UNIVERSIDAD DEL PACÍFICO

Departamento Académico de Economía

Matemáticas III (130233) - Sección A
Primer Semestre 2018
Profesor Diego Winkelried

3 | Complex numbers

√
• Imaginary unit. i 2 = −1 or i = −1.

• Powers of the imaginary unit. The powers of i repeat in a cycle 1,i, −1, −i:

i0 = 1 i 4 = i 3i = −i 2 = 1 i 8 = (i 4 ) 2 = 1
i1 = i i 5 = (i 4 )i = i i 9 = (i 4 ) 2i = i = i
i 2 = −1 i 6 = (i 4 )i 2 = −1 i 10 = (i 4 ) 2i 2 = −1
i 3 = i 2i = −i i 7 = (i 4 )i 3 = −i i 11 = (i 4 ) 2i 3 = −i

It follows that i 4k = 1 for k ≥ 0.

With this, any power of i can be easily computed. For instance, i 31 = i 28i 3 = (i 4 ) 7i 3 = 17i 3 = −i. Also,
i 100 = (i 4 ) 25 = 125 = 1.

• Complex number. A number formed by a real part and an imaginary part: z = p +qi, where p ∈ R and q ∈ R.
p is the real part of the complex number, whereas q is the imaginary part. When q = 0, the complex number
is a real number; when p = 0, the complex number is a purely imaginary number.

• Addition. If z 1 = p1 + q 1i and z 2 = p2 + q 2i, then z 1 ± z 2 = (p1 ± p2 ) + (q 1 ± q 2 )i.

• Multiplication. If z 1 = p1 + q 1i and z 2 = p2 ± q 2i, then

z 1z 2 = (p1 + q 1i)(p2 ± q 2i) = p1p2 + (p2q 1 ± p1q 2 )i ± q 1q 2i 2 = (p1p2 ∓ q 1q 2 ) + (p2q 1 ± p1q 2 )i .

• Division. If z 1 = p1 + q 1i and z 2 = p2 + q 2i, then

z 1 p 1 + q 1i p 2 − q 2i (p1p2 + q 1q 2 ) + (p2q 1 − p1q 2 )i p1p2 + q 1q 2 * p2q 1 − p1q 2 +

!
= = = + i.
z 2 p 2 + q 2i p 2 − q 2i p22 − q 22i 2 p22 + q 22 , p2 + q 2 -
2 2

• Complex conjugate. If z = p + qi, its conjugate is z̄ = p − qi. Note that z + z̄ = 2p ∈ R and zz̄ = p 2 + q 2 ∈ R.

• Roots. Let P (x ) = ax 2 + bx + c. The roots of this polynomial satisfy P (z) = 0 and P (z̄) = 0:
√ √
−b + b 2 − 4ac −b − b 2 − 4ac
z= and z̄ = .
2a 2a
If b 2 > 4ac, z and z̄ are real and different. If b 2 = 4ac, z = z̄ ∈ R. Finally, if b 2 < 4ac

z = p + qi and z = p − qi ,
√
are complex conjugate, with p = −b/(2a) and q = 4ac − b 2 /(2a).

• Degree n. In general, a polynomial P (x ) = an x n + an−1x n−1 + · · · + a 2x 2 + a 1x + a 0 (with real coefficients)

has n roots. If z is one such root, P (z) = 0, its conjugate will also be a root, P (z̄) = 0. In other words, complex
roots appear always as pairs with their corresponding conjugates.
It follows that if n is odd, P (x ) must have at least one real root.

Derechos reservados c 2018, Diego Winkelried 25

Prohibida su reproducción y distribución fuera de la Universidad del Pacífico
 Class Notes 3 - Complex numbers

• Modulus. The “size” or “magnitude” (i.e., the distance from zero) of the complex number. It is the
generalization of the notion of an absolute value. If z = p + qi, then
q
| z | = p2 + q2 .

• Properties of the modulus.

(1) If z is a real number (p = 0), | z | = Absolute value(z).
(2) | z | = | z̄ |, where z̄ is the conjugate of z.
(3) | z | 2 = z · z̄.
(4) For any two complex numbers z 1 and z 2 , | z 1z 2 | = | z 1 | · | z 2 |.
(5) For any two complex numbers z 1 and z 2 , | z 1 ÷ z 2 | = | z 1 | ÷ | z 2 |.
• Polar form. The form z = p + qi is the cartesian representation of z (the x-axis represents the real
numbers, whereas the y-axis represents the purely imaginary numbers). An alternative representation, in
polar coordinates, is the following
q
z = p + qi = r [ cos(θ ) + i sin(θ ) ] where r = p 2 + q 2 (modulus)
q p  q 
!
and θ = arctan = arccos = arcsin (argument) .
p r r

• Polar of the conjugate. The modulus of z̄ is the same of z, but the argument is −θ . Thus,
z̄ = p − qi = r [ cos(−θ ) + i sin(−θ ) ] = r [ cos(θ ) − i sin(θ ) ] .

• Trigonometric identities. Recall that

cos(θ 1 ± θ 2 ) = cos(θ 1 ) cos(θ 2 ) ∓ sin(θ 1 ) sin(θ 2 ) ,
sin(θ 1 ± θ 2 ) = sin(θ 1 ) cos(θ 2 ) ± cos(θ 1 ) sin(θ 2 ) .

• Multiplication, polar form. Let z j = r j [ cos(θ j ) + i sin(θ j ) ] for j = {1, 2}. Then,
z 1z 2 = r 1r 2 [ cos(θ 1 ) + i sin(θ 1 ) ][ cos(θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 2 ) ]
= r 1r 2 { cos(θ 1 ) cos(θ 2 ) − sin(θ 1 ) sin(θ 2 ) + [ sin(θ 1 ) cos(θ 2 ) + cos(θ 1 ) sin(θ 2 ) ]i }
z 1z 2 = r 1r 2 [ cos(θ 1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 1 + θ 2 ) ] .

• Division, polar form. Let z j = r j [ cos(θ j ) + i sin(θ j ) ] for j = {1, 2}. Then,
z1 r 1 [ cos(θ 1 ) + i sin(θ 1 ) ] r 1 [ cos(θ 1 ) + i sin(θ 1 ) ] [ cos(θ 2 ) − i sin(θ 2 ) ]
= =
z2 r 2 [ cos(θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 2 ) ] r 2 [ cos(θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 2 ) ] [ cos(θ 2 ) − i sin(θ 2 ) ]
r 1 cos(θ 1 ) cos(θ 2 ) + sin(θ 1 ) sin(θ 2 ) + [ sin(θ 1 ) cos(θ 2 ) − cos(θ 1 ) sin(θ 2 ) ]i
=
r2 cos(θ 2 ) 2 + sin(θ 2 ) 2
z1 r1
= [ cos(θ 1 − θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 1 − θ 2 ) ] .
z2 r2

• De Moivre’s formula for powers. It follows from the workings of multiplication. For any integer n > 0,
z n = r n [ cos(θ ) + i sin(θ ) ]n = r n [ cos(nθ ) + i sin(nθ ) ] .

De Moivre’s formula also applies to negative powers. For any integer n > 0, recall that r 2 = z · z̄. Then,
z̄ n rn
z −n = = [ cos(θ ) − i sin(θ ) ]n = r −n [ cos(−θ ) + i sin(−θ ) ]n = r −n [ cos(−nθ ) + i sin(−nθ ) ] .
r 2n r 2n

Derechos reservados c 2018, Diego Winkelried 26

Prohibida su reproducción y distribución fuera de la Universidad del Pacífico
 Class Notes 3 - Complex numbers

• Roots of a complex number. Let w be a complex number such that w n = z. Alternatively, w = z 1/n . Consider
the polar form of each of these numbers:

z = r [ cos(θ ) + i sin(θ ) ] and w = ρ[ cos(α ) + i sin(α ) ] .

Using De Moivre’s formula to determine w n , it follows that

ρn = r → ρ = r 1/n ,
θ 2πk
cos(nα ) = cos(θ ) → α= + for k = 0, 1, . . . ,n − 1 .
n n
Therefore,

θ 2πk θ 2πk
" ! !#
z 1/n
=r 1/n
cos + + i sin + for k = 0, 1, . . . ,n − 1 .
n n n n

• Euler’s formula. Famous result (that we shall prove later in the course):

e x i = cos(x ) + i sin(x ) .

It follows that

e −x i = cos(x ) − i sin(x ) .

• Special cases. e 2 πi = i, e πi = −1, e 2 πi = −i and e 2πi = 1.

1 3

• Polar form, compact. Using Euler’s formula,

p ± qi = r [ cos(θ ) ± i sin(θ ) ] ≡ re ±θ i .

• Multiplication and division, easier. Using the exponential polar form,

z 1z 2 = r 1e θ 1 i r 2e θ 2 i = r 1r 2e (θ 1 +θ 2 )i = r 1r 2 [ cos(θ 1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 1 + θ 2 ) ] .
  

z 1 r 1e θ 1 i r 1 (θ 1 −θ 2 )i r 1
= = e = [ cos(θ 1 − θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 1 − θ 2 ) ] .
z 2 r 2e θ 2 i r 2 r2

• Roots of a complex number, compact. We have obtained a result for z 1/n . Using the exponential form,

z 1/n = r 1/n e (θ /n+2πk /n)i ≡ r 1/n e θ i /n e 2πki /n for k = 0, 1, . . . ,n − 1 .

The term r 1/n e θ i /n is called the primitive root. Each of the remaining n − 1 roots is obtained by multiplying
this primitive by e 2πki /n for k = 1, 2 . . . ,n − 1. The term e 2πki /n is often known as root of unity.

Derechos reservados c 2018, Diego Winkelried 27

Prohibida su reproducción y distribución fuera de la Universidad del Pacífico