed.

To

SCALE OF COERCION.
To
m

759

conclude.

The

obfervations of this chapter are relative to

it

book
v

Vir.
'

a theory, which affirmed that

r

might be the duty of individuals,

,

CHAP. VI

but never of communities, to exert a certain ipecies of pohtical

coercion
;

Recapitulation.

and which founded

this

duty upon a confideration of

thefe circumftances then

the benefits of public fecurity.

Under

every individual

is

bound

to

judge for himfelf, and to yield his

is

countenance to no other coercion than that which

neceflary.

indifpenfibly

He

will

no doubt endeavour

to meliorate thofe inftihis

tutions with

which he cannot perfuade

countrymen

to part.

He
plea

will decline all concern in the execution of fuch, as abufe the

of public fecurity to the moft atrocious purpofes.

Laws

may eafily

be found in almoft every code, which, on account of

fall

the iniquity of their provifions, are fuffered to

into difufe

by

general confent.

Every lover of juflice will uniformly in this

way

contribute to the repealofalllaws,that wantonly ufurp

upon

the independence of mankind, either

by the multiplicity of their

reftridions, or feverity of their fantions.

CHAP.

76o

CHAP.

VII.

OF EVIDENCE.
DIFFICULTIES TO WHICH THIS SUBJECT
IS

LIABLE

EXIS

EMPLIFIED

IN

THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN

INTENTIONS.

OVERT

ACTIONS
THIS

AND

REASONS

AGAINST
IT

DISTINCTION.

PRINCIPLE
afcertalned

IN WHICH

FOUNDED.

T TAVING
*- -*

fufficiently

the decifion

in

which

queftions of offence againft the general fafety ought to

it

terminate,

only remains under this head of enquiry to confider

trial

the principles according to which the

fhould be conduded.
referred to

Thefe principles

may

for
is

the

moll part be

two

points, the evidence that

to be required,

and the method to be

purfued by us in claffing offences.

"^^^ difEcuIties to which the fubjed of evidence is liable, have Sifhih"*" " ^^^" repeatedly ftated in the earlier divifions of this work*. It

Se?

may be worth while in this

attend

place to recoiled the difficulties

it

which

upon one

particular clafs of evidence,

being fcarcely

* Book

II,

Chap. VI. Book VII, Chap. IV.

poffible

O F E V
poflible that

D E N C
how

E.

y^i

the imagination of every reader fhould not fuffice

BOOK vii.
^

him

to apply this text,

and

to perceive

eafily the
clafs.

fame kind

^'

of enumeration might be extended to any other

It

has been afked, "

Why

intentions are not fubjeded to the

exemplified

animadverfion of crimmal juftice,

a<StS

m the fame manner as

diredl

tinaion be-

of offence

tween overt afls and intentions.

The arguments
vious.
*'

in favour of their being thus fubjeded are obis

Reafons
gainft

a-

this

The

proper objedt of poUtical fuperintendence

not

diftinaion.

the paft, but the future.

againft

Society cannot juflly employ coercion

any

individual,

however atrocious may have been

his

mifdemeanours, from any other than a profpedive confideration,

that
is,

a confideration of the danger with which his habits

Paft

may

be pregnant to the general fafety.

fall

condud cannot properly

fo far as
it is

under the animadverfion of government, except

future.

an indication of the

But

paft

condud appears

at firft

fight to afford a flighter prefumptlon as to

what the delinquent

will

do

hereafter, than declared intention.

The man who

pro-

felfes his
lefs

determination to commit murder, feems to be fcarcely a

dangerous

member of

fociety, than

he who, having already

to repeat his of-

committed murder, has no apparent intention

fence."

And yet all governments

have agreed either to pafs over

the menace in filence, or to fubjed the offender to a

much
by

lefs

degree of coercion, than they employ againft him,

whom
the

762

O
the

D E N C
It

E,
be right perhaps
for-

BOOK VII.
*

crime has

been

perpetrated.
attention

may

'

to yield

them fome

when
is

they thus agree in

bearance, though

little

undoubtedly

due to their agreement in

inhumanity..

Pnnciple

m
IS

-pj^jg

which

It

(jiftindion, fo far as '

it

is

founxled in reafon, has re-

foundiid.

lation

principally to the uncertainty of evidence.

Before the

intention of

any man can be afcertained

lie

in a court of jullicc

from the confideration of the words

has employed, a variety

of circumftances muft be taken into the account.

heard the words which were employed
accurately, or has not his
ftitute in
it
is
:

The

witnefs

does he repeat them

to fub-

want of memory caufed him

his

the

room of fome of them words of

to decide

own ?

Before
I

pofFible

upon the confident expeilation

will

may

entertain that thefe

words
I

be followed with correfpondenC

adions,

it

is

neceflary

fhould

know

the

exadl tone with

which they were

accompanied.
It

delivered,
is

and gefture with which they were

neceffary I fhould be acquainted with the

that

context, and the

occafion

produced them

Their con-

flrudion will depend upon the quantity of momentary heat

or rooted malice with which they were delivered
;

and words,

which appear

at

iirft

fight of

tremendous import, will fomeinveftigation

to

times be found

upon

accurate

have had a

meaning purely

ironical in

the

mind of

the fpeaker.

Thefe

confiderations, together with the odious nature of coercion in

general.

O
general,

D E N

E.
attend

763
our re-

and the extreme mifchief that

may

BOOK
^^

Vir.

ftraining the faculty of fpeech in addition to the reftraint

we

conceive ourfelves obliged to put on men's actions, will pro-

bably be found to afford a

fufficient reafon,

why words
political

ought

feldom or never to be
verfion.

made

a topic

of

animad-

CHAP.

7%

CHAP.

vm.

OF LAW.
ARGUMENTS BY WHICH
IT
IS

RECOMMENDED.

ANSWER.
MODE
IN

LAW

IS, I.

ENDLESS

PARTICULARLY IN
DISADVANTAGE.
2.

A FREE STATE.

CAUSES OF THIS
WHICH
MISES
IT

UNCERTAIN

INSTANCED IN QUESTIONS OF PROPERTY.

TEL FUTURE EVENTS.

MUST BE STUDIED. 3. PRETENDS TO FORELAWS ARE A SPECIES OF PROCHECK THE FREEDOM OF OPINION ARE DE-

STRUCTIVE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF REASON.

DISHOMIS-

NESTY OF LAWYERS.
CHIEVOUS.

AN HONEST LAWYER

ABOLITION OF LAW VINDICATED ON THE SCORE OF WISDOM OF CANDOUR FROM THE NATURE OF MAN. FUTURE HISTORY OF POLITICAL JUSTICE. ERRORS THAT MIGHT ARISE IN THE COMMENCEGRADUAL PROGRESS. CRIMINAL LAW ON PROPERTY.
MENT.
ITS
ITS EFFECTS

ON

FARTHER
offences,
is

article

of great importance in the

trial

of
in

that of the

method

to be purfued

by us

claffing

them, and the confequent apportioning the degree of

animadverfion to the cafes that

may

arife.

This

article

brings

us

O
of the

L A W.
Is

75^
without doubt one
intelled can be

us to the dired confideratlon of law, which

BOOK Vii.
>

mod

important topics upon which

It
is

human

employed.

law which has hitherto been regarded in

countries calling themfelves civilifed, as the ftandard,

to meafure
all

by which

offences

and

irregularities that fall

under public
of

animadverfion.
choice.

Let us

fairly

invelligate

the merits

thb

The comparifon which

has prefented

itfelf

to thofe

by

whom

the topic has been inveftigated, has hitherto been between law

on one
But,
firft

fide,

and the arbitrary

will

of a defpot on the other. of law,

if

we would
it

fairly eflimate the merits

it is

we

fhould
fearch

confider

as

in

itfelf,

and then,

if neceflary,

for the moll eligible principle that

may

be fubftituted in

its_ place.

It

has been

recommended

as

" affording information

to the Argumenta
by which is recommended.
it

different

members of the community refpeding the

principles
It

which

will be adopted in deciding

upon

their adions."

has

been reprefented as the higheft degree of iniquity, " to try

men

by an

ex pojl faSfo law, or indeed in

any other manner than by

fuflSciently

the letter of a
gated."

law, formally

made, and

promul-

How
we
firfl

far

it

will be fafe altogether to annihilate

this principle Anfwer,

fhall prefently

have occafion to enquire.

it is

It is

obvious at

fight to remark, that

of moft importance in a country

is

where the fyftem of jurifprudence

moft capricious and abfurd.

If

766

O P L A W.
vir.
^

BOOK
*

If

it
,

be deemed criminal in any fociety to wear clothes of a

.

CHAP. via.
.

, ^ r particular texture, or buttons of a particular compolition,

it is

natural to exclaim, that

fociety fhould inform
its

it is

high time the jurifprudence of that

are the fantaftic rules

members what

by

which they mean

to proceed.

But, if a fociety be contented with

itfelf
is

the rules of juftice, and do not affume to

diftorting or adding to thofe rules, there

the right of
lefs

law

evidently a

neceflary inftitution.

The

rules of juftice

would be more

clearly

and effedually taught by an atual intercourfe with human fociety

unreftrained

by the

fetters

of prepoiTeffion, than they can be

by

catechifms and

codes *.

i.aw U,

J.

One
upon
'

refult

of the inftitution of law

is,

that the inftitution

once begun, can never be brought to a

particularly
'

clofe.

Edit

is

heaped

edlt,

and volume upon volume.

is

This will be moft the

its

cafe,

where the government

moft popular, and

proceedings
this Is

have moft in them of the nature of deliberation. Surely

flight

no

indication that the principle

is

wrong, and that of conit

fequence, the farther

we

proceed In the path

marks out

to us,

the more fhall

we

be bewildered.

No tafk

can be more hopelefs

than that of efFeding a coalition between a right principle and a

wrong.

He

that ferloufly

and fincerely attempts

ridicule,

it,

will perhaps

cxpofe himfelf to more palpable

profefling

than he who, inftead of

to the worft.

two oppofite fyftems, fhould adhere

Caufesofthis
iifadvantage.

Thcrc
'^~^'"

Is

uo maxIm more

clear than this,

Every '

cafe

is

a rule

* Book VI, Chap. VIII,

p.

671.

to

OF
to
itfelf.
,

LA
man was
r

W.
ever the fame as any other
!

76^

No
,

action of any
,

BOOK vir.
CHAP.VIII.
^
- .,

. action,

had ever the lame degree 01 utihty or mjury.

It

fhould

feem

to be the bufmefs of ju-tllce, to diftinguifh the qualities of

men, and

not, whicli has

hitherto been

the pradticc,

to

con-

found them.

But what has been the

law
?

refult

of an attempt to do

this in relation to

As new

cafes occur, the

it

law
?

is

perpe-

tually

found

deficient.

How
The

fhould

be otherwife

Lawgivers

have not the faculty of unlimited

that

pi-efcience,

and cannot define

is

which

is infinite.

alternative that remains,

either to

wreft the law to include a cafe which was never in the contemplation of the author,
particular cafe.

or to

make

new law

to provide for this

Much

has been done in the

firft

of thefe modes..
refine

The

quibbles of lawyers and the arts

by which they

and
is

diftort the fenfe

of the law, are proverbial.

cannot be thus done..

But, though

much

clone, every thing

The

abufe would fome-

times be too palpable.

enables the lawyer,
find

Not

to fay, that the very education that

is

when he
the

employed

for the profecutor, to

out
is

offences

lawgiver

never meant,

enables

him,

when he

employed

for the defendant, to find out fubterfuges

nullity.
It is

that reduce the

law to a

therefore perpetually
in

neceifary to
evafion,

make new

lav/s.

Thefe laws,

order to efcape

are frequently
in

tedious,

minute and circumlocutory.

is

The volume
increafing,

which

juftice records her prefcriptions

for ever
that,

and the world would not contain the books

might be written.

The

768

L A W.
is its

The
This
2 uncertain
.

confequeiice of the infinitude of law

uncertainty.
is

ftrikes

diredly at the principle upon which law

to put
i
,
. .

founded.
i

Laws were made

an end to ambiguity, and that each

man
of

might know what he had to depend upon.

mftanced
!n

How

well have
article

they aufwcrcd this purpofe

property.

Let us inftance in the

certain

fropcny.

Two men

go to law for a

eftate.

They

would not go
of their
cafe.

to law, if they

had not both of them an opinion

partial in their

fuccefs.

But we may fuppofe them

own

They would

not continue to go to law, if they were not

both promifed fuccefs by their lawyers.

plain

Law was made

to

that a

man might know what he had

depend upon,

and

yet the moft fkilful practitioners differ about the event of

fuit.

my

It will

fometimes happen that the moft celebrated pleader

firft

in the

kingdom, or the

counfel in the fervice of the crovra,

fhall aflure

me

of

infallible fuccefs, five

minutes before another

law officer, ftyled the keeper of the king's confcience,

by fome

unexpeded juggle

decides

it

againfl

me.

Would

the ilfue have

been equally uncertain,

if I

had had nothing to

truft to

but the

plain, unperverted fenfe of a jury of

my

neighbours, founded in
?

the ideas they entertained

of general juftice

Laviryers
is

have

abfurdly maintained, that the expenfivenefs of ^law

to prevent the

neceffary

unbounded

multiplication of fuits
is

but the true

fource of this multiplication

uncertainty.

M^n
is

do not quarrel

about that which

is

evident, but that

which

obfcure.

Mode In
which
it

He
muft

that
e

would ftudy the laws of a country accuftomed

to

beftudied.

legal

O
legal fecurlty,

.,
r,

L A W.
ftatutes.
;

769

muft begin with the volumes of the

-ry

He BOOK vir.
CHAP.VIII.

muft add a undt enquiry mto the he ought to digrefs into the
law.

common

or unwritten law

and

civil,

the ecclefiaftical and canon

To

underftand the intention of the authors of a law, he

their characters

muft be acquainted with

and views, and with

the various circumftances, to

which

it

owed

its

rife,

and by

which

it

was modified while under

deliberation.

To

underftand
it

the weight and interpretation that will be allowed to

in a

court of juftice, he muft have ftudied the whole coUedion of

records, decifions that ordinary

and precedents.

Law was

originally devifed

men might know what

they had to depend upon,

and there

is

not at this day a lawyer exifting in Great Britain,

prefumptuous and vain-glorious enough to pretend that he has

maftered the code.
induftry, even

Nor muft

it

be forgotten that time and

were they
;

infinite,

would not

fuffice.

It is

labyrinth without end

it is

a mafs of contradictions that cannot

it

be extricated.
ble,

Study

will enable the lawyer to find in

plaufi-

perhaps unanfwerable, arguments for any fide of almoft

;

any queftion

but

it

would argue the utmoft

folly

to

fuppole

that the ftudy of

law can lead to knowledge and certainty.

A farther confideration
law in
its

that will demonftrate the abfurdlty of

is,

3.

pretends to

foretel fututc

moft general acceptation

Its taik is to defcribe

that

it

Is

of the nature of

events.

prophecy.

what

will

be the adtlons of
Its

mankind, and to
in this relpet

dictate decifions refpeifling them.

merits

Laws

are a

fpeciea of

have already been decided under the head of 5

promiiii:

promlfes.

770

OF
Vir.

LAW,
is,

BOOK
s...

promifes *.
wife, that

The

language of fuch a procedure

"

We
it

are

fo-

we

can draw no additional knowledge from circum;

ftances as they occur

and we pledge ourfelves

that, if

be other-

wife, the additional

check the
freedom of pinion:

knowledge we acquire
It is

fhall

produce no
this fub-

effed

upon our conduft."

law

proper to obferve, that

jedl of

may

be confidered in fome refpedts as more properly

belonging to the topic of the preceding book.

lefs

Law

tends no,

than creeds, catechifms and

tefts,

to

fix the

human mind

in a flagnant condition, and to fubftitute a principle of perma-

nence, in the

room of

that

unceafmg

perfedtibility

which

is

the

only falubrious element of mind.

All the arguments therefore

which were employed upon

fubjed

that occafion

may

be applied to the

now

under

confideration.^

are deftruo

The

fable of Procruftes prefents us

with a

faint

fhadow of the

pnncipiea of
reafon.

pcrpctual clFort of law.

^

In defiance of the great principle of

natural pliilofophy, that there arc not fo

much

as

two atoms of
it

matter of the fame form through the whole univerfe,^

endea-

vours to reduce the actions of men, which are compofed of a

thoufand evanefcent elements^

to

one ftandard.

We

have

already feen the tendency of this endeavour in the article of

murder

f.

It

was in the contemplation of

this

fyftem of jurif-

prudence,

that the ftrange

maxim was

invented, that " ftrid

Book III, Chap. IIL

p. J31.

t Book

II,

Chap. VI,

Book VII, Chap. IV,

p. 718.

juftice

O
juftlce
. ,

L A W.
Injuftice *."

771

would often prove the higheft

.

There

is

no BOOK
CHAP.
v___

vir.
VIII.
*

more

real juftice in

endeavouring to reduce the adions of

men

into claffes,

than there was in the fcheme to which

all

we have juft
If

alluded, of reducing

men

to the

fame

ftature.

on the
all

contrary juftice be a refult flowing from the contemplation of

the circumftances of each individual cafe,
juftice
if the

only criterion of
is

be general

utility,

the inevitable confequence

that, the

more we have of juftice,

and happinefs.

the

more we

(hall

have of truth, virtue

From

all

thefe confiderations
is

we

cannot hefitate to conclude

of the moft pernicious

univerfally that law

an

inftitution

tendency.

The
thofe

fubje(3:

will receive

fome

additional elucidation, if
its

we

DiiTioneftyof lawyers;

confider the pernicioufnefs of law in

immediate relation to

who

pralife

it.

If there

ought to be no fuch thing as

is

law, the profeflion of a lawyer

probation.

no doubt
fail

entitled to

our difap-

lawyer can fcarcely

to be a difhoneft

man.

This

is lefs

a fubje<Sl for cenfure than for regret.

Men

are the

creatures of the neceflities under

that
is

which they are

placed.

He
fail

habitually goaded

by the
is

incentives of vice, will not

to be vicious.
falfe

He

that

perpetually converfant in quibbles,

colours and fophiftry, cannot equally cultivate the generous

* Summumjiis fumma

injuria.

S F 2

emotions

^72

L A W.
If

emotions of the foul and the nice difcernment of reditude.

a fingle individual can be found

who

is

but fuperficially tainted

the other hand, in
virtues,

with the contagion,

how many men on

whom
bribe
to
?

we faw the promife of the fublimeft

Be
obferved,
that

have by

this

trade been rendered indifferent to confiftency or acceiTible to a

it

thefe

remarks apply principally

men eminent
pauch

or

fuccefsful in their profeflion.

He

that

enters into an employment carelefsly and by

way

of amufe-

ment,

is

lefs

under

its

influence (though he will not

it

efcape), than

he

that enters into

with ardour and devotion.

An

honeft

Let US howevcr fuppofe, a circumftance which

gather impoflTible, that a

is

perhaps ako-

lawyer mifchievous.

man

fhall

be a perfectly honeft lawyer*

He
be
to

is

determined to plead no caufe that he does not believe to

juft,

and

to

employ no argument
defigns,

that

he does not apprehend

ftrip

be

folid.
its

He

as far as his fphere extends, to

law of
reafon.

ambiguities, and to fpeak the

manly language of
fo far as

This

man

is
it

no doubt highly refpedable

relates to himfelf, but

may

be queftioned whether he be not a

fociety than the difhoneft lawyer.
relation

more pernicious member of

The hopes of mankind

in

to their future progrefs,

depend upon their obferving the genuine effeds of erroneous

inftitutions.

But

this

man

is

employed in foftening and malkto poftpone

ing thefe efFeds.

His condud has a dired tendency

the reign of found policy, and to render the

mankind
It

tranquil in

midft of imperfedion and ignorance.

may

appear indeed a para-

O
But the true folutlon of
virtue,

\V.

-,73,

a paradox to affirm that virtue can be

more pernicious than

vice,

book vir.
'^

this difficulty lies

is

in the remark, that

fuch as

is

here defcribed,

impoffible.

We

may amufe

ourfelves with enquiring in fuch inftances as this whether theory

could not
the

affi^rd

us a better fyftem of intelledual progrefs than

takes place in the world.
call

mixed fyftem which

is,

But the true

anfwer probably

that

what we

vice

is

mere error of the un-

derftanding, a neceflary part of the gradation that leads to good

and in a word

that the courfe of nature

all

and the courfe of a per-

fect theory are in

cafes the fame.

The
of law,

true principle
is

which ought to be

fubftltuted in the

room

Abolklon of
caTed "n'the
:^
"'''"^

that of reafon exercifmg

an uncontroled jurifdidion

upon

the circumftances of the cafe.

arife

To

this

principle

no ob-

dom

jedion can

on the

fcore of

wifdom.

It is

not to be fuppofed

that there are not

men now

exifting,

whofe intelledual accomforaetimes call the

impofition.
It

plifhments

rife to

the level of law.

Law we

wifdom of our
was

anceftors.

But

this is a ftrange

as frequently

the

didate of their paffion,

fpirit,

of timidity,

jealoufy, a

monopolifmg

and a

luft

of power that
to
?

knew
and
it

no bounds.
remodel
this

Are we not obliged perpetually

revife

mifnamed wifdom of our

their ignorance
if

anceftors

to corred

by a detedion of
intolerance
?

and a condemnation of their

But,

men can be found among us whofe wifdom is

it

equal to the

wifdom of law,

will fcarcely be maintained, that

the truths they have to conununicate will be the worfe for

having.

77+
CHAP.
*

O
reafons that fupport them.

L A W.
which they derive from the

BOOK VII. having no

VJII.
'

authority, but that

f candour:

It

may however

be alledged that, "

if there

be

little

difficulty

in fecuring a current portion of wifdom, there

may neverthelefs

be fomething to be feared from the paffions of men.

Law may

be fuppofed to have been conftrufted in the tranquil ferenity of the

foul, a fuitable

monitor to check the inflamed mind with which the

induce us to proceed to the exercife

recent

memory of ills might

This
is

of coercion."

the moll confiderable argument that can

be adduced in favour of the prevailing fyftem, and therefore

deferves a mature examination.

from the natureofman:

The true anfwcr

to this

objedion
,

Is

that nothing can be

im-

proved but in conformity to

welfare of man,

its

nature.

If

we

confult for the

we

muft bear perpetually in

mind

the flrufture

of man.

It

muft be admitted that

we

are imperfed, ignorant,

the flaves of appearances.

indirect

Thefe

defeats can be

removed by no

method, but only by the introduction of knowledge.

fpecimen of the indiret method

It

we

have in the
that

doiSbrine

of

Ipiritual infallibility.

was obferved

men were
to

liable to

error,

to

dlfpute for ever without

coming

a decifion,

to

miftake in their moft important

interefts.

What was

wanting,

was fuppofed

to

be a criterion and a judge of controverfies.

to

What was attempted, was

and then

endue truth with a

ereded.

vifible

form,

repair to the oracle

we had

The

OF
The
cafe

LAW.
is
,

775
this.

refpeding law

exadlly parallel to

Men
I

bookvii,
CHAP.
VJII.
*
*^

were aware of the

deceitfulnefs of appearances,

and they fought

Suppofe
wei-e

a talifman to guard them from impofition.

to determine at the

commencement of every day upon

I

a certain

code of principles to which

would conform the condudt of the

day, and at the commencement of every year the condud of the

year.

Suppofe

were

to

determine that no circumftances

fhould be allowed by the light they afforded to modify

my

condudl,
flave

left I

fhould become the dupe of appearance and the

of paflion.

This

is

a juft and accurate image of every

are

fyftem of permanence.

Such fyftems

formed upon the idea

left it fliould

of flopping the perpetual motion of the machine,

fometimes
fall

into diforder.

This confideration muft fufEciently perfuade an

impartial'

mind

that,

whatever inconveniences

may

arife

from the pafTions

of men, the introdudion of

remedy.
progreflive

fixed laws cannot be the genuine

Let us confider what

ftate

would be the operation and

of thefe pafTions, provided

men were
is

trufted

to the guidance ofv their

own

difcretion.

Such

the difcipline

that a reafonable ftate of fociety

in his

employs with refped: to

fhould
it

man

individual capacity *

why

not be equally valid

?

with refpe<ftto

men

acting in a collective capacity

to reftrain

Inexperience

and
he

zeal
is

would prompt me
wrong,
*

my

neighbour whenever

a<fting

and,

by

penalties

and inconveniences

Book V, Chap. XX,

p. 548.

defignsdiy

-76

L A W.
him of
his
errors.

BOOK VII.
J

defignedly interpofed, to cure

But reafon
that,
it

evinces the folly oi this proceeding, and teaches

me

he

be not accuftomed to depend upon the energies of

will never rife to the dignity of a rational being.

intellet,

he
as a

As long

man

is

held in the trammels of obedience, and habituated to

-

look to fome foreign guidance for the diredion of his condud,

his underftanding
I defire to raife

and the vigour of

his

mind

will fleep.
is

Do.
?

him

to the energy of to

which he
to

capable

muft teach him

to feel himfelf,

bow

no

authority, to
his

examine the

principles

he

entertains,

and render to

mind

the reafon of his condud.

The
equally
are

habits

which
in

are thus falutary to the individual will be

falutary

the

tranfadions

of

communities.

Men

weak

at prefent,

becaufe they have always been told they

trufted

are weak, and mull not be

with themfelves.

Take them
;

out of their fhackles

bid

them

enquire, reafon and judge Tell

and
that

you will foon find them very different beings.

them

they have paffions, are occafionally hafty, intemperate and injurious, but they
that

muft be

trufted with themfelves.

Tell them

the mountains of parchment in

fit

which they have been

hitherto intrenched, are

ftition

only to impofe upon ages of fuper-

and ignorance

that henceforth

we
;

will

have no depend-

ence but upon their fpontaneous juftice

that, If their paffions

be gigantic, they

muft

rife

with gigantic energy to fubdue them;

Ihall

that, if their decrees

be iniquitous, the iniquity

be

all

their

own.

'

OF
own.
ble
;

LAW.
of things will foon be
its

777
vifi-

The
mind

efledl

of
rife

this difpofition

BOOKVii.
CHAP. VI
'

will

to

the level of

fituation

juries

and
truft

^-

I.

umpires

will

be penetrated with the magnitude of the

repofed in them.

it

may

be no uninftrudtive fpedacle to furvey the progreffive

Future

hif-

tory of poli-

eftablifhment of juftice in the ftate of things

which

is

here re-

tlcaljultice.

commended.

At

firll

it

may

be a few decifions will be

made
thefe

Errors that

might

arifc

uncommonly

abfurd or

atrocious.

But the authors of

in the

commencement.

decifions will be confounded with the unpopularity and difgrace

in

which they have involved themfelves.

original

In

reality,

whatever

were the

fource of law,
Its

it

foon became cherifhed as a

cloke for oppreffion.

obfcurity
Its

was of ufe

to miflead the in-

quifitive eye of the fufferer.

antiquity ferved to

divert a
,of

confiderable

part

of the odium from the perpetrator of the law, and

ftill

the

injuftice to the author

more
It

to difarm that

odium by

the influence of fuperftitious awe.

was well known

fail to

that uuvarnilhed, barefaced oppreffion could not

be the

vitim of

its

own

operations.

To

this ftatement

it

may

indeed be objeded, " that bodies of

cenfure,
all,

men have
to none."
is

often been found callous to

and that the

is

difgrace, being amicably divided

among them
is

intolerable
it

In this obfervation there

confiderable force, but

inapplicable to the prefent argument.

is

To

this

fpecies

of

abufe one of two things

indifpenfibly neceflary, either

N

numbers

778
BOOKVir. bers or
I

OF
fecrecy.

LAW.
therefore
It

To

this abufe

will be a fufEcien't
all

remedy, that each jurifdidlion be confiderably limited, and

tranfadions condudted in an open and
proceed.
explicit

manner.

To

Its gradual

'j^}^g

juridical decifions that

were made immediately

after the

progrefs.

abolition of law,

would

differ little

from thofe during

and
habit.

its

empire.
habit,

They would be the

having
loft

decifions of prejudice

But

the centre about

its

which

it

revolved,
to

would diminifh
the arbitra-

in the regularity of tion of

operations.
intrufted,

Thofe

whom

any queftion was

whole
cafe
fail

would frequently recoiled

to their deliberation,

that the'

was committed

and

they could not

occafionally to

examine themfelves refpecting

the reafon of thofe principles which had hitherto paffed uncontroverted.

Their underftandings would grow enlarged, in profelt

portion as they

the importance of their truft, and the untheir inveftigation.

bounded freedom of

Here then would comwhich no underftanding

mence an
of

aufpicious order of things, of

man

at

prefent in exiftence can foretel the refult, the defaith

thronement of implicit
juftice.

and the inauguration of unclouded

Its effefls

on
:

Some

of the conclufions of which

this ftate

of things would

criminal lavv

be the harbinger, have been already feen in the

judgment

that

would be made of
*

offences agalnft the

p. 131.

community *.
p. 718.

Offences

Book

II,

Chap, VI,

Book VII, Chap. IV,

argumg

OF
arguing

LA

\V.

775
vii.
'

infinite variety in the depravity

from which they fprung, BOOK

j

would no longer be confounded under fome general name.

Juries

would grow

as perfpicacious in diftlnguifhing, as

they are

now

indifcriminate in

confounding the merit of actions and

charaders.

Let us confider the

refpeds the
article

effects

of the abolition of law as

it or. property^.

of property.

As foon

as the

minds of men

became fomewhat weaned from the unfeeling uniformity of the

prefent fyftem, they

would begin

to enquire

after

equity.

In

this fituation let us fuppofe a litigated fucceffion

brought before

them, to which there were

their old legiflation

five heirs,

and that the fentence of

this

had directed the divifion of

property

into five equal fliares.

They would

begin to enquire into the

wants and
to

fituation of the claimants.

fair

The

firfl

we

will fuppofe
:

have a

charader and be profperous

in the

world

he

is

refpedable

member

of fociety, but farther wealth would add

or his enjoyment.

little
is

either to his ufefulnefs

The

fecond

miferable objed, perifliing with want, and

calamity.
is

overwhelmed with
;

The

third,

though poor,
his virtue

is

yet tranquil

but there

a fituation to

which

leads
fei-vice,

him

to

afpire,

and in

which he

may

be of

uncommon
One

but which he cannot

fifths

with propriety accept, without a capital equal to two

the whole fucceffion.

of

of the claimants

is

an unmarried
is

woman

paft

the

age of childbearing.

Another

widow,

unprovided, and with a numerous family depending on her

fuccour.

"00

OF
VII.

LAW.
would fuggeft
itfelf to

BOOK
*

fuccour.

The

firft

queftion that

unpre-

,.^_^

judiced perfons, having the allotment of this fucceffion referred

to their unlimited decifion,

would

be,

what

jullice

is

there in
?

the indifcriminate partition

which has

hitherto prevailed

This

would be one of

the early fuggeftions that

would produce a

fhock in the prevailing fyftem of property.

the general iffue of thefe fuggeftions
is

To

enquire into

the principal obje(3: of

the following book.

An

obfervation which cannot have efcaped the reader in the

perufal

of

this chapter,

is,

that

law

is

merely

relative to the

exercife of political force,

and muft perilh when the neceflity

for that force ceafes, if the influence of truth

extirpate
it

do not

ftill

fooner

from the

practice of

mankind.

CHAR

78i

CHAP.

IX.

OF PARDONS.
THEIR ABSURDITY. THEIR ORIGIN.

THEIR

ABUSES.

THEIR ARBITRARY CHARACTER.

RALITY.

DESTRUCTIVE

OF MO-

THERE
few words,
cafes

one other topic which belono-s to the fubied of BOOK VII. ' ^ '^ CHAP. IX, ^ ^ the prefent book, but which may be difmifled in a very
Is
*

becaufe, though
praftice,

it

has unhappily been in almofl

a point that feems to admit of

all

negleded in

it is

un-

commonly
of pardons.

funple and

irrefiilible

evidence

mean, the fubjedt

The very word

"

to a refleding

mind
all

is

fraught with abfurdity. Their

dity,

abfur-

What is

the rule that ought in

;

cafes to prefcribe to

my

con-

dudl ?" Surely juftice

lity

underftanding by juftice the greateft uti-

of the whole mafs of beings that

may
?"
It

be influenced by

my

condut.

"

What

then

is

clemency

can be nothing but

the pitiable egotifm of

better than juftice.

him who imagines he can do fomething

Is
it

"

right that

fliould fufFer conftraint

for a certain offence ?"

The

relltude

of

my

fuffering

muft be

founded

in

its

tendency to promote the general welfare.

He

therefore

782

O
therefore that pardons
tereft

A R D O N

S.

BOOK VII.
CHAP.

me, iniqukoufly

prefers the imaginary In-

IX.
'

of an individual, and utterly negledls what he owes to the

whole.

He

beftows that which

right to give.

ought not to receive, and

Is
it

which he has no
that
I

"

right

on the contrary
?

fhould not undergo the fuffering in queftion

Will he by
injury to

refcuing
others ?"

me from

fuffering,

do a benefit

to

me and no

He

will then be a notorious delinquent, if

he allow
this laft

me
he

to fuffer.

There
If,

is

indeed a confiderable defedl in

fuppofition.
is

while he benefits me, he do no injury to others,

fervice.

infallibly

performing a public

If I fuffered in the

arbitrary

manner which the

fuppofition includes,

the

whole

would

fuftain

an unqueftionable injury in the injuftice that was

perpetrated.
tice,

And

yet the

man who

prevents this odious injuf-

has been accuftomed to aiTogate to himfelf the attribute of

I'eality

clement, and the apparently fublime, but in

tyrannical,

name of

forgivenefs.

For, if he do

more than has been here

defcribed, inftead of glory, he

ought to take fhame to himfelf, as

kind.
If every acSlion,

an enemy to the
efpecially every
is

intereft

of

human

and

adion

in

which the happinefs of a

rational being

concerned, be fufceptible of a certain rule, then caprice mufl: be

all

in

cafes excluded

there can be

no
;

alion, which, if I neif I

glect, I fhall

have difcharged

my

duty

and,

perform,

I fhall

be entitled to applaufe.

Tlieir origin.

The
glaring.

pernicious efFeds of the fyftem of pardons

It

is

peculiarly

was

firft

invented as the miferable fupplement to a

fanguinary

A R D O N

S.

783

fanguinary code, the atrocioufnefs of which was fo confplcuous,

that
its

BOOK vii. CHAP IX

*
.

minifters either dreaded the refiftance of the people if

it

were indifcriminately executed, or themfelves fhrunk with fpontaneous repugnance from the devaftation
it

commanded.

The

fyftem of pardons naturally affociates with the fyftem of law

for,

though you

may

call

every inflance in which one

man

ocin-

cafions the death of another

juftice

by the name of murder, yet the

apply to
ail

would be too

great, to

inftances the

fame

treatment.

Define murder as accurately as you pleafe, the fame

itfelf.

confequence, the fame difparity of cafes will obtrude

neceflary therefore to have a court of reafon, to
fions of a court of

It is

which the

deci-

law

fhall

be brought for

revifal.

But how

is

this court, inexpreffibly

?

more important than the

of the matter
j

Their abufes.

other, to be conftituted

Here
is

lies

the eflence
tell

the reft

is

form.

A jury
;

impanelled, to

you the generical

name of

the adlon

judge

prefides, to read out of the voca-

bulary of law the fentence annexed to that

name

laft

of

all,

comes the court of enquiry which

is

to decide

whether the re-

medy

of the difpenfatory be fuitable to the circumftances of this

particular cafe.
firft

This authority has ufually been lodged in the

laft refort

inftance with the judge, and in the

with the king

in council.

Now,

laying afide the propriety or impropriety of

this particular feledlion, there is

one grievous abufe which ought

obferver.

to ftrike the

moft

fuperficial
is

Thefe perfons, with

whom

the principal truft

repofed, confider their fundions in

this

784

BOOK
CHAP.

VII. IX.
'

this

^v

pinenefs,

...
and in many

A R D O N
.

S.

refped as a matter purely incidental, exercife them with fuinftances with the moft fcanty materials to

guide their judgment.

This grows

in a confiderable degree out

of the very

name of pardon, which

implies a

work of

fuperero-

gatory benevolence.

nielrarHitrary charac^^^-

From

the

manner

in

which pardons

are difpenfed inevitably

It is

flows the uncertainty of punifhment.

too evident that pu-

nilhment
lives

is

inflidted

by no

certain rules,

and of confequence the^

of a thoufand viflims are immolated in vain.

Not more
the law con-

than one half or one third of the offenders

whom

demns to death
that
is

in this metropolis, are

Is
it

made

to fuffer the fentence

pronounced.
himfelf

poffible that each

fhall
it

offender fhould

not

flatter
?

that

he

be

among
is

the

number

that

elcapes

Such a fyflem,

to fpeak

truly,

a lottery of death, in
execution, as

which each man draws

his ticket for reprieve or

^indefinable accidents Ihall decide.

It

may be

afked whether the abolition of law would not pro?

duce equal uncertainty

By no means.
very

The

principles of king

and coimcil in fuch

cafes are

little

underftood, either by

themfelves or others.

The

principles of a jury of his neighcafe, the

bours commifEoned to pronounce upon the whole of the

criminal eafily guelTes.

He has
Reafon
j

only to appeal to his

is

own

fenti-

ments and experience.

cit

a thoufand times

more

expli-

and

intelligible

than law

and when we were accuftomed to

confu^t

O
confult her,
tlie

A R D O N

S.

785
as

certainty of her declfions

would be fuch

men book vrr. CHAP IX

>

pradlifed in our prefent courts are totally unable to conceive.

Another very important confequence grows out of the lyftem

Deflruaiveof
moialitv.

of pardons.
flavery.
I

A
am

fyftem of pardons

is

a fyftem of unmitigated

taught to expetfl a certain defirable event, from

what ? From the clemency, the uncontroled, unmerited kindnefs

of a fellow mortal.

Can any leffon be more degrading

XJie pu-

fillanimous fervility of the

man who

devotes himfelf with ever-

lafting obfequioufnefs to another, becaufe that other,

having be-

gun tobeunjuft,

relents in his career; the ardour

with which he

confefles the reditude of his lenience and the enormity of his deferts, will conftitute

a tale that future ages will find

it

difficult to

underftand.

What

are the fentiments in this rcfpedl that are alone

?

worthy

of a rational being
injuftice

Give
refufe.

me that
More
for
is

and that only, which without

than juftice
to beftow.
it

you cannot

would be
ftand
force

dif-

graceful for

me

to afk,

and

you
a

upon the

foundation of right.

This

title,

which brute

may

re-

fufe to acknowledge, but

annihilate.

which

all

the force in the world cannot

By

refilling this plea

it

you may prove yourfelf unjull,

but in yielding to
confidered,
I

you grant me but

my

due.

If, all
is

things
:

be the

fit

fubjedl of a benefit, the benefit

is

merited
If

merit in any other fenfe

contradidory and abfurd.

you

beftow upon

me

unmerited advantage, you are a recreant from

the

786

O
.

A R D O N

S.

BOOKVIT. the general good. I may be bafe enough CHAP. IX. ^ T n ^ I were virtuous, I mould conaemn you.
,

to

thank you; butj

if

Thefe
of mind.

fentltnents alone are confifcent with true

independence
affair

He

that

is

accuftomed to regard virtue as an

If
will

of

favour and grace, cannot be eminently virtuous.

ally

he occaiionapplaud the

perform an action of apparent kindnefs, he

j

generofity of his fentiments

and, if he abftain, he will acquit

I

bimfdf W'ith the

queftion, "

May

not do what
is

I will

with

my
by

own

?"

In the fame manner,

firft

when he

treated benevolently

another, he will in the

place be unwilling to examine flridly

into the reafonablenefs of this treatment, becaufe benevolence, as

he imagines,

is

not fubjet to any inflexibility of rule

will not regard his benefadtor

and, in

the fecond place, he

with that exeO:

and unembarraffed mien, that complete

fenfe of equality,

which

is

the only immoveable bafis of virtue and happinefs^

A N

A N

ENQUIRY
CONCERNING

POLITICAL JUSTICE.
BOOK
OF
VIII.

P R O P E R r

2'.

CHAP.

I.

GENUIN'E SYSTEM OF PROPERTY DELINEATED.

IMPORTANCE OF THIS TOPIC.

BEEN EXPOSED.
ENTITLES EACH

ABUSES TO WHICH IT HAS

OF PROPERTY
:

CRITERION

JUSTICE.

MAN TO THE

SUPPLY OF HIS ANIMAL

WANTS
IT

AS FAR AS THE

GENERAL STOCK WILL AFFORD

TO

THE MEANS OF WELL BEING.

ITS

ESTIMATE

OF

LUXURY.

PERNICIOUS EFFECTS ON THE INDIVI-

DUAL WHO PARTAKES OF

FOUNDATION OF

IDEA OF LABOUR AS THE PROPERTY CONSIDERED. ITS UNREAIT.

SONABLENESS.

7?8

GENUINESYSTEMOF
SYSTEM OF POPULAR MORALITY THIS SUBJECT. DEFECTS OF THAT SYSTEM.
SONABLENESS.

ON

BOOK
*

viii.
'

^"~^HE
-ing
it

fubjedl of property

is

the key ftonethat completes the

Importance of this topic,

fabric of x political juftice. j

According o

as our ideas refpedt-

are crude or correct, they will enlighten us as to the con-

Book V.

fequences of z.fimple form of fociety "without government ^ and re-

move
Book VI.

the prejudices that attach us to complexity.

There

is

noopi~

thing that
I'lions^

more powerfully tends

to diftort o\xx judgment

and

B k VII

than erroneous notions concerning the goods of fortune.

Finally, the period that fhall put an

end

to the fyftem

of coercion

and pun'ifhment^

Is

intimately connected with the circumftance of

property's being placed

upon an

equitable bafis,

Abufes to
been expofed.

Various abufes of the moft incontrovertible nature have

nuated themfelves into the adminiftration of property.
thefe abufes
veftigation.

infi-

Each of

might ufefully be made the fubjed of a feparate in-

We

might enquire into the vexations of

this

fort

that are produced

tical vanity.

by the dreams of

national greatnefs or magiftradif-

This would lead us to a juft eftlmate of the

ferent kinds of taxation, landed or mercantile, having the

farles

neceC

or the luxuries of

life

for their fubjedt of operation.

to the

We
com-

might examine Into the abufes which have adhered

mercial fyftem
ties,
;

monopolies, charters, patents, protedlng du-

prohibitions and bounties.

We

might remark upon the

confequences that flow from the feudal fyftem and the fyftem of

ranks

'

PROPERTY DELINEATED.
ranks
j

789
book vrir.

feignorial duties, fines, conveyances, entails, eflates free-

hold, copyhold and manorial, vaflalage and primogeniture.

We
:

CHAP
'^

'-.'

might confider the rights of the church

firft

fruits

and

tithes

and we might enquire into the propriety of the regulation by

which a man,

after

having pofTeffed
life, is

as fovereign a confiderable
it

property during his

fure, at the period

permitted to difpofe of

at

his plea-

which the laws of nature feem to have fixed

All thefe enquiries

as the termination of his authority.

would
But,

tend to Ihow the incalculable importance of this fubjel.

excluding them

all

from the prefent enquiry,

it

fhall

be the bu-

fmefs of what remains of this v/ork to confider, not any particular abufes

which have

incidentally rifen out of the adminiftration

it

of property, but thofe general principles by which

all cafes

has in almoft

been directed, and which,

if

erroneous, muft not only be

regarded as the fource of the abufes above enumerated, but of

others of innumerable kinds, too multifarious and fubtle to enter
Into fo brief a catalogue.

"What

Is

the criterion that muft determine whether this or that CnteHon of the benefit of a

fubftance, capable of contributing to

human

E^fJ^^

being, ought to be confidered as your property or

mine

To

this

queftion there can be but one anfwer

Juftice.

Let us then re-

cur to the principles of juftice*.

To whom

does any

article

of property, fuppofe a loaf of bread,

man
* Book
II,

Entities each to the

Chap.

II,

(up-pW of his animal want?,

jyAJy

as far as the

790
BOOK vjri. CHAP. I.
V

GENUINE SYSTEM OF
iuftly belono;
.

To him who
.

moft wants
.

It,

or to

whom
men

the pof.

'

felTion
:

of

it

will be

moft

beneficial.

Here

are fix

famifhed
fa-

general ilock
will afford
it

with hunger, and the loaf is, abfolutely confidered, capable of

tisfying the cravings of them
all.

Who

is it

that has a reafonable

this

claim to benefit

by the
all

qualities

with which

loaf

is

en-

dowed

They

are
it

brothers perhaps, and the law of primoge-

niture beftows

exclufively
?

on the

eldeft.

But does

juftlce

confirm this award

The laws of

different countries difpofe

;

of

property in a thoufand different ways

but there can be but one

-

way which

is

moft conformable to reafon.

It

would have been eafy

juft

to put a cafe
I

much

ftronger than that

which has
pofleffion,

been

ftated.

have an hundred loaves in

is

my

and in the next

ftreet there

a poor

man

expiring

with hunger, to

whom
life.

one of thefe loaves would be the means

If I withhold this
It,

of preferving his not unjuft

?

loaf

from him,

am

If I impart

am

not complying with what juftice

?

demands

To whom

does the loaf juftly belong

I fuppofe

myfelf in other refpedls to be in eafy circumftances,

as

and

that I

do not want this bread

an objed of barter or

fale, to

procure

me any

of the other neceffaries of a

human

being.

Our

animal wants have long fince been defined, and are ftated to confift

of food, clothing and

fhelter.

If juftice have

any meaning,
to poffefs fuperfluities,

nothing can be more iniquitous, than for one

man

'

PROPERTY DELINEATED.
perfluities,

791
Is

while there

is

human

being in exiftence that

not

book viri, CHAP. I.

v

adequately fupplied with thefe.

Juftice does not flop here.

Every man

I3

entitled, fo far as

to the

mean

of well being.

the general ftock will fuffice, not only to the

means of being, but

of well being.

It Is unjuft, if
life,

one

man

labour to the deftrudion

in lux-

of his health or his

uries.
It is unjuft, if

that another

man may abound

one

man

be deprived of leifure to cultivate

his rational powers, while another

effort to

man

contributes not a fmgle

faculties

add to the

common

ftock.

The

of one

man

are like the facultips^ of another

man.

Juftke directs that each

beneficially to the

man,

unlefs perhaps he be

employed more

public, fhould contribute to the cultivation of the

veft,

common

har-

of which each

man confumes
when

a fhare.

This reciprocity
fe-

indeed, as was obferved

parate confideration,
latter
is

that fubje<n:

was the matter of

juftice.

of the very eflence of

is

How
we

the

branch of

it,

the neceflary labour,

fliare

to be

fecured, while
lliali

each

man

is

admitted to claim his

of the produce,

prefently have occafipn to enquire

This fubjel
reflect for a

will

be placed In a

ftill

more

ftriking light, if

we
of

Edunate cf

moment on

the nature of luxuries.

The wealth

any
of

ftate

may

intelligibly

enough be confidered
are

as the aggregate,

all

the incomes,

which

annually confumed within that

ftatcj

without deftroying the materials of an equal confumptioa

ia.

792
uooK VHT. CHAP. I.

GENUINE SYSTEM OF
In the enfuino; year.
. ,

Confidenns;

this

income

as beino;,

what

In

'

ahnoft

all

cafes

it

will be
it

found

to be, the

produce of the induftry

of the inhabitants,

will follow that in civilifed countries the pea-

fimt often does not

confume more than the twentieth part of the

produce of his labour, while his rich neighbour confumes perhaps

the produce of the labour of twenty peafants.
arifes to this

The

benefit that

favoured mortal ought furely to be veiy extraor-

dinaiy.

Its perni-

cious efFefta

But nothing
is

Is

more evident than

that the condition of this

man

OH the
vidual
it.

indi-

who

the reverfe of beneficial.

if

The man of an hundred pounds per

partakes of

annum^

he underftand his

own

happinefs,

is

a thoufand times
the rich

more favourably

circuraftanced.
?

What

fhall

man do

with his enormous wealth

Shall he eat of innumerable difhes of

the moft expenfive viands, or pour

down

hogflieadsof the moll

highly flavoured wines

frugal diet will contribute infinitely

more

to health, to a clear underllanding, to chearful fpirits,

and

^even to the gratification of the appetites.

Almoft every other ex-

pence

is

an expence of oftentation.

No

man, but the moft

for-

did epicure, would long continue to maintain even a plentiful

table, if

he had no fpedators,

vlfitors

or fervants, to behold his

eftablifhment.

For

whom

are our

fumptuous palaces and coftly

?

furniture, our equipages,

and even our very clothes

firft

The

noble-

man, who

fliould for the

time

let

his imagination loofe to

conceive the ftyle in which he would

live, if

he had nobody to
obferve,

PROPERTY DELINEATED.
obferve, and

793
CHAP.

no eye
^

to pleafe but his

own, would no doubt be book vju

firft

^ furprifed to find that vanity had been the

alions.

mover

I.

in all his

v__,,__-

The
applaufe
intrinfic

objet

of

this

vanity

is

to procure the admiration

and

of

beholders.

We
as

need not here enter into the

it

value

of applaufe.
acquifition

Taking

for

granted

that
it,

it is

as

eftimable an
Is

any man can fuppofe

how
has

contemptible
recourfe
eftate."
?

the fource of applaufe to which the rich

man

" Applaud me, becaufe

merit
is

my anceftor has left me

?

a great

What

there in that

The

firft

efFel

then of

riches

is

to deprive their pofTeflbr of the genuine

powers of unabfolute

derftanding, and render

truth.

him

incapable of difcerning

They

lead

him

to fix his affedlions

on

objedts not ac-

commodated

to the

wants and the ftrudure of the human mind,

entail

and of confequence
pinefs.

upon him difappointment and unhapadvantages are, independence

fatisfadlions are

The greateft of all perfonal

of mind, which makes us feel that our

not at the

mercy

either

of

men

or of fortune

and

activity

of mind, the

chearfulnefs that arifes

objects, of which our

from induftry perpetually employed about

judgment acknowledges the intrinfic

value.

In

this cafe

we have compared
of

the happinefs of the

man of ex-

treme opulence with that of the

man

of one hundred pounds per

alternative

annum.

But the

latter

fide

this

was

aflumed
in the

merely in compliance with exifting

5 I

prejudices.

Even

prefent

794

GENUINE SYSTEM OF
Pi'e^"^^^^^^ of

CHAP
'

human

fociety

we

perceive, that

man,who\

'

by a very -moderate induftry, and with his purfuits uncroffed by the peevifhnefs or caprice of his neighbours, would not be lefs happy
than
if

fhould be perpetually earning the neceffary competence

he were born to that competence.

In the

ftate

of foci^y

we

are here contemplating, where, as will prefently appear, the

it

requifite induftry will be of the lighteft kind,

v.erfe

will be the refti-,

of a misfortune to any man, to find himfelf necelTarily

feel that

mulated to a gentle adlvity, and in confequence to

reverfe of fortune could deprive

no

him of the means of

fubfiftence

and contentment,

S the w''
^ropenf
conndered.

^""^
"^^"^y

'^

^''

^^^" alledged, that

we

find

among

different
if is

men
not

different degrees

of labour and induftry, and that

juft f^gy {[-^q^]^ receive

an equal reward."

It

cannot indeed be

denied that the attainments of

men

in virtue and ufefulnefs ouo-ht

far the prefent

by no means

to

be confounded.
tlieii-

How

fyftem of
it

property contributes to
eafy to determine.

being equitably treated

is

very

The

prefent fyftem of property confers .on

one
^

man immenfe

wealth in confideration of the accident of his

afcends to opulence,
tranfition
is

^tirth^H^ that fiom beggary -. known not to have effeGed this

-

ufually""^

by methods very

cre-

ditable to his honefty or

his ufefulnefs.
is

The moft

induftrious

and

aftive

member of fociety

frequently with great difficulty

.

v^^^le to keep his family from ftamng.

.2

,*,'.

;',

PROPERTY DELINEATED:
But, topafs over thefe iniquitous efFeds of the unequal
diftii-

79^
bookviii.
.

bution of property,

let

us confider the nature of the reward

If

^^^^- ^\

which
fliall

is

thus propofed to induftry.

you be

induftrious,
eat,

you foLbknek

have an hundred times more food than you can

and an
is

hundred times more clothes than you can wear.

^
,

Where

the

juftice of this

If I be the greatefl benefadlor the

human
I

fpecies

>

ever knew,

is

that a reafon for beftowing

on

me what

do not

want, efpecially

when there
greatefl:

are thoufands to
?

whom my fuperfluity
this fuperfluity I

would be of the

advantage

With

can

purchafe nothing but gaudy oftentation and envy, nothing but

the pitiful pleafure of returning to the poor under the
generofity that to

name of

which reafon gives them an

irrefiftible claim,.

^nothing,but prejudice, error and vice.

"^

The

docSrine of the injuftice of accumulated property has been Syflem of

all

the foundation of

religious morality.

The

objed: of this

mo- Sky onis.

" ^^
'

rallty has been, to excite

injuftice.

men by

individual virtue to repair this

The moft

energetic teachers of religion have been ir-

refiftibly led to aflert the precife truth

upon

this interefting fub-

jed.

They have

taught the rich, that they hold their wealth

only as a

truft, that

they are ftridly accountable for every atom

of their expenditure, that they are merely adminiftrators, and by

no means proprietors In chief*.

The defed of

this

fyftem

is,

that they rather excite us to palliate our injuftice than 'to for--

fake

it..

^ See Swift's Sermon on Mutual Subjeaion, quoted Book

II,

Chap.

II,

JXTq

,,lJ^.-J

Ce^-i.-

tt-t.-^

f'L^'l'.

^.

"'

796

GENUINESYSTEMOF
No
There
truth can be
is

more fimple than

that

which they
certainly
is

Inculcate.

no alion of any human being, and

no action

that refpefts the difpofition of property, that

better

not capable of

and worfe, and concerning which reafon and morality do

not prefcribe a fpecific conduct.

ledging that other

He

that fets out with

acknow

men

are of the

fame nature

as himfelf,

and

is

capable of perceiving the precife place he

would hold

in the eye

of an impartial fpedlator, muft be fully

fenfible, that the

money
to

he employs
himfelf, and
ftantial

in procuring

an objedt of

trifling

or

no advantage

which might have been employed in purchafing fubto another,

is

and indifpenfible benefit

unjuftly employed.

He

that looks at his property with the eye of truth, will find
it

that every fhilling of

tates

has received
at the

its

deftination

from the

dic-

of juftice.

He will

fame time however be expofed to

confiderable pain, in confequence of his

precife difpofition that juftice

own

ignorance as to the

and public

utility require.

Does any man doubt of the

any man doubt
that,

truth of thefe aflJertions

Does

when

employ a fum of money fmall or

I

C
A^i;^ if'

Yy^-gtczX in the purchafe of

an abfolute luxury for myfelf,

this fubjed:

am

'

guilty of vice

It is

high time that

It is

fhould be ade-

i^ V^ J'
:*
""'^

quately underftood.

high time that

we we

fhould lay afide the

if" 'i
'

}'

very names of juftice and virtue, or that

that they
felves,

fhould acknowledge

A^

do not authorife us to accumulate luxuries

upon ourmeans of

while

we

fee others in

want of the

indifpenfible

improvement and happinefs.

But,

PROPERTY DELINEATED.
ture of juftlce,
tice of juftice,
its

797

Sut, while religion inculcated on mankind the Impartial na- book vnr.
teachers have been too apt to treat the pracit
-

'

not as a debt, which

ought to be confidered,

Defefts of that fyftem.

but as an

affair

of fpontaneous generofity and bounty.

They when

have called upon the rich to be clement and merciful to the

poor.

The confequence of

this has

been that the

rich,

they beflowed the moft flender pittance of their enormous wealth

in for

ads of

charity, as they

were

called,

took merit to themfelves

delin-

what they gave,

inflead of confidering themfelves as

quents for what they withheld.

Religion
prejudices

is

in reality in

all

its

parts

an accommodation to the
Its

and weakneffes of mankind.

authox's

communi-

cated to the world as

much

truth, as they calculated that the

world would be willing to receive.

But

it is

time that

we

fhould

lay afide the inftrudtion intended only for children in under-

flanding *, and contemplate the nature and principles of things.

If religion

had

fpoken out, and told

us

it

was

juft that all

fi

\,\ro\j^^

'^^^

.IX"

men

fhould receive the fupply of their wantSj^;wTe fhould pre-

<\^^^.l\^
^

|/1?vU)'

fently have been led to fufpedl that a gratuitous diflribution to be

made by

the rich, was a very indirel and inefFedual

way of

arriving at this objed.

that this fyflem
is

The

experience of

all

ages has taught us,

produdive only of a very precarious fupply.

it

The

principal

objed which

feems to propofe,

is

to place this

fupply in the difpofal of a few, enabling them to

*

make

fhow of

Cor. Chap.

III.

Ver.

i, 2.

generofity

798

GENUINE SYSTEM,
p;enei'ofity

&c.

BOOK vrii. CHAP. I.

*^

with what

is

not truly their own, and to purchafe the

debt.

'

gratitude of the poor

by the payment of a

is

a fyftern
It
fillis

of clemency and charity, inftead of a fyftem of

the rich with unreafonable pride

juftice.

by the fpurious denominations

and the poor with
fervillty,

with which
leading

it

decorates their

a<fx3,

by

them

to regard the flender comforts they obtain, not as

their incontrovertible due, but as the

good pleafure and the

grace,

of their opulent neighbours.

CHAP.

799

CHAP.
BENEFITS ARISING

II.

FROM THE GENUINE SYSTEM

OF PROPERTY.
CONTRASTED WITH THE MISCHIEFS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM, AS CONSISTING I. IN A SENSE OF DEPENDENCE.

2.

IN THE PERPETUAL SPECTACLE OF INJUSTICE, LEAD-

AND PERVERTING THE INTEGRITY OF THEIR JUDGMENTS. THE RICH ARE THE TRUE PENSIONERS. 3. IN THE DISCOURAGEMENT
OE INTELLECTUAL ATTAINMENTS.
4.

ING MEN ASTRAY IN THEIR DESIRES

IN

THE MULTIOF THE

PLICATION OF VICE

GENERATING THE CRIMES

IN DEPOPULATION.

POOR

THE PASSIONS OF THE RICH

5.

AND THE MISFOR-

TUNES OF WAR.

AVINGfeen
be
at-tended-

the juflice of an equal diftributlen of pro-

bookviit.

CHAP.
perty, let us next connder the benefits with

II.
'

which

it

would

Comrarted

And

here with grief

it

mufl: be

confeffed, that, ^^fh

the mif-

chiefs of the

however

great

and extenlive are the

evils

that are
priefls

produced by

prefent fyf-

tcm, as con-

monarchies and courts, by the impofture of

quity of criminal laws,
all

and the

inl- fi^'"S

thefe are imbecil

arife

and impotent com-

pared with the

property.

evils that

out of the eflablifhed fyfteni of

Its

Soo
BooKVjn.

BENEFITS ARISING FROM THE

Its firll
>

effedl

is

that
It

which
is

v/e

have already mentioned, a

r mean fpmted,
.

CHAP.

11.

feiife

of dependence.

true that courts are

is

of depend-

intriguing and fervlle, and that this difpofition

transferred

by

contagion from them to

brings

all

ranks of fociety.
fplrlt

But property
circuitous

home

a fervlle and truckling

by no

me-

thod to every houfe in the nation.

Obferve the pauper fawning

with abjet vllenefs upon his rich benefactor, and fpeechlefs with
fenfations of gratitude for having received that,

which he ought

to have claimed with an eret mien,

that his claim

and with a confcioufnefs

was

Irrefiftible.

Obferve the fervants that follow

in a rich man's train, watchful of his looks, anticipating his

comand

mands, not daring to reply to his infolence,

their efforts

all

their time

under the dlredion of his caprice.

ftudies the paflions

Obferve the

tradefman,

how he

of his cuftomers, not to

corred, but to pamper them, the vilenefs of his flattery and the
fyftematlcal conftancy with

which he exaggerates the merit of his

,j.Ah^
\

commodities. jfObferve the pradlices of a popular eledion, where

hfJ-^

.r
s

f^^'^'*^^
**

^^

great mafs are purchafed

by

obfequioufnefs,
threats

by intemperance

j^
H

^^^ bribery, or driven by unmanly

of poverty and perfe" gone *

!"

JA^
jVs.

ft/i/

cution^/Indeed " the age of chivalry

feudal fpirit
ftill

is" not

The

furvives, that reduced the great

mafs of mankind

to the rank of

flaves

and

cattle for

the fervice of a few.

"We have heard much of vifionary and

ments.
It

theoretical

improve-

would indeed be vifionary and

* Burke's Reflections.

theoretical to expert

virtue

CENUlNE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

Virtue

8oi
book Viu,

from mankind, while they are thus fubietd to hourly ^

-^

'

CHAP.
'

corruption, and bred froni father to fon to

fell

their independence

II.
'.

and

their confcience for the vile rewards that oppreflion

has to

beftow.

No man
who
is

can be either ufeful to others or happy to

himfelf

a ftranger to the grace of firmnefs, and

who

is

not habituated to prefer the didates of his

to
all

own

fenfe of reditudc

the tyranny of
again, as

command, and allurements of

occafion, religion

temptation.
in to
il-

Here

upon a former

comes

iuftrate

our

thefis.

Religion was the generous ebullition of men,

who
It is

let

their imagination loofe

reftraint in the

on the grandeft

fubjedts,

and

wandered without

unbounded

field

of enquiry.

not to be wondered at therefore if they brought

fublimefl:

home imIn
is

perfed ideas of the

views that

intelledl

can furnifh.

this inftance religion teaches that the true perfedtion

of

man

to

diveft himfelf of the influence of pallions

artificial

that

he mufthave no
to diveft the

wants, no fenfuality, and no

fear.

But

huis

man

fpecies

under the prefent fyftem of the influence of pallions

an extravagant fpeculation.
benefador of mankind
will

The

enquirer after truth and the

be defirous

of removing from

them

thofe external impreflions

by which

their evil propenfities

is

are cheriflied.
extirpate
all

The

true objedl that Ihould be kept in view,

to

ideas of condefccnfion

and

fuperiority, to

oblige
is

every

man

to feel, that the kindncfs he

exerts

is

what he

bound

to perform,

and the

afliftance

he

aflcs

what he has

a right

to claim,

fecond

8o2

BENEFITS ARISING FROM THE

A
perty

fecond evil that

is

arifes

out of the eftabllfhed fyftem of proit

the perpetual fpe<Stacle of injuflice

,
,
. .

exhibits.
_.,,
.

This
,
.

2. in the per-

petual fpectacle of injiiftlce

coHufts partly in luxury and partly in caprice.

There
'

is

nothing
being

more pernicious
men
"

to the

human

leading

aftray in their

lu

its

own

nature

_..,,_. eflentially active, necenarily

_,
.,

j mmd

than luxury.
^

Mmd,

hxes on fome ob-

ject public or perfonal,

and in the

latter

cafe

on the attainment

of fome excellence, or fomething which

efteem and deference of others.
fidered, can be
tern

fhall

command

the

No

propenfity, abfolutely con-

more

valuable than
it

this.

But the

eftabliihed fyt-

of property direils

into the channel of the acquifition of

wealth,

yrhe

oftentation of the rich perpetually goads the fpec-

tator to the defire of opulence.

vility

Wealth, by the fentiments of

fer-

and dependence
as the

it

produces, makes the rich

man

ftand for-

ward

only objedl of general efteem and deference.

In vain

are fobriety, integrity

and induftry, in vain the fublimeft powers

if their

of mind and the moft ardent benevolence,

poflefTor be

narrowed in
play
it, is

his circumftances.

To

acquire wealth and to dif-

therefore the univerfal paffion.

fociety
is

The whole

ftrudlure

of

human
felf

made a fyftem of

the narroweft felfiibneisf

\If

love and benevolence were apparently reconciled as to their

objet, a

man might

fet

out with the defire of eminence, and yet

every day become more generous and philanthropical in his

views.

But the paflion we are here defcribing

at

is

accuftomed to
the in-

be gratified
tereft

every

ftep,

by inhumanly trampling upon

is

of others.
is

/Wealth

acquired

by overreaching our neigh^

,.---

bours, and

fpent in infulting them.

The

GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

The
fpedtacle of injuftice

803
bcokviii.

which the

eftablilhed lyftem of pro-

CHAP.
perty exhibits, confifts partly in caprice. If you would cherifli in
*
.^

II.
'

ar.d pervert-

any man the love of reditude, you muft take

ciples

care that

its

prin-

i"g the integrity of their

be imprefled on him, not only by words, but adions.

It hidgments,

fometimes happens during the period of education, that maxims

of integrity and confiftency are repeatedly inforced, and that the

preceptor gives no quarter to the bafe fuggeftions of felfifhnefs

and cunning.

But how

is

the leffon that has been read to the

pupil confounded and reverfed,

the world
?

when he
this

enters

upon the
?"

fcene of

If he afk, "

Why
is

is

man honoured
he enquire
is,

the ready

anfwer
is

is,

" Becaufe "he anfwer

rich."

If

farther,

"

Why

he

rich ?" the

in moft cafes

"

From

the accident of

birth, or

from a minute and fordid attention

is

to the cares of gain."

The
licy
;

fyftem of accumulated property

the offspring of civil pois

and

civil policy, as

we

are taught to believe,

the produclegiflators

tion of accumulated

wifdom.

Thus

the

wifdom of

and

fenates has been

employed, to fecure a

diftributioia

of pro-

perty the moft profligate and unprincipled, that bids defiance to

the

maxims of

juftice

and the nature of man.

all

Humanity weeps
;

over the

diftreffes

of the peafantry^f
this fped:acle to

civilifed nations

and,

^0

^ ^^ Ulv^^

when

{he turns

from

behold the luxury of their

lords, grofs, imperious

and prodigal, her fenfations certainly are

is

not

lefs acute.

This fpedacle

the fchool in which

mankind
of

have been educated.

injuftice,

They have been accuftomed

till

to the fight

oppreflion and iniquity,

their feelings

are

made

callous.

BENEFITS ARISING FROM THE

HOOK, vrir,

callous,

and their undei-ftandings

incapfibic

of apprehending the
*

'

nature of true vutue.

The

rich are

In bcguiulng to point out the evils of accumulated property,

wc
of

the true penitaners.

,

compared the extent of thofe evils with the correfpondent

monarchies and courts.
excited a

evils

No

circumftances under the latter have-

more pointed difapprobation than penfions and pecu-

niary corruption,

by means of which hundreds of Individuals

are

-rewarded, not for ferving, but betraying the public, and the hard-

earnings of induftry are employed to fatten the fervlle adherents

of defpotifm.

But the rent roll of the lands of England

lift,

is

a mucli

more formidable penfion

than that which

is

fiippofed to be

employed in the purchafe of minifterlaJ

efpecially all hereditary riches, are to

majorities..

All riches, and

be confidered as the falary

of a fmecure

office,

where the labourer and the manufadurer per-

form the

duties,

and the principal fpends the Income in luxury and

is

idlenefs *.

Hereditary wealth

in reality a premium paid to Idle*

ncfs,

* This idea

is

to be

found in Ogilvie's Eflay on the Right of Property

in.

Land,

publiflicd about

two years ago. Part

I,.

Seft.

iii,

par>38, 39.

The

rea-

fonings of this author have fometimes confiderable merit, though he hag by no.

means gone
It

to the fource of thecviL

might be amufing to fome readers to recollel the authorities,

if

the citation

cf authorities were a proper

lated property
is

mode

of reafoning, by which the fyftem of accumu-

openly attacked.

The

beft

knowa

is

Plato in his treatife of

Republic*

GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

nefs,

805
book vrirCHAP. 11. ^ ^__^

brutality

... and

an immenfe annuity expended to retain mankind In

ignorance.
rr^,

The poor

are kept

m ignorance by the
. .

Avant of

leifure.

The

rich are furnifhed indeed with the

means
difli-

of cultivation and
pated and indolent.

literature,

but they are paid for being

The moft powerful means

that malignity

could have invented, are employed to prevent them from im-

proving their

talents,

and becoming ufeful

to the public.

This

leads us to obferve, thirdly^ that the .eftablifbed fyflem

in the diicuuragcinent
y.

Republic.

His

fteps

have been followed by

fir

Thomas More

in his

Utopia.
in

Specimens of very powerful reafoning on the fame fide

liver's

may be found
in his

Gulla

Travels, particularly, Part IV, Chap. VI.

Mably,

book

De

Lcgiflation, has difplayed at large the advantages of equality,

and then quits the

fubjeft In defpair

from an opinion of the Incorrigiblenefs of human depravity.

treatlfe entitled.

Wallace, the contemporary and antagonift of Hume, in a

Profpefts of Mankind, Nature and Providence,
is

Various

copious in his eulogium of the

:

fame fyftem, and

fee

deferts

it

only from fear of the earth becoming too populous

great practical authorities are Crete, Sparta,
eafy to fwell this
lift,

below. Chap. VII.

It

The

Peru

and Paraguay.

would be

If

we added examples where^

an approach only to thefe principles was attempted, and authors

cidentally confirmed

who

have in-

a dolrine,

fo interefting

and

clear, as

never to have been

wholly eradicated from any

human

underftanding.

It

would be

trifling to

objeft that the fyftems of Plato and others are full of

their authority
as
ftill
;

i^perfedions.

This indeed rather ftrengthens

fo great,

fince the eviits

dence of the truth they maintained was

their underftandings,

to preferve

hold on.

though they knew not

how

to

remove the

difficulties tliat

Attended

it.

8o6

BENEFITS AP.ISING FROM THE

of property,
is

the true levelling fyftcm with refpedl to the

human
of intellectual
attainments,

fpecies,
is

by

as

much

as the cultivation

of

intellet

and

truth,

more

Valuable and

more

charateriftic of
"

man, than the

gratifications

of vanity or

appetite.

Accumulated property

treads the

powers of thought in the

duft, extinguifhes the fparks

of genius,

and reduces the great mafs of mankind

cares
;

to

be

immerfed in fordid
already faid,
adtivity.

befide depriving the rich, as

we have

of the moll falubrious and effedual motives to

If fuperfluity

were banifhed, the

neceflity

for

the

greater part of the

manual induftry of mankind would be fuperbeing amicably fhared

feded

and the

reft,

among

all

the adtive

and vigorous members of the community, would be burthenfome

to none.

Every man would have a

forth to

frugal, yet

wholfome

diet

every

man would go

that

moderate exercife of his

fpirits
;

corporal functions that would give hilarity to the

none

would be made torpid with

cultivate the kindly

fatigue, but

all

would have
affedtions

leifure to

and phllanthroplcal

of the

foul,

and

to let loofe his faculties in the fearch of intelledtual

improve-

ment.
prefent

What
ftate

a contraft

does this fcene

foclety,

prefent us with the

of

human

where the peafant and the

labourer work,
their

till

their underftandings are

benumbed with
by being

toil,

fmews contradled and made

callous

for ever

on

the ftretch, and their bodies invaded with infirmities and fur-

rendered to an untimely grave

portioned and

What

is

the fruit of this difproto a

vmceafing

toil

At evening they return

family, famiihed with hunger, expofed half naked tosthe in-

clemencies

genuine: system of property.

I .

807

clemencies of the fky, hardly fheltered, and denied the flenderefl: book vni.
inftrudion, unlefs in^a few inftances,
.

/CHAP. IL ... where difpenfed by/

it

is

the hands of oftentatious charity, and the

cated
is

firft

lefTon

communi-

unprincipled
vifited

fervility.

All this while their rich neigh-

bour

but we
i-apid

him

before.

How
all

and fublime would be the advances of intellet, If

admitted into the
field

men were

of knowledge

At

prefent

ninety-nine perfons in an hundred are no

more

excited to

any

regular exertions of general and curious thought, than the brutes

themfelves.
nation,

What would
all

be the
all

ftate

of public mind in a of

where

were wife,

had

laid afide the fhackles

fearlefs

prejudice and implicit faith,

all

adopted with

confidence

the fuggeftions of truth, and the lethargy of the foul was difmifled for ever
?

It is to

be prefumed that the inequality of

mind

would

in a certam degree be

permanent

but

it

is

reafonable to

believe that the geniufes of fuch an age

would
at

far furpafs the

grandeft

exertions

of

intelledl

that

are
falfe

prefent

known.

Genius would not be deprefled with

patiionage.
It

wants and niggardly

would not exert

its

itfelf

with a fenfe of negledl and

oppreflion rankling in

bofom.

It

would be freed from thofe

apprehenfions that perpetually recal us to the thought ofperfonal

emolument, and of confequence would expatiate

fentiments of generofity and public good.

freely

among,

From

ideas of intelledual let us turn to moral

it is

Improvement.

4. in the

And

here

obvious that

all

the occafions of crime

would be
cut

tTon'of'wce

SoS

BENEFITS ARISING FROM THE

viti.
II
'->

BOOK
I-

cut off for ever.

that

All

men
one

love

juilicfe.

All

men
and

are confcious
feel

CH*lP

"^
the pro-

Lf^Jjti^

man

is

a being f

common

nature,

priety of the treatment they receive from one

ftired

other being
is

meaaffift-

by

common ibndari
;

Every man

defirous of

ing another

vv'hetlier

we

fhould choofe to afcribe this to an in-

ftiat implanted in his nature which renders this

condud a

fource of perfonal gratification, or to his perception of the reafonableneis of fuch affiftance.

conftitution of mind, that

So necelTary

a part

is

this

of the

no man perpetrates any adion howfirft

ever criminal, without having

invented fome fophiftry,

to himfelf that
it is

fome
T^heerfmesof
^"^ ^''

palliation,

by which he proves
it

beft to

be done *

Hence

appears, that offence, the invafion of one

is

man upon

the fecurity of another,

a thought alien to mind,

to us but the fharp
:

and which nothing could have reconciled

ffing of neceffity.

To

confider merely the prefent

firft

order

of
!

human
his

fociety,

it is

evident that the

offence muft have been

who

began a monopoly, and took advantage of the weaknefs

;
j

of his neighbours to fecure certain exclufive privileges to himfelf.

The man on
this

the other

hand who determined

to put an

end to

'

monopoly, and

who

peremptorily demanded what was

j

fuperfluous to the poffeffor and

liimfelf,

would be of extreme
to

benefit to
.j

appeared to his

own mind
Were
it

be merely avenging the

violated laws of juftice.

this

not for the plaufiblenefs of

apology,

it is

to be

prefumed that there would be no fuch

^

thing as crime in the world.

*

Book

II,

Chap.

Ill, p. 98.

The

GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

The
fruitful fource

809
CHAP.

of crimes

confifts

in this

circumftance, book vin.

one man's
deftitute.

poflefling in

abundance that of which another

man

is

v-

II.

We

muft change the nature of mind, before we can

this circumftance,

prevent

it

from being powerfully influenced by

ftrongly

when brought
its fituation.

home

to

its

perceptions by the nature of

Man

muft ceafe

to

have

fenfes, the pleafures

of

appetite

and vanity muft

at the

ceafe to gratify, before thefe pleafures.

he can look on

tamely

monopoly of

He
It is

muft ceafe

to

have a fenfe of
this

juftice, before

he can clearly and fully approve

mixed fcene of

fuperfluity

and

diftrefs.
is

true that -the

proper method of curing this inequality

violence.
is

by reafun and not by

eftablilhed fyftem

^^k/ Ly,
/.

d'^x-e/f^''''^''^'^
Z*'*'''*''^'''^

But the immediate tendency of the

/t^Xj^''*"^'^! "

to perfuade

men

that reafon
is

is

impotent.

The

injuftice

of

L'^^'^'^
'^'^

^
"

>

which they complain

upheld by force, and they are too

its

eafily

//fV
^'^*^

-.^fi^'^lT'

induced, by force to attempt

is

corredion.

All they endeavour

tells

/t /*
'

I*

the partial corredion

is

of an injuftice, which education

reafon
affirms

.
<

j^^d^

j^^-^''

^^*^

them

neceflary,

but more powerful

to

be

tyrannical.

fft^

Force grew out of monopoly.

occurred
or whofe

It

might accidentally have

among
paffions
;

favages

whofe

appetites exceeded their fupply,

were inflamed by the prefence of the objed of

it

their defire

but

would gradually have died away,

as reafon
its

and

civilifation
;

advanced.

Accumulated property has fixed

empire

and henceforth

all is

an open contention of the ftrength

and cunning of one party

againft the ftrength

and cunning of
the

5L

Sio
BOOK
*

BENEFITS ARISING FROM

VIII.
II.
' V

THE
tend to defeat

the other.

In this cafe the violent and premature ftruggles of

evil.

CHAP.

the neceflitous are undoubtedly an

They

the very caufe in the fuccefs of which they are moft deeply
interefted
j

they tend to procraftinate the triumph of truth.

is

But
of

the true crime

in the malevolent

and

partial

propenfities

men, thinking only of themfelves, and defpifing the emolument

of others
;

and of thefe the rich have

their ihare.

The

fpirit

of oppreffion, the

fpirit

of

fcrvility,

and the

fplrit

of fraud, thefe are the immediate

fyftem of property.

growth of the

eftablifhed

Thefe are

alike hoftile to intelledlual

and and

moral improvement.

The

other vices of envy, malice

revenge are their infeparable companions.

In a

ftate

of fociety
all

where men

lived In the midft of plenty,

and where

fhared

alike the bounties of nature, thefe fentiments would inevitably

expire.

The narrow

principle of felfifhnefs
little

would

vanifli.

No
own

man

being obliged to guard his

refllefs

ftore,

or provide with

anxiety and pain for his

wants, each would lofe his

individual exiftence in the thought of the general good.

No

man would

be an

enemy

to his neighbour, for they

;

would have

nothing for which to contend

and of confequence philanthropy

afligns

would refume the empire which reafon

her.

Mind

would be

delivered

from her perpetual anxiety about corporal

fupport, and free to expatiate in the field of thought

which
all.

is

ongenial to her.

Each man would

aflift

the enquiries of

Let

GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

Let us
principles
j'n
-1

Sii

fix

our attention for a

moment upon
-

the revolution of book vrrr.

and habits that immediately grow out of an unequal

r
ITT 11

CHAP
>-

II
'

diltnbution oi property.

Till

it

was thus diitnbuted men

-n

the paffions felt of the rich:

what

their

wants required, and fought the fupply of thofe wants.

All that was

more than

this,

was regarded

as indifferent.

But no

fooner

is

accumulation introduced, than they begin to ftudy a

variety of methods, for difpofing of their fuperfluity with leaft

emolument
fhall

to their neighbour,

or in other words

by which

it

appear to be moll their own.

They do
to

not long continue

to

buy commodities, before they begin

is

buy men.

He

that

poffeffes or

the fpedbator of fuperfluity foon difcovers the hold

which

it

affords us

on the minds of

others.

Hence

the paffions

of vanity and oftentation.

Hence

the defpotlc manners of

them

-who

recoiled;

with complacence the rank they occupy, and the

is

reftlefs

ambition of thofe whofe attention

engroffed by the pof-

fible future.

Ambition
extenfive in
to

is

of

all

the paffions of the

It

human mind

the moft

war.

its

ravages.
It

adds diftrid to diftrid, and kingdom

kingdom.

fpreads bloodlhed and calamity and conqueft

over the face of the earth.

But the paffion

itfelf,

as well as the

means of

gratifying
It is

it, is

the produce of the prevailing fyftem of

property *.

only by means of accumulation that one

man
by

obtains an unrefifted

fway over multitudes of

income

others.

It is

means

of a certain diftributlon of
* Book

that the prefent govern-

V, Chap. XVI.

ments

8i2

BENEFITS ARISING FROM THE

ments of the world are retained in
exiflence.

Nothing more
But,
if

eafy than to plunge nations fo organlfed Into war.

Eu-

rope were
feffing

at

prefent covered with inhabitants,

all

of them pof-

competence, and none of them fuperfluity, what could indifferent countries to

duce
lead

its

engage in

hoftillty

If

you would
If

men

to war,

you muft

exhibit certain allurements.

you

be not enabled by
force

a fyftem, already prevailing and

which derives

from

prefcription, to hire

them

to

your purpofes, you muft

bring over each individual

a tafk

by

dint of perfuafion.

How hopelefs
is

by fuch means

to excite

mankind

to

murder each other ?

the growth of

It is clear

then that war in every horrid form

unequal property.
ruption
fhall

As long
it is

as this fource

of jealoufy and cor-

remain,

vifionary to talk of univerfal peace.

it

As

foon as the fource

fhall

be dried up,
It is

will be impoffible to ex-

elude the confequence.

property that forms

fit

men

into

one
a.

common
would

mafs, and makes

them

to be

played upon like

brute machine.

Were

this

ftumbling block removed, each

man

be united to his neighbour in love and mutual kindnefs a

thoufand times more than

now

but each

man would

think and

judge

for himfelf.

Let then the advocates for the prevailing

fyftem, at leaft confider

what

it is

for

which they
its

plead,

and be

well aftiired that they have arguments in

favoior which will

weigh againft

thefe difadtantages.

depopu.

There

is

one other circumftance which, though

Iiiferior to
is

thofe

Ution.

above enumerated, deferves to be mentioaed.

4.-

This

population.

GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

tlon.
It

813
book vni.

has been calculated that the average cultivation of Eu-

rope might he improved, fo as to

mamtam
is

r five times

CHAP.il
her prefent
fociety
^

number of inhabitants
by which population
means of

*.

There

a pHnciple in

human

is

perpetually kept

down

to the level of the

fubfiflence.

Thus among

the wandering tribes of

America and

Afia,

we

never find through the lapfe of ages, that

population has fo increafed, as to render neceflary the cultivation

of

the.eaith.-

Thus, among the

civilifed nations

of Europe, by

means of

territorial

monopoly

the fources of fubfiflence are kept

within a certain limit, and,

if the

population became overftocked,

the lower ranks of the inhabitants

would be

ftill

more incapable
There are
-

of procuring for themfelves the

neceffaries

of

life.

no doubt extraordinary concurrences of circumftances, by means

of which changes are occafionally introduced in
in ordinary cafes the ftandard of population
ftationary for centuries.
is

this refpet

but

held in a

manner

Thus

the eftablifhed fyftem of property

confiderable portion of our
life

may

be confidered

as ftrangling a

children in their cradle.

Whatever may be the value of the

of man, or rather whatever would be his capability of happinefs

in a free and equal
ft ate

of fociety, the fyftem

we

are here op

pofing

may

be confidered as arrefting upon the threfliold of ex-

iftence four fifths of that value

and

that happinefs.

f Ogilvie, Part

I, Sei^. ili, par.

35.

HA

P-\

Si4

CHAP.

III.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM THE ADMIRABLE EFFECTS OF LUXURY.

NATURE OF THE OBJECTION. LUXURY NOT NECESSARY EITHER TO POPULATION OR TO THE IMPROVEMENT
OF THE MIND.
BOOK VIII. CHAP. III."
^

ITS
1

TRUE CHARACTER.
and improvement are
1

'~T~^
I *-

H E S E ideas of juftice
n
.

as old as
r n

li-

->

terature

and reflexion themfelves.

rr^i

They have
all

luggeited

themfelves in detached parts to the inquifitive in

ages,

though

they have perhaps never been brought together fo

to ftrike the

as fufficiently

mind with

their confiflency

and beauty.

But, after

having fUrnifhed an agreeable dream, they have perpetually been

laid afide as impradicable.

We

will proceed to

examine the obbeen

jections

upon which

this

fuppofed impradicability has

founded ; and the anfwer

to thefe objedtions will gradually lead

its

us to fuch a development of the propofed fyftem, as by

pletenefs

com-

and the regular adjuftment of

its

parts will be calculated

to carry conviction to the moft prejudiced mind.

Nature of the

There
lifh

is

one objection that has chiefly been cultivated on Eng-

ground, and to which

2

we

will give the priority oi

examination.

OF THE SUPPOSED ADVANTAGES,

tion.
fits."

&e,

gij
CHAP,
viir. III
'

It

has been affirmed " that private vices are public bene- book
this principle, thus coarfely ftated

But

by one of

its

origin

nal advocates *,

was remodelled by

his

more

elegant fucceflbrsf.

They
utility,

obferved, " that the true meafure of virtue and vice

was

and confequently
as

that

it

was an unreafonable calumny to

fald,

ftate

luxury

a vice.

Luxury," they
afcetlcs

" whatever might

it,

be the prejudices that cynics and

had excited againft

was the

rich

and generous

foil

that brought to perfedlion the true

profperity of mankind.

Without luxury men muft always have

It is

remained
built

folitary
cities

favages.

luxury by which palaces are

and

peopled.

How

could there have been high po-

pulation in any country, without the various arts in

which the

fwarms of

its
is

inhabitants are

bufied

The

true benefador of
his charities en-

mankind

not the fcrupulous devotee

;

who by

courages infenfibility and floth

reads

is

not the furly philofopher

;

who

them

ledtures of barren morality

but the elegant volup-

tuary

who employs
to fupply
all

thoufands in fober and healthful induftry to

table,

procure dainties for his

who

unites diftant nations in

com-

merce
arts

him with

furniture,

and

who

encourages the fine

and

the fublimities of invention to furnifh. decorations for

his refidence."

have brought forward

this

objedion, rather that nothing ma- Luxury

not

neceflary,

either to po=-

* Mandeville

Fable of the Bees.

pulation:

\
Part

Coventry, in a
II, Eflliy II.

treatife entitled,

Philemon

to

Hydafpes

Hume;

Eflayj,

teriali

Si 6

OF THE SUPPOSED
'

ADVANTAGES
it

BOOK viiT.

terial mio;ht

appear to be omitted, than becaufe

requires a fepaIt

CHAP.
S--

III.
;

,/:-'

rate arifwer.

The true anfwer has been

anticipated.
is

has been
cultiva-

feen that the population of any country

tion.

meafured by

its

If therefore fufEcient motives can be furnifhed to excite

to agriculture, there
is

men
But

no doubt,

that population

may

be

carried

on

to

any extent

that the land c^n be

is

made

to maintain.
its

agriculture,

when once begun,

never found to flop in

It is territorial
tral:s

career, but

from

pofitive difcountenance.

mono-

poly that obliges

waifte,

men

unwillingly to fee vafl

of land lying

or negligently and imperfedly cultivated, while they are

If land
it, it

fubjeded to the miferies of want.

to

were perpetually open

is

him who was

it

willing to cultivate

not to be believed

but that

would be

cultivated in proportion to the

wants of the
effectual

community, nor by the fame reafon would there be any

check
to the increafe of population.

or to the

I'm-

provement of the mind.

Undoubtedly the quantity of manual labour would be greatly o /

inferior to that
civilifed

which

is

now performed by the inhabitants

which

of any

country, fmce at prefent perhaps one twentieth part of

agriculture
to

the inhabitants performs the

fupports

the

whole.

But

it is

by no means
real calamity.

be admitted that this leifure

would be found a

Its true chr-

As
this

to

what

fort

of a benefador the voluptuary

is

to

mankind,
of de-

was

fufficiently feen
injuftice.

when we

treated

of the

effects
all

pendence and

To

this fpecies

of benefit

the crimes

and

O
and moral
evils

U X U R

Y.
If

817
book viii.
'

of mankind are indebted for their perpetuity.

mind be

to be preferred to

mere animal

exiftence, if

it

ought to

be the wifh of every reafonable enquirer, not merely that man,

but that happinefs fhould be propagated, then
the bane of the
is

the voluptuary

human

fpecies.

CHAP,

8i8

CHAP.

IV.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM THE ALLUREMENTS OF SLOTH.

THE OBJECTION STATED.

SUCH

A STATE OF SOCIETY

MUST HAVE BEEN PRECEDED BY GREAT INTELLECTUAL IMPROVEMENT. THE MANUAL LABOUR REQUIRED IN

THIS STATE WILL BE EXTREMELY SMALL.

UNIVERSAOF

LITY OF THE LOVE OF DISTINCTION.

OPERATION

THIS MOTIVE UNDER THE SYSTEM IN QUESTION FINALLY BE SUPERSEDED BY A BETTER MOTIVE.
BOOK viii. CHAP, i^
The objectio'n ilated.
'

WILL

\ A'N O ^ ^
Is,

TH E R

objedion which has been urged agalnfl the

fyftem which counterads the accumulation of property,

it

" that

would put an end

to induftry.

We

behold in com-

mercial countries the miracles that are operated

gain.

by

the love of

Their inhabitants cover the fea with their

fleets, aftonifli

mankind by the refinement of

their ingenuity, hold vaft conti-

nents in fubjedion in dlftant parts of the world

by

their arms, are

able to defy the moft powerful confederacies, and, opprefled with

taxes and debts, feem to acquire frelh profperity under their ac-

cumulated burthens.

Shall

we

lightly part

with a fyftem that

?

feems pregnant with fuch inexhauftible motives

lieve that

Shall

we

be-

men

vv^ill

cultivate affiduoufly

what they have no aflur-

OF THE PROPENSITY,
ance they
fliall

&c.

819

be permitted to apply to their perfonal emolu- book viil

ment

It

will perhaps

be found with agriculture as

flourifhes beft

it

is

with

commerce, which then

trol, but,

when

fubjedled to

no con-

when

placed under rigid reftraints, languifhes and exit

pires.

Once

eftablifh

as a principle in fociety that

no man

is

to apply to his perfonal ufe

more than

his necelfities require,

and

you

will find every

call

man become

indifferent to

thofe

exertions
is

which now

forth the energy of his faculties.

;

Man

the

creature of fenfations
telled:,

and,

when we endeavour

to ftrain his in-

and govern him by reafon alone,

Self love
is

we do

but fhow our ig-

norance of his nature.

the genuine fource of our

adions *, and,
along with
it,
it,

if this

fhould be found to bring vice and partiality

yet the fyftem that fhould endeavour to fuperfede

would be

at beft

no more than

a beautiful romance.

If each

man found

that,

without being compelled to exert his

own

in-

duftry, he might lay claim to the fupeifluity of his neighbour-,

indolence would perpetually ufurp his faculties, and fuch a fociety muft either ftarve, or be obliged in
to that fyftem of injuftice
its

own

defence to return

and fordid

intereft,

which

theoretical

reafoners will for ever arraign to

no purpofe."

This

is

the principal objedion that prevents

refiftance to the

men from

yieldal-

Such

a ftate

offociety

ing without

accumulated evidence that has

it

'""'t iiave

been preceded.

ready been adduced.

In reply,

may

be obferved in the
is

firft

b great in.

tellcMuil im-

place, that the equality for

which we

are pleading

an equality

provement,.

For an examination of

this principle fee

Book IV, Chap. VIII,

that.

g2o
BOOK vni.
that

OF THE PROPENSITY
would fucceed
to a ftate of great intelledual

improvement.
affairs, till

CHAP
.

IV.
'

So

bold a revolution cannot take place in

human
The

the

general

mind has been highly

is

cultivated.
j

prefent age of

mankind

greatly enlightened

but

it

is

to be feared is not yet

enlightened enough.
place under the

Hafty and undigefted tumults may take

j

idea of an equalifation of property

but

it is

only a calm and clear convidion of juftice, of juftice mutually to be rendered and received, of happinefs to be produced by the
defertion of our moil rooted habits, that can introduce
riable fyftem

an inva-

of

this

fort.

Attempts without

this preparation

will be produdlive only of confufion.

Their

efFedl will

be

mo-

mentary, and a new and more barbarous inequality

will fucceed.

Each man with unaltered

gratify his love of

appetite will
his

watch

his opportunity to

power or

love of diftindion,

by ufurping

on

his inattentive neighbours.

Is

it

to be believed then that a ftate of fo great intelledual im?

provement can be the forerunner of barbarifm

true, are fubjeftto the

Savages,
civilifed

it

is

weaknefs of indolence.

But

and

refined ftates are the fcene of peculiar activity.

It is

thought,

acutenefs of difquifition, and ardour of purfuit, that fet the corporeal faculties at

work.

Thought

begets thought.

Nothing can

put a ftop to the progreflive advances of mind, but oppreffion.

But here,

ib far

from being opprefled, every man

at his eafe.
is

is

equal, every

man

independent and

It

has been obferved that the

eftablifhment of a republic

always attended with public enthuIs

it

fiafm and irrefiftible enterprife.

to be believed that equality,

TOSLOTHFULNESS.
lity,

821
It is

the true republicanifm, will be

Ijpirit

lefs
is

effedual

true that

book
^

viii .

in republics this

fooner or later

found
at

to languilh.

Reevil.

'

publicanifm

is

not a remedy that ftrikes

the root of the

Injuftice, oppreffion

and mifery can

find

an abode in thofe feem-

ing happy

feats.

But what

fhall ftop

the progrefs of ardour and

is

improvement, where the monopoly of property

unknown

This argument will be ftrengthened,

if

we
we

refle<S]t

on the The

manual

amount of labour

that a

ftate

of equal property will require,

labour required in tLis

Itate will

be

What

is

this quantity

of exertion from which

?

are fuppofing extremely

fo light a bur-

many members
and gentle

of the community to fhrink

It is

then as rather to aflume the appearance of agreeable relaxation

exercife, than of labour.

In this community fcarcely

any can be expeded

in confequence of their fituation or avoca-

tions to confider themfelves as

exempted from manual induftry.

recline in

There

will be

no

rich

men

to

indolence and fatten

upon

the labour of their fellows.

will derive a

The

mathematician, the poet

ftock of chearfulnefs

and the philolcpher

new
that

and

energy from the recurring labour

makes them
In the

feel

they arc

men.
trinkets

There

will be

no perfons employed
;

manufacture of

and luxuries

and none in direding the wheels of the

complicated machine of government, tax-gatherers, beadles, excifemen, tide-waiters, clerks and fecretaries.

There

will be neiIt is

ther fleets nor armies, neither courtiers nor footmen.

the

unneceffary employments that atprefent occupy the great mafs of

the inhabitants of every

civilifed nation,

while the peafant labours

inceflantlv

g22

OF THE PROPENSITY
idle-

BOOK vriT. mceiTaiitly to maintain them in a Hate more pernicious than . CHAP. IV.

It

has been computed that not more than one twentieth of the

inhabitants of
in the labours

England are employed

of agriculture.

ferioully

and

fubftantially

Add

to

this, that

the nature of

agriculture

is

fuch, as neceflarily to give full occupation in

fome

parts of the year,

and

to leave others comparatively

unemployed.

We

may

confider thefe latter periods as equivalent to a labour

fkill,

which, under the diredlion of fufEcient

fimple
ftate

might

fuffice in

of fociety for the fabrication of

taylors, bakers
is

tools, for

weaving,

and the occupation of

and butchers.

The ob-

ject in the prefent ftate of fociety

to multiply labour, in ano-

ther ftate

it

will be to fimplify

it.

vaft difproportion of the

wealth of the community has been thrown into the hands of a

few, and ingenuity has been continually upon the ftretch to find
out ways in which
it

may

be expended.

In the feudal times the

eat

great lord invited the poor to

eftate

come and
wearing

of the produce of his

upon condition of

their to

his livery,

and forming

themfelves in rank and

file

do honour
facilitated,

to his well

bom

guefts.

Now that exchanges

artificial

are

more

we have

quitted this ininin

mode, and oblige the men we maintain out of our

and induftiy In return.

comes

to exert their ingenuity

Thus

the inftance juft m^entloned,

to pieces, that

we pay

the taylor to cut our clothes

he

may few them

together again, and to decorate

them with

ftltching

and various ornaments, without which experience

TO
rlence
ful.

L OT

HFULN
were

ES
no

S.

23
rook viir.

would

fpeedily ili^w that they

in

refpedl lefs ufe-

We are

CHAP
imagining in the prefent cafe a
ftate

of the moil

.-

IV
j

rigid fimplicity.

From
means

the fketch' which has been here given

it

fcems by no

impoffible, that the labour of every twentieth

fufficlent to
life.

man

In the

community would be
folute neceflaries of

maintain the

reft in all the

ab-

human

If then this labour, inftead of

being performed by fo fmall a number, were amicably divided

among them
man's time.

all, it

would occupy the twentieth

part of every

Let us compute that the Induftry of a labouring

man

engroffes ten hours in every day, which,

his hours of reft, recreation
It

when we have

de-

duced

and meals, feems an ample

allowance.

follows that half an hour a day, ferioufly

em-

ployed in manual labour by every member of the community,

would

fufficiently

fupply the whole with neceflaries.

this degree

there that

would fhrink from

of induftry

Who Who

is

is

there that fees the incefl^ant induftry exerted in this city and this
ifland,

and would believe

fhould be every
Is
it

that,

with half an hour's induftry per

diem,

we
?

way

happier and better than

we

are at
pic-

prefent

pofllble to contemplate this fair

and generous

ture of independence and virtue,

where every man would have

of mind, without feeling

ample

leifure for the noblcft energies

our very

fouls refreflied with admiration

and hope

When we

talk of

men's fmking Into idlenefs

2

if

they be not
excited

Univei-fjiity

oftl.cloveuf
diiUnaion.;

824
BOOK
^

OF
viir.

THE PROPENSITY
certainly very
little

excited

by the flimulus of gain, we have

con-

fidered the motives that at prefent govern the

human mind.

We

are deceived

by

the apparent mercenarinefs of mankind, and

is

imagine that the accumulation of wealth

their great

objet.

But the

cafe

is

far otherwife.
is

The

prefent ruling pafiion of the

human mind
clafs

the love of diftintion.

There

is

no doubt a

in fociety that are perpetually urged

leifure for

by hunger and need,

material.
?

and have no

motives
lefs

lefs

grois

and

But
I

is

the clafs next above

them

induftrious than they

exert a
;

certain fpecies of induftry to fupply

my my

immediate wants
exerted that
I

but

thefe

wants are foon fupplied.

better coat, that I

The
clothe

reft is

may

wear a
that I

may

wife with gay

attire,

may

not merely have a fhelter but a handfome habitation,

eat,

not merely bread or flefh to

fuitable

but that

may fet

it

out with a

How many of thefe things would engage my attention, if I lived in a defert ifland, and had no fpedators of my
decorum.

economy

If I furvey the appendages of

article that is

not an appeal

my perfon, is there one to the refpedt of my neighbours, or a

?

refuge againft their contempt

It

is

for this that the merchant

braves the dangers of the ocean, and the mechanical inventor

brings forth the treafures of his meditation.

The

foldier ad-

vances even to the cannon's mouth, the ftatefman expofes himfelf to

the rage of an indignant people, becaufe they cannot bear

to pafs

through

life

without diftintion and efteem.

Exclufively
is

of certain higher motives that will prefently be mentioned, this

the purpofe of all the great exertions of mankind.

The man who

has

TOSLOTHFULNESS.
has nothinsr to provide for but his animal wants, fcarcely ever
^

825
bookviii.

CHAP.
*

IV.
'

fhakes

off the

lethargy of his
to

mind

but the love of praife

hurries us
is

on

the moft incredible achievements.

to find perfons

Nothing

more common than

who

furpafs the reft of

their fpecies in activity, inexcufably

remifs in the melioration

of their pecuniary

affairs.

In

reality

thofe

by

whom
men

this reafoning has

been urged,

have miftaken the nature of

not fmcerely believe that

their

own

objedion.

They

did

could be roufed into a(Stion only

ftate

by

the love of gain

but they imagined that in a

of equal

property

men would have

nothing to occupy their attention.

Is

What

degree of truth there

in this idea

we

fliall

prefently have

cccafion to eftimate.

Meanwhile
arlfe

it Is

fufficlently

obvious, that the motives which

are

from the love of diftindlon

by no means cut

off,

by

Operation of motive under the

this

ftate

of foclety Incompatible with the accumulation of property,

longer able to acquire the efteem or avoid the contempt
drefs

fyllem in queftion

Men, no

of their neighbours by circumftances of

divert the paffion for dlftlndtlon

and furniture,

will

into another channel.

They

will avoid the reproach of indolence, as carefully as they

now
pre-

avoid the reproach of poverty.

fent neglel the efFeft

The only

perfons

who

at

which

their appearance

and manners

may

produce, are thofe whofe faces are ground with famine and
diftrefs.

But

In a ftate of equal foclety

no man

will be opprelTed,

and

826
ROOK
viii.
'

OF
J

THE PROPENSITY
delicate affeaions of the foul will

and of confequence the more

have time to expand themfelves.

The

general niind

ha'iritig,

as

we

have already fliown, arrived

the impulfe that carries
ever.
it

at

a high pitch of improvement,

out into adion will be ilronger than

fpirit

The

fervour of public
leifure

wall

be great.

Leifure will
is

be multiplied, and the

precife period in

of a cultivated underftanding

the

which

great defigns, defigns the tendency of

which

is

to fecure applaufe and efteem, are conceived.

it

In tranto

quil leifure
exift

is

impoflible for

any but the fublimeft mind

This
paflion,

without the paffion for diftindlion.

itfelf

no

longer permitted to lofe

in indirect channels and ufelefs

wanderings, will feek the nobleft courfe, and perpetually fructify

the feeds of public good.

Mind, though
its

it

will

perhaps

at

no

time arrive

at

the termination of

poffible difcoveries

and im-

provements, will neverthelefs

nefs of prggreffion of

advance with a rapidity and firmare at prefent unable to conceive

which we

the idea.

will finally
a better
tive.

be

The

love of fame

is

no doubt a
its

delufion.

This

like

every
It

fuperfeded by

mo-

other delufion will take

is

turn to be deteded and abjured.

an airy phantom, which will indeed afford us an imperfedt

pleafure fo long as
able

we

worfhip

It,

but will always in a confiderteft

degree difappoint us, and will not (land the

of exami-

nation.

We ought

to love

nothing but good, a pure and

immugeneral.
is

table felicity, the

good of the majority, the good of the

fubftantial

If there be

any thing more

than

all

the

reft, it

juftice.

TOSLOTHFULNESS.
juftice, a principle that refts

827
book
virr.
'
.

upon

this fingle poftulatum, that

man and man

under certain
benefit proceed
ful diftindion.

are beings of the

fame nature, and

fufceptible,

limitations, of the

fame advantages.
fo
it

Whether
is

the

from you or me,

be but conferred,

a pitiferves

Juftice has the farther advantage,

which

us as a countercheck to prove the goodnefs of this fpecies of arithmetic, of producing the only folid happinefs to the

man by

whom

it is

pradifed, as well as the good of

all.

But fame can-

not benefit me, any more than ferve the beft purpofes to others.

The man who ads from

good
;

the love of

it,

may

produce public

but, if
is

he do,

it is

from indired and fpurious views.

If
it

Fame

an unfubftantial and delufive purfuit.

fignify

an

opinion entertained of
vicious.

me

greater than I deferve, to purfue

it is

If

it

be the precife mirror of

my

charader,

it is

defira-

ble only as a means, in as

much

as I

may

perhaps be able to do
the extent

moft good

to the perfons

who
of my

beft

know

of

my

capacity and the reditude

intentions.

The love

of fame,

when

it

perifties in

minds formed under the

Selfifh-

prefent fyftem, often gives place to a greater degeneracy.

nefs
is

the habit that

grows out of monopoly.

its

When

therefore

this felfiftinefs
it

ceafes to feek
itfelf

gratification in public exertion,

frigid

too often narrows

into

fome

conception of perfonal

pleafure, perhaps fenfual, perhaps intelledual.

But

this

cannot

be the procefs where monopoly

there

is

baniihed.
it.

Selfilhnefs has

no kindly circumftances
5

to fofter

Truth, the over-

powering

828

OF THE PROPENSITY TO SLOTHFULNESS.

feizes us irrefiftibly.
It
1 .
. ,
.

BOOK viir. powering truth of general good, then CHAP. IV. ^, ^ -> IS impoinble we mould want motisres,

io

long as

we

lee clearly

how

multiLudes and

:-;ges

may

be benefited by our exertions,

in

how

caufes and

effeils are

conneded

an endlefs chain, fo that no

hopeft effort can be

its

-oft,

but will operate to good, centuries after

author

is

configned to the grave.

all

This will be the general

all.

paffion,

and

will be

animated by the example of

CHAP.

829

CHAP.

V.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF ITS BEING RENDERED

PERMANENT.
GROUNDS OF THE OBJECTION.
ANSWER.

ITS

SERIOUS IMPORT.

THE INTRODUCTION OF SUCH A SYSTEM 2. MUST BE OWING, I. TO A DEEP SENSE OF JUSTICE TO A CLEAR INSIGHT INTO THE NATURE OF HAPPINESS AS BEING PROPERLY INTELLECTUAL NOT CONSISTING IN SENSUAL PLEASURE
DELUSION.

OR THE PLEASURES OF
INDIVI-

INFLUENCE OF

THE PASSIONS CONSIDERED.

MEN WILL NOT ACCUMULATE EITHER FROM DUAL FORESIGHT OR FROM VANITY.

LET
r
.

US proceed to another objedion.

,
1

It

has fometimes been book

*

viii.

laid

by thole who oppofe

/-

CHAP.
the dodrine here maintained,
to the
v

V.
'

Grounds of

"that equality might perhaps contribute

Improvement

theobjeaion.

and happinefs of mankind,

of

If

it

were confident with the nature

permanent
;

man

that fuch a principle fhould be rendered

but

that every expedation of that kind muft prove abortive.

Con-

fufion

would be Introduced under the

idea of equality to-day,

but the old vices and monopolies would return to-morrow.

that the rich

All
facrifice,

would have purchafed by the moft generous

830
BOOK VIII.
fice,

OF

THE PERMANENCE OF THE

ideas

would be a period of barbarifm, from which the

and

CHAP. V.
V
,
,

regulations of civil fociety mufl:

commence

as

from a new infancy.

at leaft

The

nature of

man

cannot be changed.

There would
fociety,

be fome vicious and defigning members of

who would
reft.

endeavour to fecure to themfelves indulgencies beyond the

Mind would
ftate

not be reduced to that exadt uniformity which a

;

of equal property demands

and the variety of fentiments

prevail,

which muft always in

fome degree

would inevitably

fubvert the refined fyftems of J^eculative perfection."

Its feilous

No

objedtion can be
It

more

eflential

than that which

is

here

import.

adduced.
refift all
if,

highly becomes us in fo momentous a fubjedt to

:

extravagant fpeculations

it

would be

truly to be lamented,

while

we

parted with that ftate

far

of fociety through which

mind has been thus

rifm

advanced,

we were

replunged into barba-

by the
is

purfuit of fpccious appearances.

But what

is

worft
is

of

all,

that, if this objedlion

be true,
forward.

it is

to be feared there
it

no remedy.
mires,
it

Mind muft go

What

fees

and adis

will

fome time or other feek

But
it is

to attain.

Such

the

inevitable

law of our nature.

impoffible not to fee the

it

beauty of equality, and to be charmed with the benefits

to promife.

feems

The

confequence
is

is

fure.

Man,
to

according to the

fyftem of thefe reafoners,

prompted

advance for fome time

with fuccefs
farther

but after that time, in the very adl of purfuing

necefllarily

improvement, he

plunges beyond the compafs

afrefh.

of his powers, and has then his petty career to begin

The

GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

The objedlon
reprefents

831

him

as a foul abortion,
is

with juft under- bookvih.

little

ftanding enough to fee what

good, but with too

to retain

<^^y

CHAP V

him

in the pradice

of

it.

Let us

confider whether equality,

it is

once eftablifhed, would be fo precarious as

here reprefented.

In anfwer to

this

objedion

it

muft

firft

be

remembered,
is

Anfwt^r.

thai the ftate of equalifation

refult

we

are here

fuppofing

not the

of accident, of the authority of a chief magiftrate, or the

is

over earneft perfuafion of a few enlightened thinkers, but

produced by the ferious and deliberate convidion of the com-

munity

at large.

We will

fuppofe for the prefent that

it is

pofli-

ble for fuch a convidion to take place

among
:

a given
if
it

number of
be poffible
reafon to

perfons living in fociety with each other

in a fmall

and,

community, there feems

it is

to be

no

fufficient

prove that

impoflible in one of larger and larger dimenfions.

The

queftion

we have

here to examine

is

concerning the probaits

bility,

when

the convidion has once been introduced, of

becoming permanent.

The convidion

refts

upon two

intelledual impreflions, one The

intro-

of juftice, and the other of happinefs.

Equalifation of property

fuch'a"fyftcm

cannot begin to afliime a fixed appearance in

human

fociety,

till

^wing.^i. to
^

the fentiment becomes deeply wrought into the mind, that the

of juOicer

genuine wants of any

man

conftitute his only juft claim to the

If the general fenfe

appropriating any fpecies of commodity.

of

mankind

OF THE
mankind were once

PERMANENCE OFTHE
fo far enlightened, as to

produce a perpetual

impreffion of this truth, of fo forcible a fort as to be exempt

from

all

objedions and doubt,

at

we

fhould

look

with equal

horror and contempt

the idea of

any man's accumulating a

property he did not want.

All the evils that a ftate of

mono-

poly never

fails to
all

engender would

ftand forward in our minds,

together with
ftate

the exifting happinefs that attended

upon

of freedom.

We

fhould

feel as

much

alienation of thought

from the confuming

ufelefsly

upon

ourfelves

what would be
for the

beneficial to another, or

from the accumulating property

purpofe of obtaining fome kind of afcendancy over the mind of

our neighbours, as

we now

feel

from the commiffion of murder.

of equal property once
efta-

No man
blifhed,

will dlfpute, that a ftate

would

greatly diminifh

the evil propenfities of man.

is

But the crime we

that
is
is

are nowr fuppofing

ftate

more

atrocious than

any

to be

found in the prefent

of fociety.

Man
it is

perhaps^

incapable under

any circumftance of perpetrating an adion of

contrary

which he has a clear and undoubted perception that

to

the general

good.

But be

this

as

it

will,

it is

hardly to be

believed that any

to himfelf

man

for the fake of fome imaginary gratification

would wantonly

injure the whole, if his

mind were
tliat

not

firft

ulcerated with the imprefllon of the injury

is is

fociety

by

its

ordinances

committing againft him.

that of a

The

cafe

we

are

here confidering

man, who does not even imagine

ftate

himfelf injured, and yet wilfully fubverts a

of happinefs to

which

'

GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

which no
return of
all

833

defcriptlon can

do

juftlce, to

make room

for the BooKviir.

^

thofe calamities and vices with

which mankind have

.r

been infefted

from the

earlieft

page of hiftory.

The

equalifation

we

are defcribing

is

farther indebted
it is

for

its

? * ^ =^<^ar infight into

'he nature of happinefs :

empire in the mind to the ideas with which

fonal happinefs.
It

attended of per-

grows out of a fimple,

that

clear

and unanfwerable
need of a certain

theory of the

human mind,

we firft Hand
and

in

animal fubfiftence and

felicity confifts in the

fhelter,

after that, that

our only true

'

^* ^'^'"^S P''^-

perly intcl^^"^"^^
'

expanfion of our intelledual powers, the

virtue.
It

knowledge of
at
firft

truth,

and the pradlice of

might feem

fight as if this theory omitted a part

of the experimental

hiftory of mind, the pleafures of fenfe and the pleafures of delufion.

But

this omiflion

is

apparent, not real.

However many

not confifling
pieafurel

are the kinds of pleafure of

which we

are fufceptible, the truly

prudent

man

will

facrifice

the inferior to the

more

exquifite.

Now

no man who has ever produced or contemplated the happiliberal

nefs of others with a

infinitely the

mind, will deny that

all

this exercife is

moft pleafurable of

fenfations.

But he

that

is

guilty of the fmalleft

excefs of fenfual pleafures,

by

fo

much
Not
is

diminifhes his capacity of obtaining this higheft pleafure.

to add, if that be of

any importance,

that rigid temperance

the reafonable means of tafting fenfual pleafures with the higheft

relifti.

This was the fyftem of Epicurus, and muft be the fyftem

of every

man who

ever fpeculated deeply on the nature of

human
orthepleafiires

happinefs.

For the pleafures of delufion, they are abfolutely

5

^-^

of dclu-

mcompatible

fion.

834
BooKvni.
'

OF THE PERMANENCE OF THE

incompatible with our higheft pleafure.
If

we would
feek to

either

>

!,

promote or enjoy the happinefs of others,

in

we muft

know

what

it

confifts.

But knowledge

is

the irreconcileable foe of

its

delufion.

In proportion as

mind

rifes to

true element,

and

fhakes off thofe prejudices which are the authors of our mifery,
it

becomes incapable of deriving pleafure from

is

flattery,

fame or

power, or indeed from any fource that

in other words does not

not compatible with, or

make

a part of the
is

common
that I

good.

The

moft palpable of

all claflTes

of knowledge

am, perfirft

fonally confidered, but an

atom

in the ocean of mind.

The

rudiment therefore of that fcience of perfonal happinefs which

infeparable
finitely

is

from a

flate

of equalifation,

is,

that I fhall derive in-

more

pleafure

from

fimplicity, frugality

and truth, than

from luxury, empire and fame.

entertaining this opinion,
to accumulate
?

What

temptation has a man,

ftate

and living in a

of equal property,

Influence of

This queftlon has been perpetually darkened by the doftrine, fo

familiar to writers of morality, of the independent operations of

the

pail'ions

coniidei'cd.

reafon and paflion.

Such

diftindlions
confift
?

muft always darken.

It confifts
firft

Of

how many
of a
feries

parts does

mind

Of none.

merely

of thought fucceeding thought from the

its

moment of

our exiftence to

termination *.

This word paflion, which has

produced fuch extenfive mifchief in the philofophy of mind, and

has no real archetype,
is

perpetually (hifting

its

meaning.

Some-

Book IV, Chap. VII,

p.

335.

times

GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

times
it is

8:^5
viii.

applied univerfally to

all

thofe thoughts, which, being book

^

peculiarly vivid, and attended with great force of argument real or

CHAP. V

'>

imaginary, carry us out into adion with

uncommon energy. Thus

fpirit

we

fpeak oi the paffion of benevolence, public

it

or courage.

Sometimes

fignifies thofe vivid

thoughts only, which upon acIn the

firft

curate examination appear to be founded in error.

feiiie

the

word might have been unexceptionable.

Vehement

defire is the refult

of a certain operation of the underftanding, and

muft always be

in a joint ratio of the fuppofed clearnefs of the

propofition and importance of the pradical cffeds.

fenfe, the dodtrine

In the fecond

f the paflions would have been exceedingly

harmlefs, if we had been accuftomed to put the definition inftead

of the thing defined.

affirmed that the

It

would then have been found

that

it

merely
the

human mind muft always be

liable to precifely

fame miftakes

as

we obferve

in

it

at prefent,

or in other words af-

firmed the neceflary permanence in oppofition to the neceflary perfedibility of intellect.

"Who

is

there indeed that fees not, in the

cafe above ftated, the abfurdity of fuppofing a man, fo long as he

has a clear view of juftice and intereft lying on one fide of a

given queftion, to be fubjed; to errors that

to the other
?

irrefiftibly

compel him

The mind

is

no doubt

liable to fludluation.
it

But

there

is

a degree of convidion that

would render

impofliblefor

us any longer to derive pleafure from intemperance, dominion or

fame, and this degree in the inceflant progrefs of thought muft

on day

arrive.

This

OF THE
perty, after
it

PERMANENCE OF THE
by the
energies
all

This propofition of the permanence of a fyftem of equal prohas once been brought into adtion

of reafon and convidion, will be placed out of the reach of

equitable doubt, if

we

proceed to form to ourfelves an accurate

pidure of the adion of this fyftem.

introduced to a

Let us fuppofe that

we

are

community of men, who

are accuftomed to an in-

duftry proportioned to the wants of the whole, and to

cate inftantly

communi-

and unconditionally, each man

to his neighbour,

that for which the former has not and the

occafion.
lation
is

latter

has immediate

Here the
inftantly cut

firft

and fimpleft motive to perfonal accumuI

off.

need not accumulate to proted

my-

fjlf againft accidents, ficknefs or infirmity, for thefe are claims

the validity of which
is
is

not regarded as a fubjed of doubt, and

with which every

man

accuftomed to comply.

I
is

can accuperifhable,

mulate in a confiderable degree nothing but what

fcr

exchange being unknown, that which

to the

cannot perfonally

confume adds nothing

fum of

my

wealth.

Meanwhile

it

fhould be obferved, that, though accumulation for private purpofes under fuch a fyftem
tional
as

would be

in the higheft degree irra-

and abfurd,

this

by no means precludes fuch accumulation,

If

may

be neceflary to provide againft public contingencies.

there be

any truth

in the preceding reafonings, this kind of accu-

mulation will be unattended with danger.

perpetual tendency
well

Add

to this, that the

It is

ofwifdom

is

to preclude contingency.

known

that dearths are principally

owing

to the falfe pre-

cautions

CENUINE system of property.

cautions and falfe timidity of

837
book
viir.

mankind

and

it is

reafonable to

fuppofe that a degree of

{kill will

hereafter be produced,

which >

will gradually annihilate the failure

cidents.

of crops and other fimilar ac-

It

has already appeared, that the principal and unintermitting

is

or yaniu-.

motive to private accumulation,

efteem.

the love of diftindion and

This motive

is alfo
it

withdrawn.

As accumulation can
as

have no rational objeft,

nity, not

would be viewed

mark of

Infa-

title

to admiration.

Men would
know
virtue.

be accuflomed to

the fimple principles of juftice, and

titled

that nothing

was en-

to efteem but talents

and

Habituated to employ

their fuperfluity to fupply the

wants of their neighbour, and to

dedicate the time which was not neceffary for manual labour to

the cultivation of Intelled, with what fentlments would they be-

hold the man,

who was

foolllh

enough

to

few a

bit

of lace upon
?

his coat, or affix

any other ornament

to his perfon

In fuch a
level.
It

community property would

would be
interefting to
all

perpetually tend to find

its

to be

informed of the perfon in whofe

hands a certain quantity of any commodity was lodged, and

every
his

man would

apply with confidence to him for the fupply of

Putting therefore out of the

wants in that commodity.

queftlon every kind of compiilfion, the feeling of depravity and

abfurdity, that

would be excited with

relation

to

the

man who
would
an

refufed to part

with that for which he had no

real need,

operate in

all

cafes as a fufficient difcourageraent to fo odious

innovation.

S38

OF THE
^

PE

RMANENC
my

E, &c.

BOOK VIII. innovation. CHAP. V.

^

Every man would conceive

to

that he

had a
If I

jufl:
-^

and

complete

title

make

ufe

of

fuperfluity.
this

refufed to

liften to reafon and expoftulation

on

head, he would not flay

to adjuft

with

me

a thing fo vicious as exchange, but would leave

me

in order to feek the fupply from

as

fome

rational being.

Ac-

cumulation, inftead,
refpedt,
all

now, of

calling forth every

mark of
it

would tend

to cut off the individual

who

attempted

from

the bonds of fociety, and fink

him

in negledt
is

and oblivion.

The

influence of accumulation at prefent

derived from the idea

;

of eventual benefit in the

mind of
ftill

the obferver

but the accu-

mulator then would be in a cafe

worfe than that of the mifer

now, who, while he adds thoufands to his heap, cannot be prevailed

upon

to part with a fuperfluous farthing,

and

is

therefore

the objed of general defertion.

CHAP.

839

HA

P.

vr.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM THE INFLEXIBILITY OF ITS RESTRICTIONS.

NATURE OF THE OBJECTION.
DEPENDENCE

TENDENCY OF RESTRICTION PROPERLY SO CALLED. THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY NOT A SYSTEM OF RESTRICTIONS DOES NOT
THE
SECOND INJURIOUS.
REQUIRE COMMON LABOUR, MEALS OR MAGAZINES.

NATURAL AND MORAL INDISTINGUISHED THE FIRST BENEFICIAL

SUCH RESTRICTIONS ABSURD

EVILS OF

AND

UNNECESSARY.

COOPERATION. ITS PROVINCE MAY PERPETUALLY BE DIMINISHED. MANUAL LABOUR MAY BE EXTINGUISHED. CONSEQUENT ACTIVITY OF INTELLECT. IDEAS OF THE FUTURE STATE OF COOPERATION.

ITS LIMITS.

ITS

LEGITIMATE PROVINCE.

EVILS

OF

COHABITATION AND MARRIAGE. THEY OPPOSE THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR FACULTIES ARE INIMICAL TO AND DEPRAVE OUR UNDERSTANDOUR HAPPINESS

MARRIAGE A BRANCH OF THE PREVAILING SYSTEM OF PROPERTY. CONSEQITENCES OF ITS ABOLITION.

INGS.

EDUCATION NEED NOT IN THAT

BE

StjATE OF SOCIETY

A SUBJECT OF POSITIVE INSTITUTION.

THESE

PRINCIPLES

840

OF THE
PRINCIPLES DO

ENJOYMENT

NOT LEAD TO A SULLEN INDIVIDUABENELITY. PARTIAL ATTACHMENTS CONSIDERED. MATERIFITS ACCRUING FROM A JUST AFFECTION ALLY PROMOTED BY THESE PRINCIPLES. THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY DOES NOT PROHIBIT ACCU-

IMPLIES A CERTAIN DEGREE PRIATION AND DIVISION OF LABOUR.

MULATION

OF APPRO-

N
Nature of the
objeaion,
^

objedion that has often been urged againft a fyftem of

is,
>
^

equal r r property, ;J 1

" that

it is

inconfiftent with r perfonal

^

independence.

Every man according

to this

fcheme

is

a paflive
eat

inftrument in the hands of the community.

He

muft

and

4rink, and play and fleep at the bidding of others.

hkbitation,
'^ot

He

has no

no period

at

which he can

retreat into himfelf,

call his

and

^fk another's

leave.

He

has nothing that he can

own,

not even his time or his perfon.

Under

the appearance of a
is

perfedt freedom from oppreffion and tyranny, he

in reality

fubjeded to the moft unlimited flavery,"

l^turaland
pen'derce^

T underftand the force of this objedion

it is

neceflary that

we

fhould diftinguifh two forts of independence, one of which

may

the firft'bene-

^^ denominated natural, and the other moral.

Natural

inde-

"^

'

pendence, a freedom from

all

conftraint except that of reafon

is

and

argument prefented
the fecond

to the underftanding,

of the utmoft import-

ancc to the welfare and improvement of mind.

ence on the contrary
is

Moral independ-

always injurious.

The dependence which

is

OF
Is eflentlal

LIBERTY.
are

S41

in this

refped to the wholfome temperament of lb- rook mil

it

ciety, includes in

articles that

no doubt unpalatable

CHAP
v

to a

VI
-T

multitude of the prefent race of mankind, but that

owe

their

Unpopularity only to weaknefs and vice.

to be exerclfed

It

includes a cenfure

by every

individual over the adions of another,

a promptnefs to enquire into them, and to judge them.

Ihould
I

Why
and
?

fhrink from this

What

could be more beneficial than

for each

man
his

to derive every poflible afliftance for correcting

moulding

condudl from the perfpicacity of his neighbours

is

The

reafon w^hy this fpecies of cenfure

at prefent cxercifed vvrith

illiberality, is

becaufe

it is

exercifed clandeflinely and

we

fubmit

to

its'

operation with impatience and averfion.

is

Moral inde-

pendence

always injurious

for, as

has abundantly appeared in

is

the courfe of the prefent enquiry, there

no

fituation in

which

can be placed, where

fpecies of

it is

not incumbent upon

all

me to

adopt a certain

condudl in preference to
not prove an
ill

others,

and of confequence
if I

where

I fhall

member of fociety,

ad

in

any

other than a particular manner.

The

attachment that

is felt

by

the prefent race of mankind to independence in this refpedl, the

defire to
ciples

ad

as

they pleafe without being accountable to the prinis

of reafon,

highly detrimental to the genera! welfare.

But,

if

we ought

never to

ad

independently of the principles Tendency of

'

1 !! n n c of reafon, and in no inltance to Inrink irom the candid examina1

reflriction,

properly 10

tion of another,

it

is

neverthelefs effential that

we

fhould

at all

times be free to cultivate the individuality and follow the didates

5

of

842
BOOK virr.

OFTHEENJOYMENT
of our
'

own judgment.

If there be

any thing

hi the

fcheme of equal
is

property that infringes this principle, the pbjedion

If the

conclufiveJ

fcheme

be, as

it h:iS

often been reprefented, a fcheme of goit is

vernri ent, conftraint and regulation,

ftility

no doubt in

dired;

ho-

with the principles of this -work.

The

genuine

g^j. ^j^g truth

is,

that a fyilem of equal property requires no-

perty not a lyitem or reftriaions

:

reftriftions or fuperintendence whatever. f

There

Is

no need of
Thefe

common

labour,

common

meals or

common

magazines.

does not require

common

are feeble and

-^yithout

labour, meals or magazines,

miftaken inftruments for reftraining the conduit

If

making conqueft of the judgment.

you cannot bring

over the hearts of the community to your party, expet no fuceefs

fary.

from brute

regulations.
v,ras

If

you

can, regulation

is

unnecef-

Such a fyftem
;

well enough adapted to the military

it is

conftitution of Sparta
enlifted in

but

wholly unworthy of
of reafon and
juftice.

men who

are

no caufe but

that

Beware of

reducing

men

to the ftate of machines.

Govern them through

no medium but

that of inclination

and convidion.

Suchreftrictions abfurd
:

Why
"^

fliould
at the

wc have common

meals?
?

Am

I
I

obliged to be
to

hungry

fame time that you are

Ought
I

come

at

certain hour,

from the mufeum where

am

working, the recefs

where

I meditate, or

the obfervatory where I remark the pheno-

mena of
eating
;

nature, to a certain hall appropriated to the office of

inftead of eating, as reafon bids

me, at the time and place

magazines
?

moil fuited to

my

avocations

Why have common

For

O
we may

B E

RT

Y.
certain dlftance, that
?

84^
book virr. CHAP. VI.
v

For the purpofe of carrying our provifions a

afterwards bring
IV

them back again

all

Or

is this

precau-

.-^

rill has been that tion really neceflary, after

fociety

faid in praife

'"'^ unnecef-

of equal

fary.

and the omnipotence of reafon,

to
?

guard us againft the

If
it

knavery and covetoufnefs of our

fake
let

affociates

be, for

God's

us difcard the parade of political juilice, and go over to

the ftandard of thofe reafoners

who

fay, that

man and the prailice

of juftice are incompatible with each other.

Once more

let

us be

upon our guard

againft reducing

men

to

Evils of co-

operation.

the condition of brute machines.

ter

The objedors of the

laft

chap-

were partly in the right when they fpoke of the

It

endlefs vari-

ety of mind.

would be abfurd

to fay that

we

are not capable

of truth, of evidence and agreement.

In thefe refpedts, fo far as

mind

is

in a ftate of progreffive
to each other.

improvement, we are perpetually

coming nearer

But there

are fubjed:s about

differ.

which

we

fliall

continually differ, and ought to

The

ideas, the

afroclatlons

and the circumftances of each

it is

man

are properly his

own
all

and

a pernicious fyftem that vvculd lead us to require

different their circumftances, to at in

men, however

many of
to this,

the

common
by the

affairs

of life by a precife general rule.

Add
ihall

that,

do(3:rlne

of progreflive improvement,

we

always

be erroneous, though

we

fhall

every day become

lefs

erroneous.
is

The

proper method for haftenlng the decay of

error,

not,

by

brute force, or

by

regulation

which
2

is

onq of the

clafies

of force,
to

844
BOOK
Z-..-^

OF
viTT.

THE ENJOYMENT
men
to intelledlual uniformity
to think for himfelf.
;

to

endeavour to reduce

but on.

CHAP.

VI. _>

the contrary

by teaching every man

From

thefe principles

it

appears that every thing that

cooperation,
is

is

ufually
evil.

underflood by the term

in

fome degree an

man

in folitude, is obliged to facrifice or poftpone the execubefl;

tion of his

thoughts to his

own

convenience.

How many

admirable defigns have perifhed in the conception by means of

this

circumftance

The

true

remedy
and
as

is

for

men

to reduce their

wants to
the

tliQ feweft poflible,

much

as poffible to fimplify

mode of fupplying them.

It is flill

worfe

when

man

is alfo

obliged to confult the convenience of others.

to eat or to

If I be

expeded
it

work

in conjuntion

with

my

neighbour,
to

muft

ei-

ther be at a time moft

convenient to

me, or

him, or to neither

of

tis.

We
it

cannot be reduced to a clock-work uniformity.

Its province

Hcncc

follows that

all

fupererogatory cooperation

Is

care-

may

perpe-

tually

be

di-

fully to be avoided,

common

labour and

common

meals.

" But

siinifhed.

what

Ihall

we

fay to cooperation that fcems to be didlated

?"
It

by the

nature of the work to be performed

ought to be diminifhed.

At

prefent

it is

unreafonable to doubt, that the confixleration of

is

the evil of cooperation

to that urgency.

in certain urgent cafes to be poftponed

Whether by the nature of things cooperation

be neceflary,
is

of fome
fcarcely

fort will always

a queftion that

we

are

competent to decide.

At

prefent, to pull

down a

tree^to
-

cut

OF
Will
it

I :b

E R T

Y.

s^s
book
^.

cut a canal, to navigate a velTel, requires the labour of many,

viir
'
.

always require the labour of

many

When we
we

lok

at

the complicated machines of

mills,
at the

human

contrivance, various forts of

of weaving engines, of fteam engines, are

not aflonlfhed
fay

compendium of labour they produce

of improvement mufl flop
?

Who fhall
;

where

this fpecies

At

prefent fuch inven-

tions alarm the labouring part of the

community

and they

may

be productive of temporary

diftrefs,

though they conduce in the

fequel to the moft important interefls of the multitude.

ftate

But

In a

of equal labour their

it is

utility v/ill

be

liable

to

no

difpute.

Hereafter

by no means

clear that the

moft extenfive operas

;

tions will not be within the reach of

one

man

or, to

make

ufe

of a familiar inftance, that a plough

field,

may

not be turned into a

and perform
It

its

office

without the need of fuperlntend*

ence.

was

in this fenfe that the celebrated Franklin conjec-

tured, that "

mind would one day become omnipotent over

matter."

The
Is

conclufion of the progrefs which has here been fketched', Manualhlike a final clofe to the neceffity

fomething

of manual labour.

It extlngmLd^,

is

highly inftrudive In fuch cafes to obferve

how

the fubllme ge-

niufes of former times anticipated

what feems
It

likely to be the fix-

ture

improvement of mankind.

was one of the laws of Lycurin

gus, that

no Spartan fhould be employed

it

manual labour.

For

this purpofe under his fyftem

was

neceffary that they fhould .be

plentifully fupplied with flaves devoted to drudgery.

J.

Matter, or,
tO;

S46
BOOK
viTi,

OF THE
to fpeak

ENJOYMENT
and unlntermittin? laws of

more

accurately, the certain

-CHAP. VI. S_ /

the univerfe, will be the Helots of the period

ing.

we

are contemplatlegiflator
!

We

fhall

end in

this refpedl,

oh immortal

at

the point from which

you began.

Confequent
iftivity of
iiitellea.

To

thefc profpcds perhaps the objedion will once again be

repeated, " that

men, delivered from the

into fupinenefs."

neceffity of

manual

la-

bour, will

fmk

What narrow

views of the na?

ture and capacities of mind do fuch objedions imply

The only
Are
?

thing necelTary to put intelled into alion

is

motive.

there

no motives

equally cogent with the profpedt of hunger

Whofe

thoughts are moft adive,

Newton

or the

ploughman

mod rapid and unwearied, thofe of When the mind is ftored with profit

peds of intelledual

greatnefs and utility, can

fmk into

torpor

Ideas of the
future
ftate

of

"Po return to the fubiedt of cooperation. j 1

Ipeculatiou to attend to the progreffive fteps

It

may be j

a curious

.cooperation.
Its limits.

by which

this feature

of

human

fociety

may

be expeded to decline.
?

For example

fhall

we have

concerts of mufic

The

miferable ftate of mechais

nifm of the majority of the performers

even at
this

fo confpicuous, as to
ridicule.

be

day

a topic of mortification

and

Will
?

it

not

be pradicable hereafter for one

man to
?

perform the v/hole

Shall

we
and

have

theatrical exhibitions
It

This feems to include an abfurd

be doubted whethe-^

vicious cooperation.

may

men

will

hereafter

come forward

in

any mode

gravely to repeat words and

ideas not their

own

It

may

be doubted v/hether any mufical

performer

OF

I .B

E R T

y.
?

s^i

peiformer will habitually execute the compofitions of others

1

We

. r r , nyield lupmely to tne luperior merit of our predeceflors, becaufe

book virr. CHAP. VL

^

we

areaccuflomed to mdulge the inadlivity of our

own

faculties.

All formal repetition of other men's ideas feems to be a fcheme

for imprifoning for fo long a time the operations of our

own

mind.
cerity,

It

borders perhaps in this refpedl

that

upon

a breach of fin-

which requires

we fhould

give immediate utterance to

every ufeful and valuable idea that occurs to our thoughts.

Having ventured
endeavour
to

to ftate thefe hints

and conjedures,

let

us

jtg leo-itimat^

mark

the limits of individuality.

Every man

that

P'^'"'^^"

receives an impraffion

from any external

;

objcft, has the current

of his

own

thoughts modified by force

and yet without external

ought not, except under

impreiFions

we

fhould be nothing.

We

certain limitations, to

endeavour to free ourfelves from their ap-

proach.

Every man

that reads the compofition of another, fufTers

the fuccefTion of his ideasto be in a confiderable degree under the

direction of his author.

But

it

does not feem as

if this

would ever
will always
;

form

a fufficient

objedion againft reading.

fats that

One man

have ftored up reflections and

ture

another wants

and maclrcumIs

and digefted difcourfe

will perhaps always, in equal

is

ftances,

be fuperior to that which

extempore.

Converfation

a fpecies of cooperation, one or the other party always yielding to

have

his ideas

guided by the other

and yet converfation and the

to be the mofi: fertile fources.

intercourfe of

mind with mind feem

It is

of improvement.

here as

it is

with punifhment.

He

that

84S
BOOK
V

OF I'HE
VTii.
'

ENJOYMENT
to reafon another out of his
this fpecies

in the gentleft
vices, will

manner undertakes

probably occafion pain; but

of puniih-

ment ought upon no account

to be fuperfeded.

lEvllsof cohabitation:

Another

article

which belones
very

to the

fuljed of cooperation

Is

cohabitation.

firapl;, ^.rocefs

will lead us to a right deraoft efFedually cultivated,

cifion in this inftance.

Science

is

when

the greateft
If an

number of minds

are

employed

in the purfuit

of it.

hundred men

fpontaneoufly engage the whole energy

of their

faculties

upon

the folution of a given queftion, the chance

if

of fuccefs will be greater, than

only ten

men were men

fo

employed.

By

the fame reafon the chance will be alfo increafed, in proporare individual, in

tion as the intelledual operations of thefe

proportion as their conclufions are directed by the reafon of the

thing, uninfluenced
lihy.

by the

force either of compulfion or

fympa-

All attachments to individuals, except in proportion to

It is

their merits, are plainly unjuft.

therefore defirable, that

we

fhould be the friends of

that

man

rather than of particular

men, and
with no

we

fhould purfue the chain of our

own

reflexions,

other interruption than information or philanthropy requires.

and marriage.

This fubjed of cohabitation

cludes in
it

is

particularly intereftlng, as
It will

It

in-

the fubjedl of marriage.

therefore be proper
this head.

They oppofe to extend our enquiries

the development of our
fecuhies
-.

fomewhat
^ ,

further

upon

Co-

habitation

is

not only an evil as

r

it

checks the independent progrefs

of mind

it is

alfo

mconnftent with the imperie(Sions and propenfities

rn

>

OF
penfities *^

LIBERTY.
inclinations abfurd to expert that the uicUnations and ^

49
book vnr, CHAP, VI.
are inimical

of man.

It is

wifhes of two
period of time.
fubjedt

human

beings fhould coincide through any long

to aQ:

To oblige them
fome

and

to live together,

is

to toourhap^

them

to

inevitable portion

of thwarting, bickering
fo

and unhappinefs.

This cannot be otherwife,

long as

man

has

failed to reach the ftaiadard

fition that I

of abfolute perfedlion.
life, is

The

fuppo-

muft have a companion for

It is

the refult of a

complication of vices.
fortitude.
It

the dictate of cowardice, and not of

flows from the defire of being loved and efteemed

is

for fomething that

not defert.

But the
tries lies

evil

of marriage as
this.

it

is

pradlifed in
is,

European counand

and deprave
ftandings.

deeper than

The

habit

for a thoughtlefs

romantic youth of each fex to come together, to fee each other

for a
to

few times and under circumftances

full

of delufion, and then

vow

to each other eternal attachment.

.of this
?

What

is

the confe-

quence

In almoft every inftance they find themfelves

are reduced to

deceived.

They

make

the bell of an irretrievable

miftake.
tation to

They are

prefented with the ftrongeft imaginable tempfalfhood.

become the dupes of

They
upon

are led to conrealities,

ceive
if

it

their wifeft policy to fliut their eyes

happy

by

any perverfion of intelleft they can perfuade themfelves

were
riglit in their
firft f rude
is

that they

opinion of their compaa fyftem of fraud

;

nion.

The

inftitution

of marriage

and
of

men who
their
life,

carefully miflead their

judgments in the daily

aft^air

muft always have a crippled judgment in every other

5

Q^

concern.

S^o
BooKvin.
]

OF
concern.

THE ENJOYMENT
to

We
;

ought

difmifs our miftake

it.

as

foon as

it

is

deteded

but

we

are taught to cherifh

We
;

ought to be ia-

ceiTant in our fearch after virtue

and worth

but

we

are taught

to check our enquiry, and fhut our eyes

upon

the moft attradive

all

and admirable

objects.

Marriage

is

law, and the worft of

tell

laws.

Whatever our underftandings

may

us of the

perfon from

whofe connexion we fhould derive the

the worth of one

greateft

improvement, of

woman
what
is

and the demerits of another,

law, and not what
is juftice.

we

are

obliged to confider

Marriage a branch of the

prevailing

Add

to this, that marriage is

all

an
as

affair

of property, and the

are for-

worft of

properties.

So long

two human beings

fyftem-ofpropi^y-

bidden by pofitive inftitution to follow the didates of their

own

mind, prejudice
grofs one

is

alive

and vigorous.

So long

as I feek to en-

woman

to myfelf,

and to prohibit

my

neighbour from
of
it,

proving his fuperior defert and reaping the

guilty of the moft odious of
prize
all

fruits

am

monopolies.

Over this imaginary

men watch
and
is

with perpetual jealoufy, and one

circumvent as

man

will find

his defires

his capacity to

much

excited, as

the other

excited to traverfe his projeds and fruftrate his

as this ftate

hopes.

As long

of fociety continues, philanthropy

ftill

will be crofled

and checked in a thoufand ways, and the

will continue to flow.

augmenting ftream of abufe

Confequcnces
of
its

The

abolition of marriage will be attended with

it

no

evils.

We

aboli-

tion,

are apt to reprefent

to ourfelves as the harbinger of brutal

O
luft

F
But

L
it

B E R T

Y.
this as In other

gji
Bootcviir.

and depravity.
that the

really

happens in
are

cafes,

pofitive

laws

which

made

CHAP
to reflraln

our

>

V[. />

vices, irritate

and multiply them.

Not

to fay, that

the fame

fentiments of juflice and happinefs which In a ftate of equal

property would deflroy the

relifli

for luxury,

would

decreafe

our inordinate appetites of every kind, and lead us univerfally

to prefer the pleafures of Intellect to the pleafures of fenfe.

The

intercourfe of the fexes will in fuch a ftate

as

fall

under the

fame fyftem

any other fpecles of

friendfhip.
It

Exclulively of all

groundlefs and obftlnate attachments,

live In the

will be Impofllble for

me

to

world without finding one

man

of a worth fuperior to

that of any other

this

whom I have
The

an opportunity of obferving.

To

man

I fhall feel a kindnefs In

exad proportion

to

my apprefame with

henfion of his worth.

cafe will be preclfely the

refpel to the female fex.

I fhall affiduoully cultivate the Inter-

courfe of that

woman whofe

accomplifhments
it

fhall ftrike

the moft powerful manner.

will feel for her the

" But

may happen
I

that other

me In men

fame preference that

all

do." This will create

;

no

difEculty.

We may

enjoy her converfation

and we

ihall all

be wife enough to confider the fenfual intercourfe as a

objedt.

very

trivial

This, like every other

affair in

which two

perfons are concerned, muft be regulated in each fucceffive inftance

by

the unforced confent of either party.

It is

mark of

the extreme depravity of our prefent habits, that

to fuppofe the fenfual
Intercourfe

we

are inclined to the ad-

any wife material

vantages arifing

from the purcft affedion.

5 Q,2

Reafonable

men now
eat

ts2
BOOK viiT. CHAP. VI.
~
eat

OFTHE ENJOYMENT
and drink, not from the lov of
cfiential to

pleafure, but becaufe eating

r
1

,^

'

and drinking are

ble

our healthful exiftence.

-fL

Ti

Reafona-

/-

men

then will propagate their fpecies, not becaufe a certain

Is

fenfible pleafure

annexed to

this
;

adion, but becaufe

It is

right

the fpecies fhould be propagated

exerclfe this

and the manner in which they

^

fandion

will

be regulated by the didtates of reafon

and duty.

Such
the

are

fome of the confiderations

fexes.
It

that will probably regulate

commerce of the
it

cannot be definitively affirmed

whether

be

known

in fuch a ftate of fociety

who

Is

the father

of each individual

child.

But

it

may

be affirmed that fuch

love
it

knowledge

will be of

no Importance.
teach

It is ariftocracy, felf
fet

and family pride

prefent.
I

that

us to

a value upon

at

ought to prefer no
is

human
or

being to another,

becaufe that being

for reafons
is

my

father,

my wife
to
all

my

fon, but becaufe,

which equally appeal

underftandings, that being

the meafures which will

entitled to preference.

One among

fucceffivcly be di(3:ated

by

the fpirit of democracy, and that prois

bably

at

no great

diftance,

the abolition of furnames.

Idueati'** need not in that itate of .fociety be a fubje6\ of

pcfitive Inftiftuiion..

Let us coufidcr the

way

in
i

which

this ftate
i i

of fociety will

modify education,
marriage would
i

..r

t
it
,

may
,

be imagined that the abolition of

.

make

_,

it

in a certain fenfe the affair

of the public;
f

though,

if there
it

be any

truth in the reafonings of this wca-k,

pofitive
inftitutions

to provide for

by the

of a community

^^^

would be extremely
4.

inconfiftent with the true principles

of th&

intelleduaj

O
intelledtual fyftem *.

B E R T
may

y.

g-.

Education
Firft,

be regarded as confiftlng book vht.

^-.'^

of various branches.
lefs ftate

the perfonal cares which the help-

of an infant requires.
;

Thefe will probably devolve

parturition

upon the mother

unlefs,

by frequent

or by the

very nature of thefe

the burthen unequal
lingly participated

cares, that
;

were found
it

to render her fhare of

'

and then
others.

would be amicably and wil-

by

Secondly, food and other necefalready feen,

fary fupplies.
their true level,

Thefe, as

we have

would

eafily find'

and fpontanecufly flow from the quarter

in

which

they abounded to the quarter that was deficient f.

Laftly, the

term education may be ufed

inflrudtion,

to fignify inftrudtion.

The
are

tafk

of

under

fucli a

form of

fociety as that

we

contemit

plating, will be greatly fi'mplified

and

altered

from what

is

at

prefent.

It will

then be thought no more legitimate to

make

boys

flaves,

than to make

men

fo.

The

bufinefs will not then be

to briag forward fo

many

adepts in the egg-lheil, that the vanity

of parents

may

be

flattered

by hearing

their praifes.

No man-

will then think of vexing with premature learning the feeble and

inexperienced, for fear that,

when

they came to years of difcre--

tion, they fhould refufe to be learned.

Mind

will be fuffered to

expand
it,

itfelf inproportibtias

occafion and imprelTion fhall excite:

caft in

and not tortured and" enervated by being

a particular.learn
;,

mould.

No

creature in

human form
defires.
it

will be expedled to

any things but becaufe he

and has fome conception

of.'

* Book.VI, Chap. VIIL.

Chap. V,.p. 837.

i-s>

^54
BOOK VIII. CHAP. VI.
v
its

OF THE
utility

ENJOYMENT
to his capa,

and value

and every man, in proportion

^

'

city, will

be ready to furniih lucn general hints and comprehenguidance and encouragement of

defire.

.^

five views, as will fufEee for the

him who
Thefe pnnclpies

lludies

from a principle of

Before
oj^yi^te

do not leadtoafuiien

we

quit this part of the fubjedt

"

it

will be neceffary to

an obicdion that
-

individuality.

will fuggell itfelf to "

fome

readers.

They

will fay
;

*'

that

man was formed

is

for fociety

and reciprocal

kindnefs

and therefore

by

his nature little

adapted to the

fyftem of individuality which

fection of

is

here delineated.
his

The

true per-

man

is

to blend

and unite

own

exillence with that

all partiali-

of another, and therefore a fyftem which forbids him

ties

and attachments, tends to degeneracy and not to improve-

ment."

No
is

doubt

man

is

formed for

fociety.

But there

is

way

In

which for a man

to lofe his

own

exiftcnce in that of others, that

eminently vicious and detrimental.

his

Every man ought

his

to reft

upon

own

centre,
to

and confult

own

underftanding.
aflert

Every man ought

feel his

independence, that he can

the principles of juftice and truth, without being obliged treacheroufly to adapt

them

to the

peculiarities

of his fituation,

and

the errors of others.

Partial at-

^
^^
'^^

doubt

man

Is

formed for

fociety.

But he

Is

formed

for,

eotiidered.

Other words his faculties enable

him

to ferve, the

whole
and

O
and
r>ot

B E

R T
-r

Y.

855
with a

a part.

Tuflice obliges us to fympathife

. .

man

of book
v

viii.
1

merit

more

\.
fully"

than with an infignincant and corrupt

CHAP.VL

member

f fociety.
of him

But

all partialities ftritlly

fo called, tend to the injury

in general,

who
is

feels

them, of mankind

and even of
is

him who

their obje<l.

The

fpirit

of partiality

well

ex-

prefled in the memorable faying of Themiftocles, "

God

forbid
friends

that I fhould

fit

upon

a bench

of

juftice,
!"

where
In
fact,
fit

my
as

found no more favour than ftrangers

has been

repeatedly feen in the courfe of this work,

we

in every adtion

of our
tion

lives

upon a bench of juftice

and play in humble imita-

the part of the unjuft judge,

whenever we indulge the

fmalleft

atom of

partiality.

Such

are the limitations of the focial principle.

. .

Thefe limitations
.

Benefits ac-

In reality tend to improve

It

it

and render

its

operations beneficial,
is

cruing from a iuiiaffec

tion
:

would be a miferable

miftjike to fuppofe that the principle

not of the utmoft importance to mankind.

the
is

All that in

which

human mind

differs

from the

intellectual principle in animals

is

the growth of fociety.

All that

excellent in

man

is

the

fruit

of progreifive improvement, of the circumftance of one age

taking advantage of the difcoverles of a preceding age, and fetting

out from the point at which they had arrived.

Without
to

fociety

we

fhould be wretchedly deficient in motives

is

materially

piomotd by

improvement.

But what

nioft of
uielefs.

all,

without fociety our

bene-

thefe principles.

improvements would be nearly

Mind without

volence

Ss6

OF THE
^

ENJOYMENT
we

BOOK VIII. volence is a barren and a cold exiftence. It is in feeklnff the CHAP, VI. good of others, in embracing a great and expanfive fphere of V
v^

action, in forgetting our

own

individual interefls, that

find

our true element.

this

The tendency

of the whole fyftem delineated in

Book

is

to lead us to that element.

The

individuality
is

it

recommends tends
only
as

to

the good of the whole, and

valuable

means

to that end.

Cs^n that be termed a felfifh

fyftem, where no man

defires luxury,

no man dares

to be guilty

of injuftice, and every one devotes himfelf to fijpply the wants,

animal or intelledual, of others
?

To

proceed.

The

genuine

As

a genuine ftate of fociety

it

is

incompatible with

all

laws and

fyflem of property does not prohibit

reftridlions, fo
fhall

cannot have even

this reftridlion, that

no man

aecumula-

amafs property.
lies

The

fecurity agalnft accumulation, as has

already been faid,

in the perceived abfurdity

if
it

and

inutility

of

accumulation.

The

pradice,

can be conceived in a

ftate

of fociety where the principles of juftice were adequately under-,

ftood,

would not even be dangerous.

it

The

idea

would not
the prefent

create alarm, as

is

apt to do

in profpet

among
feel

advocates of political juftice.

Men

would

nothing but
of

their laughter or their pity excited

at fo ftrange a pervei fity

human

intelledl.

implies a certain degree of

What would denominate any

that
it

thing

my

property
right

The

fad,

appropriation.

was neceflary

to

my

welfare.

My

would be coeval
property would

with the exiftence of that

neceffity.

The word

probably

OF LIBERTY.
probably remain;
its

S57
i^ooKvrrr.
>^

fignlficatlon

only would be modified.

Itfelf,

The
the

miftak* does not fo properly He in the idea

fourcc from

as in
it

^^

'

which
ufe,
is

it

is

traced.

What
what
I
it is

have,

if

be

necefTary for
fruit

my

truly

mine

have, though the

of

my own

Induftry, if unnecefiary,
-

an ufurpation for

me

to retain.

Force In fuch a

ftate

of foclety would be

unknown

ihould

part with nothing without a full confent.

Caprice would be
I

unknown

no man would covet

it

that

which

ufed, unlefs he
beneficial in his

dlftlndly apprehended, that

pofleflion than
it

would be more

was

In mine.
it

My
at

apartment would be as

facred to a certain extent, as

is

prefent.

No man would

obtrude himfelf upon

me

to interrupt the courfe of

feel

my

ftudies

and

meditations.

No man would

the

whim

of occupying

my apartment,
of his own.
probably be

while he could provide himfelf another as good

That which was

my

apartment yefterday would

my

apartment to-day.

We
find

have few purfuits that

j

do not require a certain' degree of apparatus

for the general

and

it

would be

good

that I fhould

in ordinary cafes the

left

apparatus ready for

my

ufe to-day that I

yefterday.

But,

though the idea of property thus modified would remain, the

jealoufy and felfifhnefs of property would be gone.
locks would be unknown.
Bolts

and

Every man would be welcome to

make every

ufe of my accommodations, that did not Interfere with

my own

ufe

of them.

Novices as

we

are,

we may

figure

5R

to

g^.g

OF THE
vrii.
J

ENJOYMENT
where propeity was held by
fo

BOOK

to ourfelves a thoufand difputes,

flight a tenure.

But

difputes

would

in reality be impoffible.

They

are

the oflfspring

of a milhapen and difproportioned love

table
?

of ourfelves.
or, if I

Do you want my
fkilful

Make one
you,
?

for yourfelf
I will

be more

in that refpedl than

make

one for yOu.

Do you

want

it

immediately

Let us compare
decide.

the urgency of your wants and mine, and

let jullice

and

divifion

Thefe obfervations lead us to the confideration of one additional difficulty,

of labour.

which
all

relates

to the divifion of labour.

Shall
?

each

man make

his tools, his furniture

and accommodations

This would perhaps be a tedious operation.

forms the tafk to which he
fliorter
is

Every man per{kilfully

accuftomed more
reafonable that

and in a

time than another.

that

It is

you

fliould

make

for me,

which perhaps

fhould be three or four times as

at
laft.

long making, and fhould make imperfedly

then introduce barter and exchange
fbrad
fpirit
?

Shall

we
will

By no

means.
j

The ab-

of exchange will perhaps govern

in

every

man

employ an equal portion of his time

individual application of exchange
nicious.
is

manual labour.

But the

of all pradlices the moll perfor fupplying

The moment

require

any other reafon

you than the cogency of your

the dictates of benevolence,
rayfelf, there
is

claim, the

moment,

in addition to

demand

a profpet of advantage to

an end of that

political juftice

and pure fociety of

It

which we

treat.

No man will
v/ill

have a

trade.

cannot be fup-

ppfed that a

man

conftrudt

any

fpecies

of commodity, but in
proportion

O
proportion as
Others and in
it

B E R

Y.

859
paramount
to all

Is

wanted.

The

profeffion

which every man

book viir. CHAP. VI.

>

will bear his part, will be that of

man, and

in addition perhaps that of cultivator.

The
writers,

divifion of labour, as
is

It

has been treated by commercial

It

for the moft part the offspring of avarice.

has been
as

found that ten perfons can make two hundred and forty times

many

pins in a day as one perfon *.

This refinement

is

the

growth of luxury.

The

objet
clafTes

is

to fee into

how

vafl:

a furface

the induflry of the lower

may

be beaten, the more com-

pletely to gild over the indolent

and the proud.

The

ingenuity
fort to

of the merchant
tranfport
fers.

is

whetted, by

new improvements of this

into his

more of the wealth of the powerful

pofTibility

own

cof-

The

of effeding a compendium of labour by

diminiflaed,

this

means will be greatly

when men

fhall

learn to

deny themfelves
labour,
evils

fuperfluities.
is

The

utility

of fuch a faving of

where labour

fo

little,

will fcarcely balance againft the

of fo extenfive a cooperation.
this

From what

has been faid

under
if

head

it

appears, that there will be a divifion of labour,

flate

we compare

the fociety in queftion with the

of the fo-

litaire

and the favage.

of labour,
if

But

it

will
it

produce an extenfive compowith that to which

fition

we compare

we

are at

prefent accuftomed in civilifed Europe.

* Smith's "Wealth of Nations, Book
I,

Chap.

I.

CHAP.

86o

CHAP.

VII.

OF THE OBJECTION TO THIS SYSTEM FROM. THE PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION.

THE OBJECTION STATED.
TION.

REMOTENESS

OF ITS OPERA-

CONJECTURAL BY

IDEAS RESPECTING THE ANTI-

DOTE.

OMNIPOTENCE OF MIND.

ILLUSTRATIONS.
IS

CAUSES OF DECREPITUDE.

YOUTH

PROLONGED BY

GHEARFULNESS

CLEARNESS

OF APPREHENSION

AND A BENEVOLENT CHARACTER.

ATTENTION..

THE POWERS WE

POSSESS ARE ESSENTIALLY PROGRESSIVE. tEFFECTS OF

PRESENT

THE PHENOMENON OF SLEEP EXPLAINED. UTILITY OF THESE REASONINGS. APPLICAhas fpeculated widely upon fubjedls of go-

TION TO THE FUTURE STATE OF SOCIETY.

^, The

objec-

A
j^jg

N author who
vernment

*, has

recommended
as

equal, or, x
'

which was rather

'

tion itated.

idea,

common property,
diftrefs

a complete remedy, to the ufurpa-

tion

and

which

are at prefent the moft powerful enemies

of

human

kind, to the vices

it

which

infedt education in
all

fome

in-

ftances,

and the negledl

all

encounters in more, to

the turbu-

lence of paflion, and

the injuftice of felfifhnefs.

But, after

* Wallace

Various Profpeds of Mankind, Nature and Providence, 1761.

'

having

OF POPULATION.
having exhibited
finds
this

86i
book
*^

pidure, not

lefs

true than delightful, he

viir.

CHAP.VII.

an argument that demolifhes the whole, and reftores him

r-*

to indifference and defpair, in the exceflive population that

enfue.

would

One

of the moft obvious anfwers to

is

this

objection

is,

that to Remoteneft
of
its

opera*-

reafon thus

to forefee difficulties at a great diftance.

is

Three
parts

tion,

fourths of the habitable globe

now

uncultivated.

The

already cultivated are capable

of immeafurable improvement.

Myriads of centuries of
pafs away,

ftill

increafmg population

may

probably
fubfiftitfelf

and the earth

inhabitants.

ftill

be found
can fay

fufficient for the

ence of

its

Who

how

long the earth

?

will furvive the cafualties of the planetary fyftem

Who

can fay

what remedies
nience, time

fhall fuggeft

themfelves for fo diftant an inconve-

enough

for praftical application,

and of which
?

wc

may

yet at this time have not the fmalleft idea

It

would be truly

abfurd for us to fhrink from a fcheme of efTential benefit to

kind,
jit

man-

left

they fhould be too happy, and by neceffary confequence

fome

diftant period too populous.

But, though thefe remarks

to the objedlion,
tions to
it

may be deemed

a fufficient anfwer Conjeaural

ideas refpeft-

may

not be amifs to indulge in fome fpeculaleads.

ing the antidote.

which fuch an objedion obvioufly

The

earth

may,

to fpeak in the ftyle

of one of the writers of the Chriftian

It

*" Scriptures, " abide for ever

ing too populous.

may

be in danger of becomIf
it

A remedy may then be neceffary.

* Ecckfiaftes, Cfiap.
I,

may,

ver. 4.

why

62
BOOK VIII. why'fhould we

OP POPULATION.
fit

down

in fupine indifierence
it ?

and conclude that

if

CHAP VII

*v-rr

'

we

can difqover no glimpfe of

The difcovery,

made, would
;

add to the firmnefs and confiftency of our profpefts

improbable to

nor

is

it

conjedurc that that which would form the regulat-

ing fpring of our cndut then, might be the

tary modification

medium of a

falu-

now.

What

follows muft be confidered in

fome degree

as a deviation into the land

of conjecture.
it

If

it

be
all

falfe, it leaves

the great fyftem to

which

is

appended in

found reafon as impregnable as ever.

the true remedy,
.

If this

do not lead us to

it

does not follow that there

Hill

is

no remedy. The

;great objedt

of enquiry will

remain open, however defective

offered.

may be
Omnipotence
f mind.

the fuggeilions that are

now to be

Let US here return to the fublime conje<3;ure of Franklin, that

" mind will one day become omnipotent over matter *."
all

If over

other matter,
at

why

not over the matter of our

own bodies ?

If

over matter

ever fo great a dillance,

why

not over matter

connedts
it

which, however ignorant

we may
we

be of the

tie that

with the thinking principle,

"

always carry about with us, and

that

which

is

in

all

cafes the

medium of communication between

?

principle

and the external univerfe

?

In a word,

why may

not

man

be one day immortal

have no other authority to quote for

this cxpreflion

than the converfation

of Dr. Price.

Upon

enquiry I

am happy

to find

it

confirmed to
to

me

by Mr.
it

William Morgan, the nephew of Dr Price, who recolkds

repeatedly mentioned by his uncle.

have heard

The

OF POPULATION.
The
different cafes in

863
vtii.

which thought modifies the external book

all.

univerfe are obvious to

It

is

modified by our voluntary

/'

thoughts or defign.
is

We

defire to ftretch out

our hand, and

it

ftretched out.

We
and

perform a thoufand operations of the fame

their familiarity annihilates the

fpecies every day,

wonder*

They

are not in themfelves lefs wonderful than

any of thofe moconceive.

difications

which we

are leaft accuftomed

to

Mind
moft

modifies

body

involuntarily.

Emotion excited by fome unex-

pedled word, by a

letter that is delivered to us, occafions the

extraordinaiy revolutions in our frame, accelerates the circulation,

caufes the heart to palpitate, the tongue to refufe
its office,

and

has been
joy.

known

to occafion death

by extreme anguifh or extreme

Thefe fymptoms we

may

either encourage or check.

encouraging them habits are produced of fainting or of rage.

difcourage
effort

By To
The

them

is

one of the principal

pain in the

offices

of fortitude.

of mind in
is

refifling

ftories

of Cranmer and Mii-

cius Scsevola

of the fame kind.

It is

reafonable to believe that

dif-

that effort with a different diredion

eafes of the fyffem.

might have cured certain

There

is

nothing indeed of which phyficians

themfelves are more frequently aware, than of the

power of the

mind

in affifling or retarding convalefcence.

Why
which
fifls

is it

that a mature

man

foon

lofes that elaflicity

of limb,

Caufes of decrepitude.

charadterifes the heedlefs gaiety of

habits.

youth
air

Becaufe he de.

from youthful

He

alTumes an

of dignity incom-

patible with the lightnefs of childifh fallies.

He

is

vifited

and

vexed with

all

the cares that rife out of our miftaken inftitutions,

and

864
BooKViii.

OF POPULATION.
and
his heart
ftifF
Is

no longer

fatisfied

and gay.

Hence

his

Umbs

CHAP. VII '*

\..
.

J.

become

and unwieldy.

This

is

the forerunner of old age

and death.

Youth Is prolonged by
shearfulnefs
:

The

firft

habit favourable to corporeal vigour

is

chearfulnefs.

Every time that our mind becomes morbid, vacant and melancholy, a certain period
Liftleffnefs
is

cut off

from the length of our

lives.

of thought
life

is

the brother of death.

But chearfulnefs
our juices.

gives

new

to our frame

and circulation

to

Nois

thing can long be flagnant in the frame of him, whofe heart

tranquil,

and

his imagination adtive.

by

clearnefs

of apprehcnfion:

A fecond
for

requifite in the cafe

of which
precifely

we

treat
I

is

a clear
it is

and
eafy

diftindt conception.

If I

know

what
affift

wifh,

me

to

calm the throbs of pain, and to

It is

the fluggifh ope-

rations of the fyftem.

not a knowledge of anatomy, but a

quiet and fteady attention to

my

fymptoms, that

will beft enable

me
is

to correal the diftemper

elfe

from which they

fpring.

Fainting

nothing

but a confufion of mind, in which the ideas ap-

pear to

mix

in painful diforder,

and nothing

is

diftinguifhed.

and
ter.

benevo-

lent charac-

The true
ful

fource of chearfulnefs

is

benevolence.
its

To
if

a youth-

mind, while ev^ry thing

flrikes

with

novelty, the indivi-

dual fituation

muft be peculiarly unfortunate,

or,

gaiety

of

thought be not produced,

returri

wheri interrupted, do not fpeedily

with

its

healing oblivion.
decreafes.

But novelty

is

a fading charm,

and perpetually

Hence the approach of

inanity and
liftleffnefs

OF POPULATION.
liilleffnefs.

After

we have made

certain round,
us.

life

de-

lights

no

naore.

A deathlike
and

apathy invades
;

Thus

the aged

are generally cold

indifferent

nothing
foul.

interefts their atten-

tion, or roufes the lluggifhnefs

of their

How

fliould

it

be

otherwile

The

purfuits of

mankind

are

commonly

frigid

and

contemptible, and the miftake comes at

virtue
is

laft to

be detedled.

But

charm

that never fades.

The

foul that perpetually

overflows with kindnefs and fympathy, will always be chearful.

The man who

is

perpetually bufied in contemplations of public

good, will always be ad:ive.

The
If

application of thefe reafonings

is

fimple and

irrefiftible.

The powers
^'^
effen^ddly
^^^'^'^

mind be now
it

in a great degree the ruler of the fyflem,

its

why

ihould

be incapable of extending

empire

If our involun-

"'^

tary thoughts can derange or reftore the animal

economy,

why

fhould

we

not in procefs of time, in this as in other inftances,

fubjedt the thoughts

which
?

are at prefent involuntary to the go-

vernment of defign
Iliould
it

If volition can
flill

now do
?

fomething,
is

why

not go on to do

more and more

There

no princihave In

ple of reafon

lefs liable to
little

queftion than this, that, if

if

we

any

refpel a

power now, and

mind be

effentially progref-

five, that

power may, and, barring any extraordinary concufllons

will,

of nature. Infallibly
to prefcribe to
it.

extend beyond any bounds

we

are able

Nothing can be more

Irrational

and prefumptuous than to

conclude,

5 S

J66

OF POPULATION.
certain fpecies of fuppofed
r
.

BOOK VIII. conclude, becaufe a CHAP. VII. ,. r

> ^ '

power

is

entirely
f

out of the line of our prefent obfervations, that

it is

therefore altalk famiis

together beyond the limits of the

liarly

human mind.
faculties,

We

indeed of the limits of our

but nothing

more
at

difficult

than to point them out.

If
it

Mind,

in a progreffive

view

leaft, is infinite.

could have been told to the favage inha-

bitants

of Europe

in the times of

Thefeus and Achilles, that

man

was capable of predidling

plaining the

eclipfes

and weighing the

fo that

air,

of ex-

phenomena of nature

no prodigies fhould
of the heavenly
lefs

remain, of meafuring the diftance and the

bodies, this

fize

would not have appeared to them

told

"wonderful,

than

if

we had

them of

the poffible dlfcovery of the

in perpetual youth

means

of maintaining the human body

and vigour.

But we have

not only this analogy, Ihowing that the difcovery

it

in queftion forms as

were a regular branch of the acquifitions

;

that belong to an intelledtual nature

but in addition to this

we

feem

to

have a glimpfe of the

fpecific

manner

in

which the ac-

quifition will be fecured.

Let us remark a

little

more diftindly

the fimpllcity of the procefs,

Effefts of

We have called the

in

principle of immortality in

man

chearful-

attention.

nefs, clearnefs of conception

and benevolence.

Perhaps
its

we

fhall

fome refpeds have a more accurate view of

it

potency, if

we

confider

as of the nature of attention.

is

It is

a very old
attention,

maxim
is

of pradical condudt, that whatever

well.
It is

done with

done
perfons

becaufe this

was a

principal requifite, that

many

OF POPULATION.
Ions

867

eminent degree with chearfulnefs, perfpica- book viit. CHAP.VII. ' city and benevolence, have perhaps not been longer lived than
In an
*

endowed

their neighbours.

We

are not capable at prefent of attending to

is

every thing.

man who

engaged in the fublimefl and moft

lefs attentive

delightful exertions of

mind, will perhaps be

to his

animal functions than his moft ordinary neighbour, though he

will frequently in a partial degree repair that negleft,

by a more

chearful and animated obfervation,

when

thofe exertions are fuC-

pended.

But, though the faculty of attention

it is

may

at prefent
it

have a very fmall fhare of dudility,

probable that

may

be

improved
ture that

in that refpedt to

an inconceivable degree.
fubtlety of

The

pic-

was exhibited of the

mind

in

an earUer ftage

of

this

work *,
If

gives to this fuppofition a certain degree of moral

evidence.

we

can have three hundred and twenty fucceflive

ideas In a fecond of time,

why

fhould

it

be fuppofed that

we

fhall

aot hereafter arrive

at the fkill

of carrying on a great number of

?

contemporaneous procefles without diforder

Having thus given

ment of mind,
,

a view of what

may be
,

the future Improve- The phenomenon of

fleep ex-

it

is

proper that

we

fhould qualify this picture to

,

plained.

the fanguine temper of fome readers and the mcredulity of others,

by obferving
is

that this

improvement,

if capable

of being realifed,

however

at a great diftance.

very obvious remark will ren-

der this eminently palpable.

If an unintermitted attention to the

animal economy be neceflary, then, before death can be banifhed,

*

Book IV, Chap. VII,

p. 330.

5 S 2

we

868
BOOK VIII.
'

OFPOPULATION.
we muft
banifh fleep, death's image.
,

Sleep

is

one of the mofi

It is not^ as

CHAP.VII. r conlpicuous infirmities of the ,*>

human

frame.

ha*

often been fuppofed, a fufpenfion of thought, but an irregular

and

diftempered

ftate

of the faculty

*.

Our tired attention

refigns the

helm, ideas fwim

before us in wild confufion, and are attended

with
the

lefs

and

lefs diftindtnefs, till at

length they leave no traces in

memory.
us, as
it

Whatever
were
at

attention

and volition are then impofed

upon

unawares, are but faint refemblances of our

operations in the fame kind

when awake.
little

Generally fpeaking,
pain, and

we

contemplate

fights

of horror with
little

commit the

moft atrocious crimes with

horror

fenfe of their true nature.

The

we

fometlmes

attribute to

our dreams, will frequently be

found upon

accurate obfervation to belong to our review of thenx

when we

wake..

Prefent utility

Que

Other remark
^
.,
,

may be
,

proper in
,
.

this place.
.

If the
i
,-

reme

ofthefereafonings.

dies here prefcribed tend to a total extirpation or the innrmities.

of our nature, then, though

we

cannot promife to them- an early

utility

and complete

fuccels,

we may

probably find them of fome

now.

They may
it,

contribute to prolong our vigour, though not

is

to immortalife
live

and, which

of more confequence, to make us

is

while

we

live.

Every time the mind

invaded with an-

guifh and gloom, the frame becomes difordered.

that languor
into decay.

Every time
fall

and

indifference creep

upon

us,

our fundions

In proportion a^
*

we

cultivate

fortitude

and equa-

Book IV, Chap. VII,

p. 335.

nimityj

OF POPULATION.
nimity, our circulations will be cheirful.
cultivate a

85^

In proportion as

we

BooKvrrr.
'^^^.'
'
.

kind and benevolent propenfity,

we may

be fecure of

finding fomething for ever to interefl and engage us.

Medicine

may

reafonably be ftated to

confifl:

of two branches^

the animal and intelledual.

finitely too

The
It

latter

of thefe has beeen in-

much

negleded.
;

cannot be employed to the purit

pofes of a profeffion

or,

where

has been incidentally fo

indirelly, not in

em-

ployed,

it

has been

artificially

and

an open,

and avowed manner.

himfelf *."
diiapating a
thofe

" Plerein the patient muft minifter to

How often
diflemper

do we find a fudden piece of good news

?

How common

is

the

rem.ark,

that

accidents,

which

are to the indolent a I'ource of difeafe,

?

are forgotten

and extirpated in the bufy and adlive

to
us,

It

would

no doubt be of extreme moment

to

be thoroughly
is

acquainted with the pov/-er of motives, habit, and what

refolution, in this refped.
I

called,

walk twenty miles

in

an indolent
I

and half determined temper, and

am

extremely fatigued.

walk twenty miles

groffes

full

of ardour and with a motive that ea

my

foul,

and

come

in as

frefh

and

alert as

when

began

my

journey.

We

are fick

and we

die, generally

fpeak-

ing, becaufe

we

confent to fuffer thefe accidents.

This confent

in the prefent ftale of

mankind

is

in

fome degree unavoidable.^

We

muft have ftronger motives and

it.

clearer views, before

we

can

uniformly refufe

But, though

we

cannot always,

we may
are^

fi-equently refufe.

This

is

a truth of

which

all

mankind

* Macbeth,.

Aa

V.
to

?7o
BOOK VIII. CHAP. VII,
v.__^

OF POPULATION,

to a certain degree aware.

.

Nothing more common than

for the
r
1

rnoft ignorant
lelf,

man

to call

upon

his nek neighbour, to roufe him;

not to

fufFer himfelf to

be conquered

and

this exhortation

is

always accompanied with fome confcioufnefs of the efficacy

of refolution.
carry with

The

v/ife

and the good

man

therefore fhould

him

the recolledlion of

what chearfulnefs and a

with which he
appearances of

determined
is

fpirit are able

to do, of the capacity

endowed of expelling the

feeds

and

firft flight

indifpofition.

The principal part

of the preceding paragraph

is

nothing more

than a particular application of what was elfewhere delivered

refpe(5ling

moral and phyfical caufes

*.

It

would have been eafy

to have cafl the prefent chapter in a different form, and to have

made

it

a chapter

upon

health, fh owing that

one of the advan-

tages of a better ftate of fociety

would be a very high improveIn that

as

ment of
cafe the

the vigour and animal conflitution of man.

conjedure of immortality would only have come in

lefs

an incidental remark, and the whole would have affumed

air

the

of conjedture than of clofe

it

and argumentative deduction.

moft
explicit

But

was perhaps

better to give the fubjel the

form, at the rilk of exciting a certain degree of prejudice.

MSuie
^ety.

"^o ^PPly thefe remarks to the fubjed of population.

The

tendency of a cultivated and virtuous mind

different to

is

to render us inpleafe at prefent

the gratifications of fenfe.

They

* Book I, Chap. VII, Parti.

by

OF POPULATION.
by
n-

871
not
.

their
,

novelty,
rr-i

that
1

is,

becaufe

we know
1

how

to

BooKViir.

eftimate them.

They decay

in

the

dechne 01 hie indn-edly

1-

'

r ,-r

CHAP.VII,
^

becaufe the fyftem refufes them, but diredtly and principally becaufe they no longer excite the ardour and paffion of mind.
It
is

well

known

that

an inflamed imagination

is

capable of

doubling and tripling the feminal fecretions.

The

gratifications

of fenfe pleafe
defpife the

at prefent

by

their impofture.

We
all

foon learn to

mere animal fundlion, which, apart from the delu-

fions of intelled:,

would be nearly the fame

it

in

cafes

and to

value

it,

only

as

happens to be relieved by perfonal charms

or mental excellence.

We

abfurdly imagine that

no

better road

can be found to the fympathy and intercourfe of minds.

But a
is

very flight degree of attention might convince us that this

falfe road, full

of danger and deception.

?

Why fhould
For
it is

efteem,

another,

or

by another be efteemed
is

this reafon

only,

becaufe efteem

due, and only fo far as

due.

The men
itfelf to

therefore

who

exift

when

the earth ihall refufc

more
will

extended population, will ceafe to propagate,

either of error or

for they

no longer have any motive,

In addition to
this

duty, to induce them.

they will perhaps

be immortal.
children.

The whole

will be a people of

men, and not of

Generation will not fucceed generation, nor truth

at the

have in a certain degree to recommence her career

every thirty years.

end of

There
it is

will be no. war,

called,

no crimes, no adThefe
latter

miniftration of juftice as

and no government.

8-2

OFPOPULATION.
articles are at

BOOK

viir.
j'

latter

no great diftance

and

it

is

not impoffible
fee

that

fome of the prefent race of men may

But befide

live to

them

in

part accomplifhed.

this, there will

be no

difeafe,

no
will

anguifh, no melancholy and no refentment. feek with ineffable ardour the good of
all.

Every man

Mind

will be aftive

and

eager, yet never difappointed.

Men

will fee the progreffive

advancement of virtue and good, and

fionally

feel that, if things occaitfelf

happen contrary

to

their

hopes, the mifcarriage

was

a neceffar)' part of that progrefs.

They

will

know,

that

they ara members of the chain, that each has

his feveral utility,

and they

will not feel indifferent to that utility.

exifts,

They

will

be

eager to enquire into the good that already

the means
is

by

which

it

was produced, and the greater good that

never want motives for exertion
j

yet in ftore.

They

will

for that benefit

^which a

man

thoroughly underftands and earneftly loves, he

cannot refrain from endeavouring to promote^

Before

we

difmifs this fubjedt

it

is

proper once again to reis

mind the

reader, that the leading dodtrine of this chapter

^iven only as matter of probable conjedlure, and that the grand

.argument of this divifion of the work
,of Its truth
is

altogether independent

or falfliood.

li

P.

873

G H.A

P.

VIIL

OF THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

APPREHENSIONS THAT ARE ENTERTAINED ON THIS SUBJECT.

IDEA OF MASSACRE. INFERENCE WE OUGHT TO MISCHIEF

I.

MAKE UPON SUPPOSITION OF THE REALITY OF THESE

APPREHENSIONS.
BY NO MEANS THE NECES-

SARY ATTENDANT ON IMPROVEMENT. DUTIES UNDER

THIS CIRCUMSTANCE,

OF THOSE

WHO ARE QUALIFIED

SINCERITY.

rOR PUBLIC

INSTRUCTORS

TEMPER

PERNICIOUS EFFECTS OF DISSIMULATION INTHIS CASE.

2.

OF THE RICH

EXPECTED TO BE ADVOCATES OF EQUALITY.

AND GREAT. MANY OF THEM MAY BE CONDUCT

WHICH THEIR INTEREST AS A BODY PRESCRIBES. 3. OF THE FRIENDS OF EQUALITY IN GENERAL. OMNIPO-

TENCE OF TRUTH.

BENEVOLENT

IMPORTANCE OF A MILD AND PROCEEDING. CONNEXION BETWEEN LICAUSE OF EQUALITY WILL

BERTY AND EQUALITY.

PERPETUALLY ADVANCE.

SYMPTOMS OF

ITS PROGRESS.

IDEA OF ITS FUTURE SUCCESS. CONCLUSION.

T AVING
J_

thus flated explicitly and without

^

referve
is

the book vnr. CHAP. VIIL

*

great branches of this illuftrious pidure, there

but one
fubjea:'

'

874
BooKviii. CHAP. VIII.
*

OF
fubjecSt that

THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING

remains.

In what manner fhall this intereftine; Im

?

'

provement of human fociety be carried into execution

there not certain fteps that are defirable for this purpofe

Are Are

there not certain fteps that are inevitable

that

Will not the period

muft

firft
?

elapfe, necelTarily

be ftained with a certain in-

fufion of evil

Apprehenentertained

No

idea has excited greater horror in the minds of a multitude

of perfons, than that of the mifchiefs that are to enfue from the
diflemination of
believe

jea.

what they

call

levelling

principles.

They

"that thefe principles will inevitably ferment in the

that the attempt
to carry

minds of the vulgar, and

them

into^

execution will be attended with

every fpecies of calamity,"

They

reprefent to themfelves " the uninformed and uncivilifedlet

part of mankind, as

loofe

from

all reftraint,

and hurried into

every kind of excefs.

Knowledge and

tafte,

the improvements

of intelled:, the difcoveries of fages, the beauties of poetiy and

art, are
is

trampled under foot and extinguiihed by barbarians.

It

another inundation of Goths and Vandals, with

this bitter

aggravation, that the viper that ftings us to death was

in our

warmed

own

bofoms"

Tliey conceive of the fcene as " beginning in maflacre.'*

They

fuppofe "

all

that
firft

is

great,

preeminent and

illuftrious as

ranking

among

the

victims.

Such

as are diftinguiihed

by

peculiar elegance of

manners or energy of diCtion

and compofition.

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

fition, will

Sys
Such
i^^oic viir.
"^

be the inevitable objeds of envy and jealoufy.

as intrepidly exert themfelves to fuccour the

perfecuted, or to
leaft inclined,

'

'

declare to the public thofe truths

which they are

but which are mofl: neceflary for them to hear, will be marked

out for aflaflination."

Let us not, from any

delineated in this book,

partiality

to the. fyftem

of equality
exhibited.

Wm of

fhrmk from the pldure here

Maflacre
maffacre

is

the too poflible attendant

upon

revolution,

and
its

is

perhaps

the mofl

hateful fcene, allowing for

fuggefi:.

momentary

duration, that

any imagination can

.

The

fearful, hopelefs

expectation

of the defeated, and the bloodis

hound fury of
that
all

their conquerors,

a complication of mifchief
'

which

has been told of infernal regions cannot furpafs.

The

cold-blooded maflacres that are perpetrated under the

fall

name

of criminal juftice
aggravations.

fhort of thefe in their

mofl

frightful

The

miniflers

and inflruments of law have by

tafk they perform,

cuftom reconciled

their

minds tO the dreadful

and bear

their refpedive parts in the

mofl fhocking enormities,

allied to thofe enormities.
all

without being fenfible to the pafTions

But the inflruments of maffacre are aduated with

ments of
fiends.

the fenti,

Their eyes emit

fiafhes

of cruelty and rage.

They
lioufe.

purfue their vidims from flreet to

flreet

and from houfe to

fathers

They
They

tear

them from the arms of their

and their and

wives.

glut themfelves

with barbarity and

infult,

utter fhouts of horrid

joy

at the

fpedacle of their tortures.

5T2

We

gy5
BOOK
*-

OF
viir. VIII.
'

THE MEANS OF INTRODUaNG

now
.

CHAP.
.

We
fon,

have
'

contemplated the tremendous picture

.

;
r-

what

is

the condufion

it

behoves us to draw

Muil we fhnnk from

?

rea-

Inference ought to

we

from

juftice,

from virtue and happinefs

Suppofe that the

make upon
fiippofition

inevitable confequence of

communicating truth were the tempo-

of the reality of thefe apj-^jy

prehenfions.

iatrodution of fuch a fcene as has juft been defcribed, muft

that account refufe to

we on

communicate

it

The

crimes that

were perpetrated would

in

no

juft eftimate appear to be the refult

of truth, but of the error which had previoufly been infufed.

The

impartial enquirer

would behold them

if it

as the Lift ftruggles

of expiring defpotifm, which,

had furvived, would have pro-

duced mifchiefs, fcarcely

miffion,

lefs

atrocious in the

hour of

their

com-

and

infinitely

more calamitous by
truly,

the length of their

duration.

If

we would judge

even admitting the unfacontraft a

vourable fuppofition above ftated,

we muft
felicity.

moment of

horror and
fufficiently

diftrefs v/ith

ages of

No

imagination can
tranquil
to reft

conceive the mental' improvement and the

virtue that

would fucceed, were property once permitted

bafis.

upon

its

genuine

And by what means

fupprefs truth, and ke?p alive the falutary

intoxication, the tranquiUifmg infanity of

defire
?

mind which fome men

Such has been too generally the policy of government

through every age of the world.

fiduoufly retain

Have we

flaves

We

muft

af-

them

in ignorance.

Have we
is

colonies

and de-

pendencies

The

great effort of our care

to

keep them- from

fubjedls
?

being too populous and profperous.

Have we

It is
''

'

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

" by impotence and mifery
fupple
:

^'^'j

that

we endeavour

to render

them bookviii.
*

plenty

is fit

for nothing but to

make them unmanage-

J-

able, difobedient and mutinous *."

If this were the true philoit

sophy of
horror.

fecial inftitutions, well

might we fhrink from

with

How

tremendous an abortion would the human fpecies

tended to make them wife, tended to make
profligate
?

be found,

if all that

them unprincipled and

any one
tial

But

this

it

is

impofhble for

to believe,

who
Can

will lend the fubjedl a

moment's imparand
a de?

confideration.

truth, the perception of juftice

fire to It

execute

it,

be the fource of irretrievable ruin to mankind

firft

may

be conceived that the

opening and illumination of

mind
muft

will be attended

with diforder.

But every

juft

reafoner

confefs that regularity and happinefs will fucceed to this

confufion.

To refufe

the remedy, were this pidure of

as
if

its

opera-

tion ever fo true,

would be

man who had

it

diflocated a

limbjfhould refufe to undergo the pain of having

replaced.

If.

mankind have

hitherto loll the road of virtue

and happinefs,

that

can be no juft reafon

for ever.

why

they fliould be fuffered to go wrong

error, or

We

muft not refufe a conviction of

even the
it.

treading over again fome of the ftcps that were the refult of

Another queftion fuggefts

prefs truth?

itfelf

under

this head.

Can we flip?

Can we

arreft the progrefs

of the enquiring mind

If

we

can,

it

will only

be done by the moft unmitigated defpotrife.

ifm.

Mind has

a perpetual .tendency to
*

It

cannot be held

BpokV, Chap.

Ill, p.

405.

down

SyS
T500IC viTT. VIII.

'OF

THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING

a

CHAP.
k
^

down

but

by

power

that couiitera6ls

its

prenume tendency

through every

moment

of

its

exiftence.

Tyrannical and fanthis purpofe.

guinary muft be the meafures employed for

ferable

MiTheir

and

difguftful

muft be the fcene they produce.

refult wall

be thick darknefs of the mind, timidity,

fervility,

hy-

pocrify.
in

This

is

the alternative, fo far as there

is

any

alternative

their

power, between the oppofite meafures of which the

to choofe
:

.princes

and governments of the earth have nov/

they

muft

either fupprefs enquiry

by the moft

arbitrary ftretches of

power, or preferve a clear and tranquil

fliall

field in

which every man

be

at liberty to difcover

and vindicate

his opinion.

No

doubt

it is

the duty of governments to maintain the moft

unalterable neutrality in this important tranfadtion.

it is

No

doubt

the duty of individuals to publifli truth without diffidence or

it

referve, to publifti

in

its

genuine form without feeking aid

of publication.

from the meretricious

the
the

arts

The more

it is

told,

more

it

is

known

in
it

its

true dimenfions, and not in parts,

lefs is it poffible

that

fhould coalefce with or leave

room

for the pernicious efFels of error.

The

true philanthropift will

be eager, inftead of fuppreffing difcuffion, to take an adlive fhare

in the fcene, to exert the full ftrength of his faculties in difco-

very, and to contribute

by

his exertions to render the operation

of thought

at

once perfpicuous and profound.

MJfchJefby BO means the

jj

^^i^
'-'

tl^gn fufficiently evident '

that truth

muft be

told at

whatever

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

whatever expence,
let

879

of that expence, to enquire

is

us proceed to confider the precife ainount book viii. CHAP. VIII. ' how much of confufion and violence v
*^

neceflary at-

infeparable

from the

tranfit

which mind has

is

to accomplifh.

tendanton
improveineiU.

And
rable

here

it

plainly appears that mifchief

by no means

infepaac-

from the progrefs.

In

the

mere circumftance of our

after

quiring knowledge
there
is

and accumulating one truth

tendency to diforder.

another

no

diredl

Evil can only fpring

from the

clafli

of mind with mind, from one body of

men

in. the

community

outflripping another in their ideas of improvement,

to en-

and becoming impatient of the oppofitioa they have

counter.,

In

this

intereflihg period, in

which mind

fhall

arrive as

it

Duties under
ibnce,
t.

were

at the true crilis or its

itory, there are

high duties incumFirft,

of

bent upon every branch of the community.

upon

thofe

arc qualliied

cultivated and powerful minds, that are fitted to be precurfors to inftmaois

the reft in the difcovery of truthi

indefatigable

They
It
is

are

bound

to be adive,
temper

and difmterefted.

incumbent upon them to

all

abftain from, inflammatory language,

from

expreflions of acri-

mony
itfelf

and refentment.

It is

abfurd in any government to eredl

into a court of criticifm in this refpel,

and

to eftablilh a
it.

criterion
is

of

liberality

and decorum; but for that very reafon

doubly incumbent on thofe

who communicate

their thoughts

to the public, to exercife

a rigid cenfure over themfelves.

The
all

tidings of liberty and equality are tidings of good will to

or--

ders of

men.

They

free the peafant

from the iniquity

that deprefles
.:

g8o
BOOK
^

OF THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING

viir. prefles his

mind, and the privileged from the luxury and def,

CHAP. VIII.

potifm by which he
-

is

corrupted.

Let thole

who

bear thele

tidings not ftain their benignity,

by fliowing

that that benignity

has not yet become the inmate of their hearts.

fincenty.

Nor
whole

is

it

lefs

neceflary that they fhould be urged to

tell

the

truth withov-t difguife.

No maxim
much
as

can be more perni-

cious than that

which would teach us

tell

to confult the

temper of

the times, and to

only fo

we

imagine our contemis at

poraries will be able to bear.

univerfal,
vity.

This pradice

prefent almoft

and

it

is

the

mark of

a very painful degree of depratruth.

We

retail

and mangle

We

impart

it

to

our

fel-

lows, not with the liberal meafure with which

it,

we have

received

but with fuch parfimony as our

own

miferable prudence
fit

may

chance to prefcribe.

We

pretend that truths

to

be pratifed
be eternally

in one country, nay, truths

right, are not
fit

which we

confefs to

to be pradlfed in another.

That we may debegin with deceiving

ceive others with a tranquil confcience,

ourfelves.

we

We

put fhackles upon our minds, and dare not tnift

ourfelves at large in the purfuit of truth.

This pradice took

defire

its

commencement from the machinations of party, and the

of

one wife and adventurous leader to carry a troop of weak, timid

and

felfifli

fupporters in his train.

There

is

no reafon

why

fhould not declare in any alTembly upon the face of the earth
that I

am

a republican.

There

is

no more reafon why, being a

I

republican under a monarchical government,

fhould enter into

a defperate

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

a defperate fadion to invade the public
tranquillity, than
if I

?8r
W-OZ VI iT.

were monarchical under

as v/ell as

a i-epublic.

Every community of men,

itfelf
is,

every individual, muft govern

according to

its

ideas of juftice.

What

fliould defire

not by violence to
its

change

its

inflitutions,

but by reafon to change

ideas.

have

no bufinefs with

factions or intrigue. 5 but limply to promulgate

If

the truth, and to wait the traiiquil progrefs of convidion.

there be

any aflembly that cannot bear

no member.
It

this,

of fuch an aflembly I
oftcner than

pught

to be

happens

much

we

arc
is

willing to imagine, that " the poll of honour," or, which

better, the poll of utility, "
is

a private llation *."

The

diffimulation here cenfurcd, befide

it,

its ill

effeds

upon him

PemiVi'ous
fnnuiatio.i

who
upon

praftifes

and by degrading and unnerving

ill

his charadlcr

L'

fociety at large, has a particular

confequence with refped

to the point

we

are confidering.

It

lays a mine,
all

and prepares

an explofion.

This

is

the tendency of

unnatural reftraint.
is

Meanwhile the
Its

unfettered progrefs of truth

always Hilutary.

advances are gradual, and each ftep prepares the general mind

for that

which

is

to follow.

They

are fudden

and unprepared

emanations of truth, that have the greatefl tendency to deprive

men
is

of their febriety and

felf

command.

Referve in

this

refped

calculated at once, to give a rugged

and angry tone

to the

mul-

titude

whenever they

fhall

happen

to difcover

what

is

thus conIt

cealed,

and to miflead the

depofitaries

of political power.

* Addifon'sCato, AftlV.

fooths

882

OF THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING

them
to

BooKViir. footlis them into falfe fecuritj, and prompts CHAP. VIII. Vinaufpiciom obilinacy. ^

mamtaln aa

?.

Of the

ri'ch

Havuig confidcred what

the enlightened and wife,
let

it is

that belongs in fuch a

crifis

to

;nd great.

us next turn our attention to a ver j

different clafs of fociety, the rich

and
it

great.
is

And

here in the

Many

of

them may be expeaedto

be advocates of equality,

flrfl- *^

place

it

may ^

be remarked, that

a very falfe calculatioa

that leads us univerfally to defpair of having thefe for the advo'

^^^^g

q equality.

Mankind

are

not fo miferably

felfifh,

as

iatirifts

and

courtiers

have fuppofed.
is

We

never engage in any

adion without enquiring what

it.

the decifion of juftice refpeding

V/e

are at

all

times anxious to fatisfy ourfelves that what

is

our inclinations lead us to do,

innocent and right to be done. *

Since therefore juftice occupies fo large a fhare in the contemplations of the

human .mind,

it

cannot reafonably be doubted that

juftice

a ftrong and
ful

commanding view of

would prove a powerthat virtue

motive to influence our choice.

But

which

for

whatever reafon
to us

we

have chofen, foon becomes recommended

by

a thoufand other reafons.

felf

We

find in

it

reputation,
ap--

eminence,

complacence and the divine pleafures of an

proving mind;

The
felicity,

rich

and great are

far

from

callous to views

of general

when

fuch views are brought before them with that

f Book II, Chap.

Ill, p. 98,

evidence

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

evidence and attraction of which they are fufceptible.
CHAP.

8S3

From book viir.

VII
r.

one dreadful difadvantage

their

minds are

free.

They have

not

*^

v,

been foured with unrelenting tyranny, or narrowed by the perpetual preflure

of

diftrefs.

They

are peculiarly qualified to

thofe gi'atifications,

judge of the emptinefs of that

pomp and

which

are always moft

admired when they are feen from a

diftance.

They

will frequently be

found confiderably indifferent

habit

to thefe things, unlefs confirmed

terate

by

and rendered inve-

by

age.

If

you fhow them the

attraftions of gallantry

and magnanimity ia refigning them, they

without reludtance.

will often be refigned

Wherever

accident of
is

any

fort

has intro-

duced an adlve mind, there enterprife

a neceffary confeto
fit

quence

and there are few perfons

fo inactive, as

down
which

for ever in the fupine

enjoyment of the indulgences

fpirit that

to

they were born.

iiobility

The fame

has led forth the

young

of fucceffive ages to encounter the hardfhips of a camp, be employed to render them champions of the caufe
:

might

eafily

of equality

nor

is it

to be believed, that the circumftance

of

fuperior virtue and truth in this latter exertion, will be without

its

effcd.

But
to be
is
1

let

us fuppofe a confiderable party of the rich and great condnA

1 1

aauated by no view but to their emolument and

.

whicli their

eafe.

It

inteveit as a

not

difficult to

rr-

body pre-

fhow them,

that their interefl in this fenfe will fcnbes.

admit of no more than a temperate and yielding refinance.

Much no

doubt of the future tranquillity or confufion of man5

kind

884
CHAP.
"^

OF THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING

this party*

BOOK viir. kind depends upon the condudl of

viir.
'
,

To them
truth.
It

would'
is

fay

"

It is

in vain for

you

to

hght againft

like

endeavouring with the

ocean.

human hand

to ftop the inroad of the

Retire betimes*

Seek your fafety in concefTion.

the

If

you

will

not go
leafl

over to
an.

flandard

of political juftice^

temporife at

with

enemy whom you cannot overcome.

you.
If

Much,
if

inexpreffibly

much depends upon

you would

you be

wife,,

you be prudent,

if

fecure at leaft

your

lives

and

your perfonal

eafe amidft; the general will

fhipwreck of monopoly

and

folly,

you

be unwilling to
will be
fpilt,

irritate

and defy.

Unlefs

by your rafhnefs, there

drop of blood will be
happy.

no

confufion,.

no murder, not a

and you will yourfelves be made

call

If you brave the ftorm and

down

every fpecies of
to be

odium on your
the

heads,

ftill it is

poffible,

ftill it is

hoped

that
it

general tranquillity

may

be maintained..

But, fhould
all

prove otherwife,

you

will

have principally to anfwer for

the

confequences that

fhall enfue.

" Above
fecurlty.
inftability

all,

do not be

lulled

into

a rafh

and headlong

We

have already feen

how much

the hypocrify

and

of the wife and enlightened of the prefent day, thofe

who

confefs

much, and have a confufed view of

ftill

more, but

dare not examine the v/hole with a fteady and unfhrinking eye,
are calculated to
ftill

increafe this fecurlty.

But there

is

a danger

more

palpable.

Do

not be milled by the unthinking and

feeming general cry of thofe

I

who

have no fixed principles.

AddrtiTes

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

T

$3^

Addrefles have been found in every age a very uncertain criterion book xiu. CHAP. vni. r , r 1 o r-r^ r the future condua or a people. Do not count upon the ..j ^
'

numerous

train of

your adherents,

retainers

and

fervants.

They

afford a very feeble dependence.

fee

They

are

men, and cannot

dead to the
to

interefls

and claims of mankind.

Some of them

will adhere

you

as

long as a fordid Interefl feems to draw

them

in that diredllon.

But the moment yours

fhall

appear to

be the lofmg caufe, the fame Interefl will carry them over to the
enem.y's
ftandard.

They

will

difappear

like

the

morning

dew.

"

May

not hope that you are capable of receiving ImprefHon

?

from another argument

thought of
refilling

Will you
greatefl

feel

no compundion
benefits
?

at the

the

of

all

Are you

content to be regarded by the mofl enlightened of your contemporaries, and to be handed

down

to the remotefl polterity, as

?

the obflinate adverfaries of philanthropy and jufllce

reconcile
It

Can you

to

your

own

minds, that, for a fordid

interefl, for

the caufe of general corruption and abufe,

you

fliould be

found

adive in

fllfling truth,

and flrangllng the new born happlnefs

to

of mankind
this

?"

Would

God

It

were

pofiible to carry

home

argument
!

to the enlightened

and accomplifhed advocates of

ariilocracy

Would

to

God

they could be perfuaded to confult

neither paffion, nor prejudice, nor the flights of imagination, in

deciding

upon

fo

momentous

a queftlon

"

We

know

that truth

does not fland in need of your alliance to fecure_ her triumph.

We

do not fear your enmity.

But our

hearts bleed to fee fuch

gallantry

886
TOOK
<

OF

THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING

It is for

VIII. gallantry
-

fuch talents and fuch virtue enflaved to prejudice, and

enlifted in error.

your fakes

that

we

expoftulate, and

for the

honour of human nature."

of the
friends of
cqiuiiity in
J.

-Pq j^g general mafs of the adherents of the caufe of juftlce "

It

^^y

Ijg

proper to fay a few words.

"

If there be

any force

in

Omnipotence of truth.

the arguments of this work, thus

to deduce

much
^
^

at

lead
_

we

are authorlfed

from them,

that truth

is

irrefiftlble.
is

If

man

be en-

dowed with a rational nature, then whatever

ftrated to his underftanding to

clearly

demon-

have the moft powerful recomis

mendations, fo long as that clearnefs

inevitably engage his choice.
is

prefent to his mind, will

to fay that

It is
it is

to

no purpofe

mind

fiuduating and
is

fickle

for

fo only in proportion as evi-

dence

imperfed.

Let the evidence be increafed, and the perfirmer,

fuafion will be
is

made

and the choice more uniform.

It

the nature of individual

its

mind

to be perpetually adding to the

flock of

ideas

and knowledge.

Similar to this

is

the nature of

general mind, exclufively of cafualties which, arifing from a

more

comprehenfive order of things, appear to difturb the order of

limited fyftems.

This

is

confirmed to us,

if a

truth of this uni-

verfal nature can derive confirmation

from

partial

experiments,

by

the regular advances of the

human mind from

century to cen-

tury, fince the invention of printing.

impoitnncc
bcnevoicnt proceeding.

" Lct then

thls

axiom, of the omnipotence of truth be the rud-

dcr of our Undertakings.

accomplifli that to-day,

Let us not precipitately endeavour to

,

which the diiTemlnatlon of

,.i-p

truth will

make

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTT.

make unavoidable
to-raorrow.
:

87

Let us not anxioufly watch for i^^oKViir.

is

occafions and events

events.

the afcendancy of truth

i-efrain

independent of
force
is

Let us anxioufly
is

from violence:

not

convidlion, and

extremely unworthy of the caufe of

jufticc.

Let us admit into our bofoms neither contempt, animofity,

fentment nor revenge.
manity.
Its

re-

The

caufe of juftice

is

the caufe of

huwill..

advocates fliould overflow with univerfal good

it

We

fhould love this caufe, for

conduces to the general happiit,

nefs of mankind.
lives,

We fhould love
its

for there

is

not a

man

that

who

in the natural and tranquil progrefs of things will not

he made happier by

approach.
is

The moft powerful

its

caufe

by

which

it

has been retarded,

the miftake of

adherents, the air

of ruggednefs, brutiflmefs and

given to that which in
this
itfelf is all

inflexibility

which they have

Nothing
lefs

benignity.

than

could have prevented the great mafs of enquirers from be-

flo wing

upon

it

a patient examination.

Beit the

care of the
obfl;acle to

now
we

increafmg advocates of equality to remove this

the fuccefs of their caufe.

if
fet

We have

but two plain duties, v/hich,

out right,

it Is

not eafy to miftake.

The

fu-ft is

an un-

wearied attention to the great inftrument of jufl;ice, reafon.

mull divulge our fentiments with the utmoft franknefs.

We We
In

muft endeavour
tiris

to imprefs

them upon the minds of

difcouragement.

others.

attempt

we muft

give

way to no
;

We muft

fliarpen our intelledual

weapons

add to the ftock of our know-

ledge

be pervaded with a fenfe of the magnitude of our caufe

increafe that

and perpetually

calm prefence of mind and

felf pof-

feflloa

888
BOOK

03J

THE MEANS OF rNTRODUCING

to

viTT.
.

feffion

which muft enable us

,

do

juftice to

our principles.

Our

CHAP. VIII
-^

fecond duty

is

tranquillity.

Connexion between libertv and

equality.

It will

not be right to pafs

wer

a queftion that

v/ill

inevitably
t-

fijggeft itfclf to the

mind of the

reader.

"

It
^

an equalifation ot
.

/*

property be to -take place, not by law, regulation or public ulltitu-

,,.

tion,butonly through the private convldion of individuals, in what

mannerfliall
it

begin^" InanfwertQgthis queftion

all

it is

not neceOary
all

to prove fo fimple a propofition, as that

ifation

republicanifm,

equal-

of ranks and immunities, flrongly tends towards an equal-

ifation

of property.

Thus, in Sparta

this laft principle

was comas

pletely admitted.

In Athens the public

citizens

largefles

were fogreat

almoft-to

exempt the

from manual labour; and the

rich

and eminent only purchafed a toleration for their advantages, by

the liberal
lic.

manner

in

which they opened

their ftores to the

pub-

In

Rome,

agrarian laws, a wretched and ill chofea fubftitute

for equality, but

tually agitated.
this

which grew out of the fame

If

fpirit,

were perpeand

men ^o on

to

xncreafe In difcernment,

they certainly will with peculiar rapidity,

when

the ill-con-

ftrufted

governments which

now

retard their progrefs are reinjuftice

moved, the fame arguments which fhowed them the

ranks, will

of

fhow them
it

the injuftice of one man's wanting that,

which while

is

in the pofleflioa of another, conduces in

Jbeing.

no

refped to his well

Caufe^of
aquality will

It Is

common

error to imagine, that this Injuftice will be felt ^

only

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

enly by the lower orders
appear that
to this
It

who

fufFer

from

it
,

and hence

it

would book viii

CHAP. YllL
* '

it

can only be corrected by violence.

in the
firil

,1

0,1

But in anfwer
fufFer

perpetually

may

place be obferv&d that

all

from

it,

advance.

the rich
It

who

engrofs, as well as the poor

who want.

Secondly,

has been clearly

fhown

in the courfe of the prefent work, that

men

are not fo entirely governed

It

by

felf intereft as

has frequently
ftill

been fuppofed.

has

been fliown,

if poffible,

more

clearly, that the felfiih are not

governed

folely

by

fenfual grati-

fication or the love of gain, but that the defire

of eminence and
Thirdly
all

diftindion

is

in different degrees an univerfal pafllon.

is

and

principally, the progrefs of truth

the moft powerful of

to

caufes.

Nothing can be more abfurd than

is

imagine that

theory, in the beft fenfe of the word,

not elTentially conneded

clearlv

with pradice.
dillindly
to

That which we can be perfuaded

approve,
will

and

inevitably

modify

our

condud.

Mind is

not an aggregate of various faculties contending with each

is

other for the maftery, but on the contrary the will

in

all

cafes

correfpondent to the

lafl

judgment of the underflandlng.

When:

men

fliall

diftindly and habitually perceive the folly of luxury,

their neighbours are impreffed with a fimilar difdain,

and when

will

be Impoflible that they fhould purfue the means of it withi

the fame avidity as before.

It will not

be

difficult

perhaps to trace. In the progrefs of Symptoms

to

modern Europe from barbarlfm

refinement,

a tendency

grefs.

towards the equalifation of propeny.

In the feudal times, as

novv.

5 -^

890
BOOKViir. CHAP.vni.
^ V
'

OF THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING

now
in India
_

and other parts of the world,

it

men were born men

to

a certain ftation, and

the rank of a noble.

was nearly irapoffible

for a peafant to rife to that

Except the nobles there were no

either

were

rich

for

commerce,

external

or internal,
for

had

fcarcely an exiftence.

Commerce was one engine

throwing

down

this feeraingly

impregnable barrier, and fhocking the prefufficiently willing to believe that

judices of nobles,
their retainers

who were

were a

different fpecies of beings

from themfelves.
In
all

Learning was another, and more powerful engine.

of the church

ages

we

fee

men

of the bafeft origin rifmg to the higheft

that others could
;

eminence.
befide thofe

Commerce proved

rife'

to wealth

who

v/ere cafed in mail

but learning proved that

the low-born were capable of furpaffmg their lords.

greflive effedl of thefe ideas

The

pro-

may eafily

be traced by the attentive

its

obferver.
votaries

Long
ftill

after

learning began to unfold

powers,

its

fubmitted to thofe obfequious manners and fervile

dedications,

which no man reviews

It is

at the prefent

day without
that in-

aftonifhment.
tellectual

but lately that

men have known

its

excellence

can

accompliih

purpofes

without a

patron.

At

prefent,

among

the civilifed

and well informed a

Hian of flender wealth, but of great intelledlual powers and a

firm and virtuous mind,
is

conflantly received with attention

and deference;
attempt to
tr-eat

and

his

purfe-proud
is

neighbour

who

Ihould

him

fupercilioufly,

fure to be difcountenanced

in his ufurpation.

The

inhabitants of diftant villages,

where

long eftablifhed prejudices are flowly

deftroyed,

would be
aflonifhed

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

aftonlflied to
fee

891

comparatively fmall a fhare wealth has in ^^^^ viii. * CHAP. VIII. ' "^' determining the degree of attention with which men are treated

how

'

in enlightened circles.

i-ro m
nor can
tion
it

Thefeno doubt
this refpect as

are but flight indications.

It is

with morality
r
'

idea of

Its

it

is

with

-1

! politics.

m The

progrefs

is

at nrft fo
;

future fuCCcfi.

flow as for the moft part to elude the obfervation of mankin'd

indeed be adequately perceived but by the contempla-

and comparifon of events during a confiderable portion of

After a certain interval, the fcene
is

time.

more

fully unfolded,

and

tlie

advances appear more rapid and decifive.

thing,
at the
it

While wealth
acquire

was every
it,

was

to be expedled that

men would
integrity.

though

expence of charadler and

Abfolute

and univerfal truth had not yet

be able to enter the
the fenfe.
lifts

fhovvrn itfelf fo decidedly, as to

with what dazzled the eye or gratified

In proportion as the monopolieo of ranks and comfail

panies are abolifhed, the value of fuperfluities will not

decline.

to

In proportion as republicanifm gains ground,

to be eftimated for

men

will

come

what they
away^

are, not for

what force

has given, and force

may

take

Let us

refletfl

for a

moment on

the gradual confequences of

this revolution

of opinion.

Liberality of dealing will be

will

among

its earlieft refults,

and of confequence accumulation

lefs

become
as

lefs

frequent and

enormous.

Men

will not be difpofed,

now,

to take advantage of each other's diftrefTes, and to

demand
a price
:'

5X2

OF THE MEANS OF. INTRODUCING

a price for their aid, not meafured

by

a general ftandard, but

will

by

the wants of an individual.

They

not confider
it

how
to

much

they can extort, but

how much

is

reafonable

require.
him., will

The

mafter tradefman v/ho employs labourers under

be difpofed to give a more ample reward to their

induftry

which he

is

at

prefent enabled to tax chiefly

by the

neutral circumftance of having provided a capital.

Liberality

on the
artifan,

part of his employer will complete in the

mind of

the

what

ideas of

political juftice will

little

probably have begun.

He will

no longer fpend the

which
is at

furplus of his earnings in that

diffipation,

prefent one of the principal caufes that

fubjed him to the arbitrary plcafurc of a fupcrlor.

efcape from the irrefolution of flavery and the
fetters

He
lefs

will

of defpair,
within

and perceive

that independence

and eafe are fcarcely

his reach than that of

any other member of the community.

ftill

This

is

a natural ftep towards the

will receive

farther progreflion, in

which the labourer

entire

whatever the confumer

may
and
.

be required to pay, without having a middle man, an idle

ufelefs monopolifer, as

he will then be found, to fatten upon

his fpolls.

The

fame fentiments that lead to

of diftribution.

liberality

of dealing, will

alfo lead to liberality

The

trader,

who

is

un-

willing to

grow
will

rich
"alfo

by

extorting from his employer or his

workmen,
injuftice

refufe to

become
his

rich

by the not

inferior
jhe

of withholding from

poor neighbour the fupply

wants.

THE GENUINE SYSTEM

^ants.

OF"

PROPERTY.

893

The

habit

which was created

moderate gains,
J
. .

In
,

being

1-1 contented with

is

clofely

the former cafe of book viii. CHAP. VITI. -* connedled with v_

,

the habit of being contented with flender accumulation.

that
9.

He

is

not anxious to add to his heap, will not be reluctant by

its

benevolent diftribution to prevent

increafe.

Wealth was
itfelf

once almoft the fingle objedt of purfuit that prefented

the grofs and uncultivated mind.

to

Various objedls will hereafter

divide men's attention, the love of liberty, the love of equality,

the purfuits of art and the defire of knowledge.

will not, as
laid

Thefe objeds

now, be confined
all.

to a few, but will gradually be

open to
:

The

love of liberty obvioufly leads to the love

of

man

the fentimeut of benevolence will be increafed, and the

felfifh

narrownefs of the

afFetions

will decline.

The

general
;

difFufion of truth will

be produdive of general improvement

and
to

men

will daily

approximate towards thofe views according

will

which every objed

be appreciated at

its

true value.
is

Add

to which, that the

improvement of which we fpeak

general, not individual.

The

progrefs

is

the progrefs of

all.

Each man

will find his fentiments of juftice

and reditude echoed,

encouraged and ftrengthened by the fentiments of his neighbours.

Apoftacy

will be

made eminently improbable,

not only his

becaufe
the

the

apoftate will

incur,

own

cenfure, but

cenfure of every beholder.

One remark
2

will fuggeft itfelf

upon

thefe confiderations.

" If
the

Conciufion,

894
BOOK
CHAP.
.*

OF THE MEANS OF INTRODUCING ^

VIII. VIII.
-*

the inevitable proerefs of improvement inienfibly lead tcv^^ards

vol
truth.
it.

an equalifation of property, what need was there of propofrng

it

as

a fpecific object to men's confideration ?"

The anfwer

to

this obje6i:ion is eafy.

The improvement

in queftion confifts
will be A'ery
fails to

in a

knowledge of

But our knowledge

imcon-

perfedl fo long as this great branch of univerfal juftice

ftitute
is

a part of

AH

truth

is

ufeful

can this truth, which

its

perhaps more fundamental than any, be without

object towards

benefits

Whatever be the
vances,
it is

which mind fpontaneoufly adto us to

of no

mean importance

have a diflind view of

accelerated.
It is

that objedl.

Our advances
though he

will thus

become
he

well known
to himfelf,

principle of morality, tKat

will

who
fall

pa-opofca pcrfealon
fliort

inevitably

of what he

purfues,

will

make a more rapid

is

progrefs,

than he

who

is

contented to aim only at what

imperfect.

The

benefits

to

be derived in the interval from a view of equalifation, as ons f the great

obje(3:s

towards which

we

are

tending, are ex-

ceedingly confpicuous.

Such a view
now.
It will

will ftrongly

conduce to

make us

difinterefted

teach

us to look with

contempt upon mercantile fpeculations, commercial profperity,

and the

cares of gain..
it is

It will

imprefs us with a juft apprehenfion

is

of what

of which
;

man

capable and in

which

his per^

fedion

confifts

and

will fix

our ambition and adivity upon

cannot arrive
at

the worthieft objeds.

illuftrious attainment,

Mind

any great and

of mind

however much ths

natiu-e

may
carry

>

THE GENUINE SYSTEM OF PROPERTY.

carry us towards
it,

89^
its

without feeling feme prefages of

ap-

book: viii.

proach; and

it

is

reafonable to believe that, the earlier thcfe

<J

prefages are introduced, and the

more

diflindt

they are made,

the

more

aufpicious will be the event.

FINIS.

^^^

>#