MAT 370: Real and Complex Analysis
Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif
Lecturer in Mathematics
Department of General Education
Canadian University of Bangladesh
Former Lecturer, World University of Bangladesh
Lesson 03
Lecture Outline
Roots of Complex Numbers
Euler’s Formula
Exponential Form of Complex Number
Dot and Cross Product
Variables and Functions
Single and Multiple-Valued Functions
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Roots of Complex Numbers
A number 𝑤 is called an 𝑛th root of a complex number 𝑧 if 𝑤 𝑛 = 𝑧, and we write 𝑤 = 𝑧1/𝑛 .
Recall the De Moivre’s theorem: 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
From De Moivre’s theorem we can show that if n is a positive integer,
𝑧1/𝑛 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 1/𝑛
1/𝑛
𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
=𝑟 cos + 𝑖 sin , 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , (𝑛 − 1)
𝑛 𝑛
from which it follows that there are 𝑛 different values for 𝑧1/𝑛 , i.e., 𝑛 different 𝑛th roots of 𝑧,
provided 𝑧 ≠ 0.
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Roots of Complex Numbers
1/3
Find the indicated roots and locate them graphically: −1 + 𝑖
𝑧 1/3 = −1 + 𝑖 1/3
𝑧 = −1 + 𝑖
1 3𝜋
Modulus of 𝑧, 𝑧 = −1 2 + 12 = 2 and Argument of 𝑧, arg 𝑧 = tan−1 −1 + 𝜋 = 4
3𝜋 3𝜋
∴ −1 + 𝑖 = 21/2 cos + 2𝑘𝜋 + 𝑖 sin + 2𝑘𝜋
4 4
3𝜋 3𝜋
+ 2𝑘𝜋 + 2𝑘𝜋
−1 + 𝑖 1/3
= 21/6 cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4
3 3
1) If 𝑘 = 0, 𝑧1 = 21/6 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋/4 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋/4)
2) If 𝑘 = 1, 𝑧2 = 21/6 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 11𝜋/12 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 11𝜋/12)
3) If 𝑘 = 2, 𝑧3 = 21/6 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 19𝜋/12 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 19𝜋/12)
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Euler’s Formula
Statement: For any real number 𝜃, 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃
Proof: The Taylor series for 𝑒 𝑥 is,
𝑥 𝑥 2 𝑥 3 𝑥 4 𝑥 5 𝑥 6
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + + + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝜃 2 𝑖𝜃 3 𝑖𝜃 4 𝑖𝜃 5
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 1+ + + + + +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
𝜃 2 𝑖𝜃 3 𝜃 4 𝑖𝜃 5 𝜃 6 𝑖𝜃 7 𝜃 8
= 1 + 𝑖𝜃 − − + + − − + +⋯
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! 8!
𝜃2 𝜃4 𝜃6 𝜃8 𝜃3 𝜃5 𝜃7
= 1− + − + −⋯ +𝑖 𝜃− + − +⋯
2! 4! 6! 8! 3! 5! 7!
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃
This formula is one of the most important contributions to complex analysis and it will be very helpful when
you are trying to solve equations with complex numbers!
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Exponential Form of Complex Number
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 be a complex number, then 𝑒 𝑧 is called exponential function and we get,
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑖𝑦
For each 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, complex number 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 is defined as
𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 (𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
For 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦)
The polar form of a complex number, 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) can be written in the following exponential form:
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Re 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 , Im 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑦
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥 = Re 𝑧 , arg 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑦 = Im 𝑧
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Dot and Cross Product
Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 be two complex numbers (vectors).
Dot Product: The dot product (also called scalar product) of 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 is defined as the real number
𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 = 𝑅𝑒{𝑧ഥ1 𝑧2 }
where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 which lies between 0 and 𝜋.
Cross Product: The cross product of 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 is defined as the vector
𝑧1 × 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 sin 𝜃 = 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 = 𝐼𝑚{𝑧ഥ1 𝑧2 }
where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 which lies between 0 and 𝜋.
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Dot and Cross Product
Problem: Suppose 𝑧1 = 3 − 4𝑖 and 𝑧2 = −4 + 3𝑖, then find
𝑎 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 , 𝑏 𝑧1 × 𝑧2 and 𝑐 |𝑧1 × 𝑧2 |
Solution:
𝒂 𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑧ഥ1 𝑧2 = 𝑅𝑒 3 + 4𝑖 −4 + 3𝑖 = 𝑅𝑒 −24 − 7𝑖 = −24
Another Method:
𝑧1 ∙ 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 = 3 −4 + −4 3 = −24
𝒃 𝑧1 × 𝑧2 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑧ഥ1 𝑧2 = 𝐼𝑚 3 + 4𝑖 −4 + 3𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 −24 − 7𝑖 = −7
Another Method:
𝑧1 × 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 = 3 3 − −4 −4 = −7
𝒄 𝑧1 × 𝑧2 = −7 = 7
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Variables and Functions
A symbol, such as 𝑧, which can stand for any one of a set of complex numbers is
called a complex variable.
Suppose, to each value that a complex variable 𝑧 can assume, there corresponds
one or more values of a complex variable 𝑤. We then say that 𝑤 is a function of 𝑧
and write 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) or 𝑤 = 𝑔(𝑧) etc. The variable 𝑧 is sometimes called an
independent variable, while 𝑤 is called a dependent variable.
The value of a function at 𝑧 = 𝑎 is often written 𝑓 𝑎 . Thus, if 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 , then
2
𝑓 2𝑖 = 2𝑖 = 4𝑖 2 = −4.
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Single and Multiple-Valued Functions
If only one value of 𝑤 corresponds to each value of 𝑧, we say that 𝑤 is a single-valued
function of 𝑧 or that 𝑓(𝑧) is single-valued. If more than one value of 𝑤 corresponds to
each value of 𝑧, we say that 𝑤 is a multiple-valued or many-valued function of 𝑧.
A multiple-valued function can be considered as a collection of single-valued functions,
each member of which is called a branch of the function.
Example:
a) If 𝑤 = 𝑧 2 , then to each value of 𝑧 there is only one value of 𝑤. Hence, 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2
is a single-valued function of 𝑧.
b) If 𝑤 2 = 𝑧, then to each value of 𝑧 there are two values of 𝑤. Hence, 𝑤 2 = 𝑧 defines a
multiple-valued (in this case two-valued) function of 𝑧.
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Inverse Functions
If 𝑤 = 𝑓 𝑧 , then we can also consider 𝑧 as a function, possibly multiple-valued, of 𝑤,
written 𝑧 = 𝑔 𝑤 = 𝑓 −1 𝑤 . The function 𝑓 −1 is often called the inverse function
corresponding to 𝑓. Thus, 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑤 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑧) are inverse functions of each other.
(𝒂) The additive inverse of the complex numbers 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is − 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = −𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
Example: Additive inverse of 4 − 3𝑖 is −4 + 3𝑖.
1
(𝒃) The multiplicative inverse of any complex number 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is
𝑥+𝑖𝑦
Example: Multiplicative inverse of 4 − 3𝑖 is
1 1 4 + 3𝑖 4 + 3𝑖 4 + 3𝑖 4 + 3𝑖 4 3
= × = = = = + 𝑖
4 − 3𝑖 4 − 3𝑖 4 + 3𝑖 4 − 3𝑖 4 + 3𝑖 16 − 9𝑖 2 25 25 25
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
Next Lecture
Derivatives
Analytic Functions
Cauchy-Reimann Equations
Harmonic Functions
Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative
Rules of Differentiation
Derivatives of Elementary Functions
Real and Complex Analysis Md. Kawsar Ahmed Asif Lesson 03
