WTW 164

Unit 3.2: Polar form and De

Moivre’s theorem
Dr HR (Maya) Thackeray
<maya.thackeray@up.ac.za>
Distance between complex numbers
In the complex plane, the distance between z = a + bi and w = c + di is |
z – w|.
Indeed, |z – w| = |(a + bi) – (c + di)| = |(a – c) + (b – d)i|
= , which is the distance between (a,b) and (c,d) by the distance
formula.
In the complex plane, the vector from w to z is represented by z – w,
and its length is |z – w|.
Graphs in the complex plane
The equation |z – z0| = r describes the circle in the complex plane with centre z0 and radius r. The
unit circle is given by |z| = 1; it has centre 0 and radius 1.
Examples:
• The circle with centre –1 + i and radius 2 is given by |z + 1 – i| = 2.
• The disc (including the boundary and interior) with that centre and radius is given by |z + 1 – i| 2.
• The region outside that disc (not including the boundary) is given by |z + 1 – i| > 2. (When
drawing it, the boundary is drawn with a dashed line to indicate that the boundary is not
included.)
• The equation |z – 1| = |z + 1| gives the imaginary axis, since that is the set of points that are the
same distance from 1 as from –1.
• The equation Im(z) = Re(z) gives the northeast-to-southwest diagonal line “y = x” through 0.
• The two equations |z| 1 and |Im(z)| < 1/2 together describe the part of the unit circle strictly
between the two horizontal lines Im(z) = –1/2 and Im(z) = 1/2.
Polar form
Let z = a + bi with a and b real numbers.
The modulus of z is |z| = r = .
If z is not 0, then an argument θ of z satisfies cos θ = a/r and sin θ = b/r,
that is, a = r cos θ and b = r sin θ. (It is an angle from the positive real
axis to the vector representing z in the complex plane.)
We have z = a + bi = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ).
We write cis θ for cos θ + i sin θ.
The polar form of z is the expression z = r cis θ, that is,
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ).
Arguments
Each z that is not 0 has infinitely many arguments, all differing by
multiples of 2π: if z = r cis θ, then z = r cis(θ + 2kπ) for all integers k.
The principal argument or main argument of z is the argument θ of z
such that –π < θ π.
For positive real r1, positive real r2, θ1 in (–π, π], and θ2 in (–π, π]:
r1 cis θ1 = r2 cis θ2 if and only if (r1 = r2 and θ1 = θ2).
Examples (page 1)
• Convert z = 4 cis(π/3) to standard form.
Solution. z = 4(cos(π/3) + i sin(π/3)) = 4(1/2 + i/2) = 2 + 2.i.
Examples (page 2)
Convert the following complex numbers from standard form to polar form, using the principal argument.
• z= +i
r = |z| = = = 2; cos θ = /2, sin θ = 1/2; we take θ = π/6. We obtain z = 2 cis(π/6).
• z = 5 – 5i
r = |z| = = = 5; cos θ = 5/(5) = (1/2), sin θ = –5/(5) = (–1/2); we take θ = –π/4.
We obtain z = 5 cis(–π/4).
• z = –6
r = |z| = 6; we take θ = π. We obtain z = 6 cis π.
• z = –4i
r = |z| = 4; we take θ = –π/2. We obtain z = 4 cis(–π/2).
• z = –2 – 2i
r = |z| = = 2; cos θ = –2/(2) = (–1/2), sin θ = –2/(2) = (–1/2); we take θ = –3π/4.
We obtain z = 2 cis(–3π/4).
Multiplying and dividing in polar form
If z1 = r1 cis θ1 and z2 = r2 cis θ2 with positive real r1, positive real r2, real θ1, and
real θ2, then z1z2 = r1r2 cis(θ1 + θ2) and z1/z2 = (r1/r2) cis(θ1 – θ2).
Example: Write z1 = 3 + 3.i and z2 = 3 + .i in polar form; hence find z1z2 and z1/z2.
Solution.
r1 = |z1| = = = 6; cos θ1 = 3/6 = 1/2, sin θ1 = 3/6 = /2; we take θ1 = π/3.
r1 = |z1| = = = 2; cos θ2 = 3/(2) = /2, sin θ2 = /(2) = 1/2; we take θ2 = π/6.
Therefore, z1 = 6 cis(π/3) and z2 = 2 cis(π/6).
Therefore, z1z2 = (6.2) cis(π/3 + π/6) = 12 cis(π/2) = 12.i and
z1/z2 = (6/(2)) cis(π/3 – π/6) = cis(π/6) = ((/2) + (1/2)i) = (3/2) + (/2)i.
De Moivre’s theorem (for positive integers)
If r is positive real, θ is real, and n is a positive integer, then
(r cis θ)n = rn cis nθ.
Example: Find (1 + i)10.
Solution.
z = 1 + i = r cis θ; r = ; cos θ = 1/ and sin θ = 1/; θ = π/4.
We have 1 + i = cis(π/4). By De Moivre’s theorem,
(1 + i)10 = ()10 cis(10π/4) = 25 cis(5π/2) = 32 cis(π/2) = 32i.
De Moivre’s theorem for nth roots
If r is positive real, θ is real, and n is a positive integer, then there are n
nth roots of r cis θ, and those nth roots are
wk = r1/n cis((θ + 2kπ)/n) for k in {0,1,…,n – 1};
the numbers w0, w1, …, wn – 1 are all different from one another.
Example: What are the eighth roots of 1?
Solution. By De Moivre’s theorem for nth roots, the 8th roots of 1 are
wk = cis(2kπ/8) = cis(kπ/4) for k in {0,1,…,7}.
They are 8 points that are equally spaced around the unit circle.
Argument to show that the nth roots are as in
De Moivre’s theorem for nth roots
Suppose wn = r cis θ and w = s cis β with r > 0, s > 0, θ real, and β real.
We get sn cis nβ = r cis θ by De Moivre’s theorem,
so sn = r and nβ – θ = 2kπ for some integer k,
so s = r1/n and β = (θ + 2kπ)/n for some integer k.
We have (wk)n = r cis(θ + 2kπ) (by De Moivre’s theorem) = r cis θ.
Examples (page 3)
• Solve for z: z3 = (–4 + 4i)2.
Solution. Let w = –4 + 4i. We have |w| = = = 8; we have cos θ = (–1/2)
and sin θ = (1/2); we take θ = 3π/4.
Therefore, w = 8 cis(3π/4).
We want to solve z3 = w2, that is, z3 = 64 cis(3π/2) (by De Moivre’s
theorem).
By De Moivre’s theorem for nth roots, the solutions are
z = 4 cis(π/2 + 2kπ/3) for k in {0,1,2},
that is, z = 4i, z = –2 – 2i, and z = 2 – 2i.
Complex exponential
If a and b are real numbers, then we define
ea + ib = ea cis b = ea(cos b + i sin b)
(this definition is Euler’s formula).
In particular: eiπ = e0 cis π = 1(cos π + i sin π) = –1,
which gives the famous formula eiπ + 1 = 0.