Libyan International University /Faculty of Engineering &Technology Fall Semester 2024 -2025 ASE 262 / Engineering Geology

Part I (Earth and its Materials)

1. Introduction
1.1. Science, Geology and Engineering geology
The nature of life still remains an elusive mystery in terms of matter and energy alone, but living
organisms and their evolution can nevertheless be investigated scientifically. Science is the
systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through
observation, experimentation and the testing of theories against the evidence obtained. Of all the
sciences physics is the most fundamental, for it deals with all the manifestations of energy and
with the nature and properties of matter in their most general aspects. It overlaps to some extent
with chemistry, which is particularly concerned with the composition and interactions of
substances of every kind in terms of atoms and molecules, elements and compounds. Biology is
the science of living matter. Mathematics is a science of numbers, shapes, data, measurements
and also logical activities. Basic knowledge of physics, mathematics, chemistry and biology is
important for many applied sub-disciplines of geology and engineering sciences.
Geology is the scientific study of the planet Earth, the materials of which it is made, the processes
that act on these materials, the products formed, and the history of the planet and its life forms
since its origin. Geology considers the physical forces that act on the Earth, the chemistry if its
constituent materials, and the biology of its past inhabitants as revealed by fossils. The vast
subject of geology has been divided into two branches:

Main branches of Geology Allied (applied) branches of geology

•Physical geology (study of the earth’s •Engineering geology (applying of geological
physical features, changes, materials, knowledge in the field of civil, structural and
processes and natural phenomena). architectural engineering).
•Mineralogy (study of minerals). •Mining geology (applying of geological
•Petrology (study of rocks). knowledge in the field of mining).
•Structural geology (study of earth’s •Geophysics (study of earth’s physical
crust structures). properties to know its interior).
•Historical geology (study of chronology •Hydrogeology (study of occurrence,
of geological events in the earth’s history). movement and nature of groundwater).
•Stratigraphy (study of rock strata and the •Geochemistry (study of the different
geologic history of sedimentary rock chemical elements in the earth’s crust).
successions).
•Paleontology (study of ancient life
through fossils).
•Economic geology (study of earth
materials that can be used for economic
and/or industrial purposes).

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Course Instructor: Adel Y. Almarimi
Libyan International University /Faculty of Engineering &Technology Fall Semester 2024 -2025 ASE 262 / Engineering Geology

Both of the geology branches: main and applied ones, have additional branches and divisions.
However, focus during this course would only be on the subjects that are most related to the
fields of architectural, civil and structural engineering.
Broadly speaking, Engineering geology is geology as applied to engineering practice, especially
mining and civil engineering. It is the application of geological knowledge in the field of civil,
structural and architectural engineering.
1.2. Earth’s spheres and internal structure
The dynamic earth we live on can be physically described as a body of rock (the lithosphere),
partly covered by water (the hydrosphere) and wrapped in an envelope of air (the atmosphere).
To these three physical zones it is convenient to add a biological zone (the biosphere).
The Earth is composed of three main layers, the crust, the mantle and the core. These three
layers are further divided into seven sub-layers:
1. The crust: including the continental crust and oceanic crust; 2. The lithosphere: including
the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle; 3. The asthenosphere; 4. The upper mantle;
5. The lower mantle; 6. The outer core; 7. The inner core.

Figure 1. Internal structure of the Earth.

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Course Instructor: Adel Y. Almarimi
Libyan International University /Faculty of Engineering &Technology Fall Semester 2024 -2025 ASE 262 / Engineering Geology

1.3. Driving forces for the dynamic Earth

The word “dynamic” refers to motion as a result of force or energy; producing change.
This definition fits the basic characteristic of the planet on which we live, for the combination
of motion and change. In the absence of energy, the earth could not be dynamic. Earthquakes,
volcanoes, floods, tides, movements of the land, wind, soil erosion - all these are dynamic
processes that are the response to motion caused by energy that creates the Earth’s natural forces.
Exogenic Forces
The energy which drives the earth's dynamic system does not originate totally within the earth.
Much of the energy used to drive the earth's systems comes from the solar energy.
Gravitational force plays important energy role in the system by pulling water that falls on the
land downhill and giving it the energy to erode and transport rock material from higher to lower
levels. It provides the energy by which glaciers move to erode and transport material. It pulls
loose, rotted rock material down slopes. But gravitational force is certainly not unique to the earth,
and we see, as in the case of the moon's pull on the oceans to cause tides, that external
gravitational forces may also become a source of energy for the earth's systems. Other important
and effective exogenic forces are represented by the action of Water, wind and glacial ice.
Exogenic forces can alter the size and shape of landforms. They are also destructive ones as they
destroy the existing landforms. These take place through weathering and erosion activities.
Endogenic Forces
Endogenic forces occur below the Earth’s surface. The Earth has its own internal heat that plays
a major role in moving materials about. The Earth’s internal heat may be provided by four
sources: (1) heat from the original gravitational collapse when the planet was formed, (2) heat
generated by the impact of large meteorites over 4 billion years ago, (3) heat released during the
breakdown of radioactive elements, and (4) heat produced by convection currents generated in
the mantle layer of the Earth. Other sources of internal heat are hot spots and mantle plumes.
Endogenic forces are constructive ones as they create relief features on the surface of the earth.
Examples of Endogenic forces are volcanic eruptions, movement of crustal plates, uplift of land
and mountain building.

1.4. Fundamental principles of Geology

Today's dynamic Earth was produced by natural processes that work synchronously on and in
the earth. These processes are governed by laws and principles of geology. Many of these
processes are products of interactions within the earth. Understanding how these interactions
work helps geo-scientists to trace back the past using clues left behind by these processes. Once
a relationship is established between the present and the past, geo-scientists then establish
principles that easily summarize these phenomena. Therefore, it becomes easy to predict the
future and still guide us into what the past has been. Many of these clues and their constant
repetition in space and time are used in making scientific inferences.

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Course Instructor: Adel Y. Almarimi
Libyan International University /Faculty of Engineering &Technology Fall Semester 2024 -2025 ASE 262 / Engineering Geology

Principle of Uniformitarianism
This theory states that the forces and processes observable at earth’s surface are the same that
have shaped earth’s landscape throughout natural history. "Nature as always operates in the
same way it used to be in the past. Thus understanding the physical and chemical processes that
govern the present will help us understand how the past has been.” In simple words - "The
present is the key to the past". Natural processes, such as mountain building and erosion,
occurred slowly over time through geologic forces that have been at work since Earth first
formed. These geological ideas became known as the Principle of Uniformitarianism.

Principle of Catastrophism
Catastrophism states that “natural history has been punctuated by catastrophic events that
altered the way life developed and rocks were deposited”. Catastrophism suggests that the
features seen on the surface of Earth, such as mountains, were formed by large, abrupt
changes—or catastrophes.

Law of Superposition
This Law simply states that “in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rock layers, each layer
of rock is older than the layer above it and younger than the rock layer below it”.

Law of Original Horizontality

It states that "Under the action of gravity, sedimentary rocks or layers of sediment are deposited
horizontally or nearly parallel to the earth surface unless overturned or impacted by other forces
or bodies. This principle is important in the analysis of folded and tilted strata.

Law of Lateral Continuity

The principle of lateral continuity states that “layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all
directions; in other words, they are laterally continuous”. As a result, rocks that are otherwise
similar, but are now separated by a valley or other erosional feature, can be assumed to be
originally continuous.

Law of Faunal Succession

The law states that, "Sedimentary rock contains fossils that succeed themselves in vertical
succession. i.e. different strata contain particular assemblages of fossils by which the rocks may
be identified and correlated over long distances; and these fossil forms succeed one another in a
definite and habitual order. This law, together with the law of superposition of strata, enable the
relative age of a rock to be deduced from its content of fossil faunas and floras.

Law of Inclusion
The Law of Inclusions states that, "if a rock body (Rock B) contained fragments of another rock
body (Rock A), it must be younger than the fragments of rock it contained. The intruding rock
(Rock A) must have been there first to provide the fragments.
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Course Instructor: Adel Y. Almarimi
Libyan International University /Faculty of Engineering &Technology Fall Semester 2024 -2025 ASE 262 / Engineering Geology

Law of Crosscutting Relationship

Law of Crosscutting Relationships states that, "if a body of rock cuts through another body of
of rock then it must be younger in age than the rock through which it cuts and displaces.

Walther's Law of Facies Succession

"Various deposits of the same facies areas and similarly the sum of the rocks of different
facies areas are formed beside each other in space, though in cross-section we see them lying
on top of each other. In summary, it simply states that, "Lateral adjacent strata also occur in
vertical succession". This is an important law that guides the correlation of sedimentary beds in
petroleum exploration.

Figure 2. Simplified diagram for major geological principles.

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Course Instructor: Adel Y. Almarimi
Libyan International University /Faculty of Engineering &Technology Fall Semester 2024 -2025 ASE 262 / Engineering Geology

Importance of Geology for Structural, Civil and Architectural Engineering

1. Geology provides knowledge about the site in the planning, design, and construction phase
of any engineering project.
2. Geological, topographic and hydrologic maps help in planning engineering projects.
3. Conducting a detailed geological survey of an area before commencing a project will
reduce the overall cost of the engineering project.
4. During implementation of engineering projects, engineering geology has impacts on
safeguarding of life, health, property, and the environment.
5. The geological characteristics of a site influence the design of foundations. Engineers
need to know the load-bearing capacity of the soil and rock to ensure stability and
prevent settlement or failure.
6. In terms of site selection, understanding the geological conditions of a site helps
engineers determine its suitability for construction. Factors like soil type, rock
formations, and groundwater levels are essential for deciding where to construct or
where to build.
7. Geology helps identify local materials that can be used in construction, such as
aggregates for concrete or specific types of stone for structural purposes. This can
reduce costs and transportation impacts.
8. Studies on petrology gives an overview of the strength properties of the rocks which
helps a civil engineer decide where and how a rock has to be used in constructions.
9. Knowledge of ground water is necessary for engineering foundation and excavation works.
10. Applied geophysical surveys to provide information about the subsurface geology;
11. Geology helps to identify area susceptible to failures due to geological hazards such as
earthquake, landslides, weathering effects, etc.
12. The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary for tunneling, constructing
roads and in determining the stability of cuts and slopes.
13. The knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition (ETD) by surface water helps
soil conservation, river control, coastal and harbor works.
14. The geological context can affect the long-term performance of structures. Engineers
must consider factors like soil shrink-swell behavior, erosion, and weathering to
ensure durability.

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Course Instructor: Adel Y. Almarimi