VINEET SETIA’S PHYSICS & MATHS CLASSES

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS

Electromagnetic induction; Faraday’s law, induced emf and current; Lenz’s Law, Eddy
currents. Self and mutual inductance. Need for displacement current. Alternating currents,
peak and rms value of alternating current/voltage; reactance and impedance; LC
oscillations (qualitative treatment only), LCR series circuit, resonance; power in AC
circuits, wattless current. AC generator and transformer.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (EMI)
Electromagnetic Induction is the phenomenon of inducing the emf (or electric
current) whenever there is a change in the magnetic field linked with a coil.
MAGNETIC FLUX
The magnetic flux B is the total no. of magnetic lines
of force crossing the given area.
Mathematically
 
B  BA  BA cos 
Units of magnetic flux
In SI, magnetic flux is measured in weber (Wb) or tesla
meter
square (Tm2).
In c.g.s. system, unit of magnetic flux is maxwell
1 maxwell = 10-8 weber
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
Dimensional formula for magnetic flux
[ B ] = [ML2 T-2 A-I]
THE EXPERIMENTS OF FARADAY AND HENRY
Experiment 1
Fig. 1 shows a coil A connected to a galvanometer G. When the North-pole of a bar
magnet is pushed towards the coil, the pointer in the galvanometer deflects,
indicating the presence of electric current in the coil.
1.) When the bar magnet was at rest, the galvanometer showed no deflection.
2.) The deflection lasts as long as the bar magnet is in motion.
3.) When North Pole of the bar magnet moved towards the coil, galvanometer
showed deflection in one direction indicating flow of current in the coil and
when North Pole of the bar magnet moved away from the coil, galvanometer
again showed the deflection but now in the opposite direction.
4.) The deflection is found to be larger when the magnet is pushed towards or
pulled away from the coil faster. It shows that it is the relative motion
between the magnet and the coil that is responsible for generation (induction)
of electric current in the coil.
CONCLUSION: Whenever there is a relative motion between the magnet and the

coil the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes and hence emf is induced.

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Experiment 2
Current induces current due to relative motion of coils. In above Fig. 2 the bar
magnet is replaced by a second coil connected to a battery. The steady current in
the coil produces a steady magnetic field.
The coil which is connected to the battery is called the primary coil and in which
emf is induced is called the secondary coil. Followings are the outcomes of this
exp.
1.) The galvanometer in the secondary coil A showed deflection, when coil B
moved towards it.
2.) When coil B moved away from coil A, the galvanometer in the secondary
circuit showed a deflection but in the opposite direction.
CONCLUSION: it is the relative motion between the coils that induces the electric
current.
Experiment 3
Changing Current induces current without relative motion of coils. In the above fig.
3 Coil A is connected to galvanometer G while the second coil B is connected to a
battery through a tapping key K.
It is observed that the galvanometer shows a momentary deflection when the
tapping key K is pressed. The pointer in the galvanometer returns to zero
immediately. If the key is held pressed continuously, there is no deflection in the
galvanometer.

FARADAY'S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (EMI)

From the experimental observations, Faraday stated the laws of electromagnetic
induction as given below:
Faraday's First Law of emf
Whenever there is a relative motion between the magnet and the coil the magnetic
flux linked with the coil changes and hence emf is induced. And the induced emf
remains for the time there is a change in the magnetic flux.
Faraday's Second Law of emf
The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of change
of magnetic flux through the circuit.
Mathematically, the induced emf is given by
d
e   B
dt
If there is a closely wound coil of N turns, change of flux associated with each turn,
is the same. Therefore, the expression for the total induced emf is given by
d
e  N B
dt
The negative sign indicates the direction of ε and hence the direction of current in
a closed loop.
LENZ’S LAW AND CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Lenz’s law gives the polarity of the induced emf in a clear and brief way.
The statement of the law is:
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which
opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.
i.e. we also can say that emf is induced in such a direction so as to oppose any
change responsible for its production.
In the fig. 1 the North-pole of a bar magnet is being pushed towards the closed
coil. As the North-pole of the bar magnet moves towards the coil, the magnetic
flux through the coil increases. Hence current is induced in the coil in such a
direction that it opposes the increase in flux. This is possible only if the current in
the coil is in a counter-clockwise direction with respect to an observer present on
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the side of the magnet. Magnetic moment associated with this current has North
polarity towards the North-pole of the approaching magnet.

Similarly, if the North Pole of the magnet is being withdrawn fig. 2 from the
coil, the magnetic flux through the coil will decrease. To counter this decrease in
magnetic flux, the induced current in the coil flows in clockwise direction and its
South pole faces the receding North-pole of the bar magnet. This would result in an
attractive force which opposes the motion of the magnet and the corresponding
decrease in flux.
According to Lenz' law, the direction of induced e.m.f. (or induced current)
is such that it opposes the cause which produces it. To oppose the cause the right
face of the coil in fig 1 acquires North polarity. The north pole of the magnet and
the north pole of the coil repel each other. To move the magnet towards the coil,
mechanical work has to be done to overcome the force of repulsion between the
north poles of the bar magnet and the coil. This mechanical work done is converted
into electrical energy.
Similarly, when the magnet moves away from the coil in fig.2 the right face
of the coil acquires South polarity. In this case, the induced e.m.f. will oppose the
out ward motion (cause) of the magnet. Again mechanical work has to be done to
overcome the force of attraction between North Pole of the magnet and South Pole
of the coil. This work done is converted into electrical energy. If the magnet is not
moved, no mechanical work is done then no e.m.f (thus no current) is
induced in the coil i.e., no electrical energy is produced.
Thus, Lenz' law is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
MOTIONAL ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Let crosses represent the uniform magnetic field
perpendicular to the plane of paper and directed
inward.
Let AB = A straight conductor moving in magnetic
field.
ABCD = a rectangular conductor in which the
conductor AB is free to move.
The rod AB is moved towards the left with a
constant velocity v as shown in the figure.
As ABCD moves towards left the area enclosed by the loop ABCD decreases. So the
amount of magnetic flux linked with the loop decreases. Due to this change an emf
is induced in the loop.
BC = x and AB = l,
The magnetic flux ΦB enclosed by the loop ABCD will be
ΦB = Blx
The rate of change of magnetic flux w.r.t. time as x also changes is
d d(Blx)
e    
dt dt
d(  x)
 e  Bl  Blv
dt
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dx
Where v   is velocity of the conductor AB
dt
e is called Motional Electromotive force (Motional emf)
The direction of the e is along the BCDA and is given by Fleming’s right hand law.

Motional electromotive force using the Lorentz force

Let q = any arbitrary charge in the conductor AB
Let v = velocity of the conductor as shown = velocity of charge q.
Lorentz force acting on the charge is
F = qvB
The direction of this force is towards B and is given by Fleming’s left hand rule
Now the work done in moving the charge from A to B is
W = qvB x l
The emf is given by
W qvB  l
e  
q q
 e  Blv
Let r be the resistance of movable arm AB of the rectangular conductor ABCD
Therefore the induced current in the above case is give by
e Blv
I  
r r
ENERGY CONSIDERATION IN MOTIONAL EMF: A QUANTITATIVE STUDY
Let r be the resistance of movable arm AB of the rectangular conductor shown in
Fig.
Let the remaining arms BC, CD and DA have negligible resistances compared to r.
Thus, the overall resistance of the rectangular loop is r and this does not change as
AB is moved.
The current I in the loop is,
e Blv
I  
r r
Force on the current carrying conductor AB is given by
Blv
F = BIl = Bl
r
2 2
Bl v
F 
r
Force is in the direction opposite to the direction of velocity v.
The arm AB is being pushed with a constant speed v, the power required to do this
is
B2 l2 v 2
P  F v 
r
As the conductor AB is pushed mechanically the energy dissipated per second is
given by
2
 Blv  B2 l2 v 2
P  I2 r    r 
 r  r
Which is same as power required push the conductor AB.
Hence the mechanical energy required to push the conductor is firstly converted in
to the electrical energy (emf) and then in the heat energy.
NOTE: let Q = the charge induced.
d
We have e 
dt

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dQ
Also e  Ir  r
dt
dQ d
Therefore r 
dt dt
d
 dQ 
r
i.e. the amount of charge induced is equal to the change in the magnetic flux
divided by the resistance.
EDDY CURRENTS
The induced circulating currents induced in the body of conductor itself due to
change in magnetic flux linked with the conductor are called eddy currents.
These currents were discovered by Foucault, so they are also known as Foucault
Currents.
Experiment If a light metallic disc D is placed atop of an
electromagnet as shown in the fig. and a.c. is passed
through the coil, the disc is thrown up due to eddy
currents.
Explanation On passing the current in the coil, the
magnetic flux linked with the coil starts growing and thus
magnetic flux linked with the solenoid and hence with the
disc also increases and induced current is produced in the
disc which converts it into a small magnet. The upper end
of the iron core and lower face of the disc acquire same
polarity in accordance with Lenz's law and due to
repulsion between the upper end of soft iron and lower
face of disc D, the disc is thrown up.
Disadvantages and Undesirable Effects of Eddy Currents
1.) The production of eddy currents in a metallic block leads to the loss of
electric energy in the form of heat.
2.) The heat produced due to eddy currents breaks the insulation used in the
electrical machine or appliance.
3.) Eddy currents may cause unwanted dampening effect. Eddy currents are
used to advantage in certain applications like:
(i) Magnetic braking in trains: Strong electromagnets are situated above the rails
in some electrically powered trains. When the electromagnets are activated, the
eddy currents induced in the rails oppose the motion of the train. As there are no
mechanical linkages, the braking effect is smooth.
(ii) Electromagnetic damping: Certain galvanometers have a fixed core made of
nonmagnetic metallic material. When the coil oscillates, the eddy currents
generated in the core oppose the motion and bring the coil to rest quickly.
(iii) Induction furnace: Induction furnace can be used to produce high
temperatures and can be utilized to prepare alloys, by melting the constituent
metals. A high frequency alternating current is passed through a coil which
surrounds the metals to be melted. The eddy currents generated in the metals
produce high temperatures sufficient to melt it.
(iv) Electric power meters: The shiny metal disc in the electric power meter
(analogue type) rotates due to the eddy currents. Electric currents are induced in
the disc by magnetic fields produced by sinusoidally varying currents in a coil. You
can observe the rotating shiny disc in the power meter of your house.
Induction motor. Eddy currents are used to rotate the short circuited rotor of an
induction motor. Ceiling fans are also induction motors which run on single phase
alternating current. Eddy currents in the rotor interact with the magnetic field of
the stator producing rotating force on the rotor.

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TO MINIMISE THE EDDY CURRENTS:
1.) To minimize losses due to eddy currents, the
solid metallic core is replaced with a large
number of thin insulated sheets called the
laminations. The laminations are separated by an
insulating material like lacquer. The plane of the
laminations must be arranged parallel to the
magnetic field, so that they cut across the eddy
current paths. Due to this result of this, eddy
current produced in one sheet is not added in
the current produced in the other sheet. This
arrangement reduces the strength of the eddy
currents. Since the dissipation of electrical energy
into heat depends on the square of the strength of
electric current, heat loss is substantially reduced.
2.) If rectangular slots are made in the metallic sheets as shown in Fig. area available
to the flow of eddy currents is less. And the magnetic moments of the induced
currents depends on the area as M = iA.
INDUCTANCE
An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by same coil
or flux change produced by another coil in its neighborhood.
However, in both the cases, the flux through a coil is proportional to the current.
That is,
ΦB α I.
Then emf induced is
d B dI
e  
dt dt
For a closely wound coil of N turns, the same magnetic flux is linked with all the
turns. When the flux ΦB through the coil changes, each turn contributes to the
induced emf. Therefore, a term called flux linkage is used which is equal to NΦB
for a closely wound coil and in such a case
NΦB α I
The constant of proportionality, in this relation, is called inductance.
Inductance is a scalar quantity.
It has the dimensions of [M L2 T–2 A–2] given by the dimensions of flux divided by the
dimensions of current.
The SI unit of inductance is henry and is denoted by H.
It is named in honour of Joseph Henry who discovered electromagnetic induction in
USA, independently of Faraday in England.
SELF-INDUCTANCE
Self induction is the property of the single coil due to which the coil opposes any
change in the strength of the current by inducing an emf in it self.
We may call it inertia of the electricity.
Let I = current flowing through the coil
ΦB = flux linked with coil
Therefore flux linked through a coil of N turns is proportional to the current
through the coil and is expressed as
NΦB α I
NΦB = LI ----------------------------- (1)
Where L = constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of self induction or
self inductance
When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an emf is
induced in the coil. the induced emf is given by

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dN B dI
e    L
dt dt
dI
 e  L ------------- (2)
dt
dI
if  1 Then e = -L x 1 or L = -e
dt
Hence coefficient of self induction of a coil is equal to the emf induced in the coil
when rate of change of the current w.r.t. time is unity.
SI unit of L is henry (H)
Self inductance of a coil is said to be one henry when the rate of change of current
w.r.t. time is 1A/s induces an emf of 1V in the coil.
B
Also from (1) we have L   1H = weber/ampere (WbA-1)
I
e 1volt
And from (2) L   1H   VsA 1
dI ampere
dt sec
 1 henry = weber/ampere (WbA-1) = VsA 1
Smaller units of L are millihenry and microhenry.
SELF INDUCTION OF A LONG SOLENOID
Consider a long solenoid
Let N = Total no. of turns
n = no. of turns per unit length
I = current flowing
A = area of cross section of the solenoid
 Magnetic field in the solenoid is given by
 0 NI
B   0 nI 
l
 Magnetic flux through each turn of the solenoid = B x area of each turn
 NI
= 0 xA
l
0 NI  0 N 2 AI
Total magnetic flux for N turns ()  A N  -------------- (1)
l l
If L, is the coefficient Of self induction then   LI ---------------------------- (2)
From (1) and (2)
0 N 2 AI
LI 
l
0 N 2 A
 L  is the coefficient of self induction for a long solenoid.
l
If core is of any other material of magnetic permeability  =  r  0 then
 r 0 N 2 A
L 
l
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Mutual Induction is the property of two coils in which one coil opposes any change
in the strength of current flowing through the other by inducing an e.m.f. in itself.
Consider a coil connected to a battery as shown. This coil is called Primary coil (P).
Another coil placed near the primary coil and connected to the galvanometer is
called secondary coil. When key K is pressed, galvanometer shows a deflection.
Explanation When key K is pressed, current through P begins to increase. As a
result of this, magnetic field around P increases, so magnetic flux linked with
secondary coil also changes. The induced e.m.f is produced in the secondary coil
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due to the change in magnetic flux linked with the coil. Hence the current flows
through the secondary coil which is sensed by the deflection in the galvanometer.
This phenomenon of inducing e.m.f is called mutual induction.
COEFFICIENT OF MUTUAL INDUCTION
Let I = current flowing through the outer coil
ΦB = flux linked with inner coil due to the magnetic field of outer coil
Therefore flux linked through a coil of N turns is proportional to the current
through the coil and is expressed as
NΦB α I
NΦB = MI ----------------------------- (1)
Where M = constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of mutual induction
or Mutual inductance
When the current is varied, the flux linked with the coil also changes and an emf is
induced in the coil. the induced emf is given by
dN B dI
e    M
dt dt
dI
 e  M ------------- (2)
dt
dI
if  1 Then e = -M x 1 or M = -e
dt
Hence coefficient of Mutual induction of two coils is equal to the emf induced in
the one coil when rate of change of the current w.r.t. time in other coil is unity.

SI unit of M is henry (H)

Mutual inductance of two coils is said to be one henry when the rate of change of
current in one coil w.r.t. time is 1A/s induces an emf of 1V in the other coil.
The coefficients of mutual induction of two coils depends upon
(i) The size of coils, no. of turns, nature of core on which two coils are
wounded and shape of coils
(ii) Distance and relative placement of two coils
MUTUAL INDUCTION OF TWO LONG SOLENOIDS
Consider two long co-axial solenoids each of length l
Let r1 = radius of the inner solenoid S1
n1 = the number of turns per unit length of the inner solenoid S1
N1 = the total number of turns of the inner solenoid S1
A1 = area of cross section of inner solenoid
r2 = radius of the inner solenoid S2
n2 = the number of turns per unit length of
the inner solenoid S2
N2 = the total number of turns of the inner
solenoid S2
A2 = area of cross section of outer solenoid
Let I1 and I2 = amount of currents setup in S1
and S2
Magnetic field due to outer solenoid is
B2   0 n 2 I 2
Now since the inner solenoid is under the
effect of magnetic field of outer solenoid the
Therefore the magnetic flux per turn linked
with the inner solenoid is turn  B2 A1
Total magnetic flux linked with the inner solenoid
1  B2 A1 N1  B2 A1n1l

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By substituting the value B2   0 n 2 I 2 we get
1  ( 0 n 2 I 2 )A1n1l   0 n1n 2 A1lI 2 ---------------------- (1)
Also if M12 = coefficient of mutual induction of solenoid S1 w.r.t S2
1  M12 I 2 ------------------------------ (2)
From (1) and (2) we have
M12 I 2   0 n1n 2 A1lI 2
 M12   0 n1n 2 A1l
Note that we neglected the edge effects and considered the magnetic field B 2 =
μ0n2I2 to be uniform throughout the length and width of the solenoid S 2.
Now take the reverse case. A current I1 is passed through the solenoid S1 and the
flux linkage with
coil S2 is
Φ2 = M21 I1 ---------------- (3)
M21 is called the mutual inductance of solenoid S2 with respect to solenoid S1.
The flux due to the current I1 in S1 can be assumed to be confined solely inside S1
since the solenoids are very long. Thus, flux linkage with solenoid S2 is
2  (0 n1I1 )A1n 2 l  0 n1n 2 A1lI1 -------------------------- (4)
From (3) and (4) we have M 21  0 n1n 2 A1l

AC GENERATOR
An ac generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
PRINCIPLE:
It is based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. i.e.
whenever the magnetic flux linked with
the coil changes emf is induced in the
coil. The direction of the induced emf
is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:
The basic elements of an ac generator
are shown in Fig. It consists of a coil
mounted on a rotor shaft. The axis of
rotation of the coil is perpendicular to
the direction of the magnetic field. The
coil (called armature) is mechanically
rotated in the uniform magnetic field
by some external means. The rotation
of the coil causes the magnetic flux
through it to change, so an emf is
induced in the coil. The ends of the coil
are connected to an external circuit by
means of slip rings and Carbon brushes. Through the carbon brushes output is
taken. The direction of the emf induced is given by the Fleming right hand rule.
Let at the instant the plane ABCD of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field
so that magnetic flux is max. Let AB is outward and CD is inward and let the coil is
rotated anti clockwise. So acc. to Fleming’s right hand rule the emf induced in the
coil in arm AB is from A to B and C to D as shown in fig.
THEORY:
When the coil is rotated with a constant angular speed ω, the angle θ between the
 
magnetic field B and the area vector A of the coil at any instant t is θ = ωt. As a
result, the effective area of the coil exposed to the magnetic field lines changes
with time,
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Therefore the flux at any time t is
ΦB = BA cos θ = BA cosωt
From Faraday’s law, the induced emf for the rotating coil of N turns is then
d dBA cos  d
e  N B   N  _ NBA (cos t)
dt dt dt
Thus, the instantaneous value of the emf is
E = NBAωsinωt
where NBAω is the maximum value of the emf, which occurs when sin ωt = ±1. If
we denote NBAω as e0, then
e = e0 sin ωt ------------------------------------- (1)
Since 1  sin t  1
Therefore the sign, or polarity of the emf changes with time.
The direction of the current changes periodically and therefore the current
is called alternating current (ac). Since ω = 2πν, Eq (1) can be written as
e = e0sin 2π ν t -------------------------- (2)
Where ν is the frequency of revolution of the generator’s coil.
Eq. (1) and (2) give the instantaneous value of the emf and e varies between +e0
and –e0 periodically.
NOTE:
In commercial generators, the mechanical energy required for rotation of the
armature is provided by water falling from a height, for example, from dams.
These are called hydro-electric generators. Alternatively, water is heated to
produce steam using coal or other sources. The steam at high pressure produces
the rotation of the armature. These are called thermal generators. Instead of coal,
if a nuclear fuel is used, we get nuclear power generators. Modern day generators
produce electric power as high as 500 MW, i.e., one can light up 5 million 100 W
bulbs.
TANSFORMER
Principle: It is based on the principle of mutual induction i.e. if the magnetic flux
linked with the coil changes, an emf is induced in the neighboring coil.
Construction: A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each
other. They are wound on a soft-iron core, either one on top of the other as in Fig.
1 or on separate limbs of the core as in Fig.2 One of the coils called the primary
coil P1P2 has Np turns. The other coil S1S2 is called the secondary coil it has Ns turns.
Often the primary coil is the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of
the transformer.

Let the transformer is ideal so that the primary has negligible resistance and all the
flux in the core links both primary and secondary windings.
Theory & Working:
Let E p  E 0 sin t = e.m.f. applied to primary coil

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Since transformer is ideal i.e. primary coil is pure inductive then current lags
behind the primary voltage by 900. Therefore the power dissipation for the primary
coil is zero.
Es = voltage induced in the secondary coil due to mutual induction.
Acc. to Faraday’s laws the induced e.m.f. Eturn is same for both primary and
secondary.
dB Ep Es
E turn   
dt Np Ns
Es Ns
  ------------------------------------- (1)
Ep Np
Ns
 Es  E p -------------------------------------- (2)
Np
Ns
Where = K is called transformer ratio.
Np
If Ns > Np then Es > Ep the transformer is called a step up transformer.
And If Ns < Np then Es < Ep the transformer is called a step down transformer.
Since there is no energy lost, therefore input power must be equal to the output
power
E p I p  E s Is
Ip Es
 
Is Ep
From (1) we have
Ip Es Ns
  
Is Ep Np
Np
 Is  I p
Ns
For a step up transformer Ns > Np therefore Is < Ip
The equations obtained above apply to ideal transformers (without any energy
losses)
But in actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due to the following
reasons:
(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due
to primary passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core or the air
gaps in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one
over the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some resistance
and so, energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire (I 2R). In high current, low
voltage windings, these are minimised by using thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron
core and causes heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.
(iv) Hysteresis: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the
alternating magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core appears
as heat and is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic material which has a low
hysteresis loss. The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy
over long distances is done with the use of transformers. The voltage output of the
generator is stepped-up (so that current is reduced and consequently, the I 2R loss
is cut down). It is then transmitted over long distances to an area sub-station near
the consumers. There the voltage
is stepped down. It is further stepped down at distributing sub-stations
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and utility poles before a power supply of 240 V reaches our homes.

ALTERNATING CURRENT
TRANSIENT CURRENTS: The currents which vary for a small time while increasing
from zero to its maximum value and then from max. to zero.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS: Electric mains supply for domestic, commercial and
industrial purposes is alternating (a.c.) in nature. If this supply is viewed on an
oscilloscope it will look like a sine wave as shown in
fig.1 Most of the appliances now run on alternating
voltage. The magnitude of a.c. changes continuously
with time and its direction is reversed periodically.
The magnitude of a.c. at any time is given by
I = I0 Sinωt
Or I = I0 Cosωt
Where I0 is called the max. value of current or peak value of current I0 is also
called amplitude and ω is angular frequency of a.c.
2
  2 (ν is 50Hz in India) and T is time period of a.c.
T
Similarly E = E0 Sinωt Or E = E0 Cosωt
In a resistance we have V = IR
dI
and in an Inductor or coil we have V  L
dt
in a capacitor we have q = CV
dq dV dV
differentiate w.r.t. t C  I C
dt dt dt
Note:
a) In an Inductor the value of current during growth of current at any time is
t
L
I  I 0 (1  e  ) where τ is time constant for LR circuit. And  
R
t
Also I  I 0 e  during decay of current.
t t
b) In a capacitor during charging q  q0 (1  e  ) and q  q0 e  during
discharging where time constant τ = RC
MEAN OR AVERAGE VALUE OF a.c.
Mean value of a.c. for one complete cycle of a.c. is zero.
So we find the mean value of a.c. for one half cycle.
The mean or average value of a.c. for one half cycle is that value of stedy current
that would send the same amount of charge through a cicuit in the time 0 to T/2 as
is send by the ac in the same circuit in the same time.
Let I = I0 Sinωt → value of ac at any time;
dq = charge send by this current in the ac circuit in time dt
q = total charge
 dq = Idt ------------------------ (1)
Integrating bith sides of (1)
q T /2

 dq 
0

0
Idt
T /2
 q 
0
I 0 Sin tdt

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T /2
  Cos t 
 q  I0 
   0
I  T   T 2 T 
 q  0  Cos  Cos 0    
  2   2 T 2 
 I0 2 I 0 I 0T
 q Cos  Cos0   --------------- (2)
  
Let Im → mean value of ac
q → charge send by steady current in time T/2
T
 q  Im ----------------------------- (3)
2
From (2) and (3)
T I 0T
Im 
2 
2I 2I  7
 Im  0  0  0.637 I 0
 22
 Im = 63.7% of I0

Now for –ve half cycle

Im = - 0.637I0 or -63.7% of I0
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OR EFFECTIVE VALUE OR VIRTUAL VALUE OF
ALTERNATING CURRENT
The root mean square (r.m.s.) value of ac for one complete cycle is that value of
steady current which would generate the same amount of heat in the same
resistance as is generated by the ac in same time 0 to T. (denoted by I r.m.s. or Ieff or
Iv )
Let I = I0 Sinωt → value of ac at any time; ------------------ (1)
R = resistance
H = heat generated
dH = heat generated in the resistance in time dt
 dH = I2Rdt ------------------------ (2)
Integrating on both sides of (2)
T

 dH   I Rdt
2

0
T
 H   I 0 2 Sin 2 tRdt
0

1  Cos 2 t
T T
 H  I 0 2 R  Sin 2 tdt  I 0 2 R  dt
0 0
2
T
I 0 R  Sin 2 t 
2
I 02 R  Sin2T 
 H  t    T  0  0
2  2  0 2  2 
2
I R Sin 4  I 0 RT
2
 2 T 
 H  0 T 
2  2 

2
------- (3)  2T  2 T  4 
Ir.m.s. → r.m.s. value of current
H = heat generated
H  I rms
2
RT -------- (4)
Therefore from (3) and (4)
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I 2 RT
2
I rms RT  0
2
2
I
 2
I rms  0 -------------------------------- (5)
2
I
 I rms  0  0.707 I 0 or 70.7% of I0
2
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OR EFFECTIVE VALUE OR VIRTUAL VALUE OF
ALTERNATING EMF
Let E = E0 Sinωt → value of alternating emf at any time; ------------------ (1)
Dividing both sides of equation (1) by R
E E
  0 Sin t
R R
 I = I0 Sinωt
Now solve the previous article from equation (1) to equation (5)
We get equation 5 as
I0 2
 2
I rms  -------------------------------- (5)
2
I02 R
Now multiply both sides by R 2
I rms R
2
E0
 Erms   0.707 E0  70.7% of E0
2
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE ONLY
Let R = resistance connected to the a.c. source as shown
Let E = E0 Sinωt → value of alternating emf ---------- (1)
I = current at any time t.
Therefore we have
E = IR
E E0 Sin t
 I   I 0 Sin t
R R
E
Where 0  I 0 is peak value of current.
R
 I = I0 Sinωt ------------------ (2)
Comparing (1) and (2) we get E and I are in same phase. i.e. in an a.c. circuit
containing resistance only the voltage and current are in same phase.
Phasor Diagram A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin with an angular
speed ω.

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A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING INDUCTANCE ONLY
Let E = E0 Sinωt → value of alternating emf ------
-- (1)
I = current at any time t.
L = Inductance connected to a.c. source
We know that in an inductor emf induced is =
dI
L
dt
 applied voltage should be equal and opposite to the induced voltage
 dI  dI
 E   L   L
 dt  dt
E
 dI  dt
L
Integrating both sides
E0 E
 I Sin t dt   0 Cos t
L L
Let Lω = XL and is called inductive reactance.
E0 E0
 I   Cos t also  I0
XL XL
Therefore I = - I0Cosωt
   
I =  Sin    t  = Sin   t   ----------------------- (2)
2   2
Comparing (1) and (2) we find that phase difference between current and voltage
is  
2 i.e. voltage leads the current by phase angle 2
or current lags behind the voltage by phase angle  Most imp.
2. For an Inductive Ckt.
PHASOR DIAGRAM X L  XC
1
L 
C
1
2 
LC
1

LC
WAVE
DIAGRAM

A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITANCE ONLY

Let E = E0 Sinωt → value of alternating emf ---------- (1)
I = current at any time t.
C = capacitance of the capacitor connected.
dE
We know I  C put E = E0 Sinωt we get
dt
d
 I C ( E0 Sin t)
dt
= CE0 Cos t

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E0
= Cos t
1
C
1
Where =X C is called capacitive reactance.
C
E
 I  0 Cos t = I 0Cos t
XC
 
 I I 0 Sin   t+  ------------------------------ (2)
 2
Comparing (1) and (2) we get
That phase difference between current and voltage is  i.e. current leads the
2
voltage by phase angle  or voltage lags behind the current by phase angle  .
2 2

Most imp.
For an Inductive Ckt.
X L  XC
1
L 
C
1
2 
LC
1

LC

A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING L,C AND R IN SERIES

To study the phase relation ship between cuurent and voltage in a series L,C,R
ckt.
(INDUCTIVE EFFECT)
In an Inductive circuit
X L  XC
1
L 
C
1
2 
LC
1

LC
The phasor diagram for inductive series LCR circuit is as shown below here VL >VC &
XL >XC because in series circuit current remains same.

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Let OD = VL or XL and OE = VC or XC
Therefore OC = VL-VC or XL-XC = AB and OA = R
In triangle OAB OB2 = OA2 + AB2
 E  (VL  VC ) 2  VR2
Dividing both sides by I0
E (VL  VC ) 2  VR2 (VL  VC ) 2  VR2
  
I0 I0 I0 2
2 2
E V V  V 
 Z    L  C    R   ( X L  X C )2  R 2
I0  I0 I0   I0 
Where Z is called the net impedance.
Therefore we may represent OA by R, AB by XL-XC in triangle OAB and this triangle
is called impedance triangle.
In the triangle
X L  XC
tan  
R
X L  XC
Case 1 X L  X C then tan   0
R
1
  the circuit is inductive circuit i.e. the voltage leads the current by
LC
a phase angle  .
X L  XC 1
Case 2 X L  X C then tan   0   the circuit is
R LC
capacitive ckt. i.e. the current leads the voltage by a phase angle  .

X L  XC
Case 3. X L  X C then tan    0 the current and voltage are in same
R
phase.

POWER IN A.C. CIRCUITS

EXPRESSION FOR POWER IN AN AC CKT CONTAINING RESISTANCE ONLY
Let E = E0 Sinωt → emf across resistance R
Since in ac ac ckt containing resistance only current and voltage are in same phase
Therefore I = I0 Sinωt be the current in the circuit.
Also work done dW = EIdt
 dW = E0I0Sin2ωt dt
 total work done
T
W   E 0 I0Sin 2 t dt
0

1-Cos2 t
T
= E 0 I0 
0
2
dt

E 0 I0  
T T
 W  dt   Cos2 tdt 
2 0 0 
EI  T
 Sin2 t T0 
1
= 0 0  t 0 
2  2 
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EI  1 
= 0 0
2 T  0  2  Sin 2T  Sin0  --------- (1)
2
 Sin 2 T  Sin 2 T  Sin 4  0
T
EI
From (1) W  0 0 T
2
W E 0 I0
 Pav  
T 2
EI E I
 Pav  0 0  0  0  EV IV
2 2 2
 Pav  EV IV
SHOW THAT THERE IS NO DISSIPATION OF POWER IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT
CONTAINING INDUCTANCE ONLY
Let L = inductance of the inductor connected
E = E0Sinωt voltage across L
 
 I  I 0 Sin   t  
 2
 I   I 0Cos t
Also work done dW = EIdt
=  E0 I 0 Sin tCos tdt
1 EI
 dW   E0 I 0 2 Sin tCos tdt   0 0 Sin 2 tdt
2 2
Total work done in one complete cycle is
T
E0 I 0
 W   Sin 2 tdt
0
2

T
E I  Cos 2 t 
 W=  0 0
2  2  0
E0 I 0
= Cos 2T  Cos0
4
E0 I 0
= 1  1  0
4
( Cos 2T  Cos 4  1 )
W
 Pav  0
T
i.e. there is no dissipation of power in an a.c. circuit containing inductor only.
SHOW THAT THERE IS NO DISSIPATION OF POWER IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT
CONTAINING CAPACITOR ONLY
Let C = capacitance of the capacitor connected
E = E0Sinωt voltage across C
 
I  I 0 Sin   t    I 0Cos t
 2
Also work done dW = EIdt
= E0 I 0 Sin tCos tdt

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 VINEET SETIA’S PHYSICS & MATHS CLASSES
1 EI
dW  E0 I 0 2Sin tCos tdt  0 0 Sin 2 tdt
2 2
Total work done in one complete cycle is
T
E0 I 0
 W  Sin2 tdt
0
2

T
E0 I 0  Cos 2 t 
 W=
2  2  0
EI
=  0 0  Cos 2T  Cos 0
4
EI
=  0 0 1  1  0
4
( Cos 2T  Cos 4  1 )
W
 Pav  0
T
i.e. there is no dissipation of power in an a.c. circuit containing capacitor only.

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