MATH 135 Fall 2023: Solutions to Written Assignment 10 (WA10)

Ungraded
Covers the contents of the entire course
Q1. One root of the polynomial f (x) = x4 + x3 + 3x2 + x + 2 over C is −i.

(a) Write f (x) as a product of irreducible polynomials in C[x]. Show your work.

(b) Write f (x) as a product of irreducible polynomials in R[x]. Show your work.

Solution(s).

(a) By Conjugate Roots Theorem (CJRT), if −i is a solution of f (x), so is i. Thus (x−(−i))(x−

i) = x2 + 1 is a factor of f (x). Using long division, we get f (x) = (x2 + 1)(x2 + x + 2). By
the quadratic formula, the roots of x2 + x + 2 are
−1 ± w
,
2
√
where w satisfies w2 = 12 − 4 · 2 = −7. Hence, w = ± 7i. Thus
√ √
 −1 + 7i  −1 − 7i 
f (x) = (x + i)(x − i) x − x− ∈ C[x].
2 2

(b) From (a), we have f (x) = (x2 + 1)(x2 + x + 2). Since all roots are not in R, we have

f (x) = (x2 + 1)(x2 + x + 2) ∈ R[x].

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Q2. Find all solutions to the equation z 10 − 2z 5 + 2 = 0 in complex numbers z. Express each
of your solutions in polar form.
Solution(s). Let w = z 5 . Then the equation z 10 − 2z 5 + 2 = 0 is equivalent to

w2 − 2w + 2 = 0.

By completing the square, we see that

(w − 1)2 + 1 = 0,

(w − 1)2 − i2 = 0,
(w − 1 − i)(w − 1 + i) = 0.
This way we find two roots:
w1 = 1 + i and w2 = 1 − i.
Coming back to z,
z15 = 1 + i and z25 = 1 − i.
At this point wee consider two solutions.
Solution 1 (with CNRT). To solve the equation z15 = 1 + i, let us write the right-hand side
in polar form:
√  π π
1 + i = 2 cos + i sin .
4 4
Thus, by Conjugate n-th Roots Theorem (CNRT), solutions to the equation z15 = 1 + i are given
by
√
    
10 π 2πk π 2πk
2 cos + + i sin + for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
20 5 20 5

To solve the equation z15 = 1 − i, let us write the right-hand side in polar form:
√   π  π 
1 − i = 2 cos − + i sin − .
4 4
Thus, by Conjugate n-th Roots Theorem (CNRT), solutions to the equation z15 = 1 + i are given
by
√
    
10 π 2πk π 2πk
2 cos − + + i sin − + for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
20 5 20 5

Solution 2 (without CNRT). Writing the right-hand sides of z15 = 1 + i and z25 = 1 − i in
polar form,
√  π π √   π  π 
z15 = 2 cos + i sin and z25 = 2 cos − + i sin − .
4 4 4 4
Next, let us focus on the left-hand sides. First, we introduce the polar form:

zj = rj (cos θj + i sin θj ) for j = 1, 2.

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By De Moivre’s Theorem (DMT),

zj5 = rj5 (cos θj + i sin θj )5 = rj5 (cos(5θj ) + i sin(5θj )) for j = 1, 2.

We come to a conclusion that we need to solve the equation

√  π π
r15 (cos(5θ1 ) + i sin(5θ1 )) = 2 cos + i sin (1)
4 4
for r1 and θ1 , as well as the equation
√   π  π 
r25 (cos(5θ2 ) + i sin(5θ2 )) = 2 cos − + i sin − . (2)
4 4
for r2 and θ2 .
Equating the moduli and the arguments in the first equation, we find that
√ π
r15 = 2 and 5θ1 = + 2πk for k ∈ Z.
4
Therefore,
√
10 π 2πk
r1 = 2 and θ1 = + for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
20 5

Equating the moduli and the arguments in the second equation, we find that
√ π
r25 = 2 and 5θ2 = − + 2πk for k ∈ Z.
4
Therefore,
√
10 π 2πk
r2 = 2 and θ2 = − + for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
20 5

Therefore, we find 10 solutions to the equation z 10 − 2z 5 + 2 = 0, namely

√
    
10 π 2πk π 2πk
2 cos + + i sin + for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
20 5 20 5

and
√
    
10 π 2πk π 2πk
2 cos − + + i sin − + for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
20 5 20 5

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Q3. Let F denote R or C, and consider x3 + ax + b, x2 + cx − 1 ∈ F[x]. Prove that

(x2 + cx − 1) | (x3 + ax + b)

if and only if c = b and a = −1 − b2 .

Solution(s). (⇒) If (x2 + cx − 1)|(x3 + ax + b), then there exists q(x) ∈ F[x] such that

x3 + ax + b = q(x)(x2 + cx − 1).

Since
deg(x3 + ax + b) = deg q(x) + deg(x2 + cx − 1),
we get deg q(x) = 1. Since both (x3 + ax + b) and (x2 + cx − 1) are monic (i.e., having leading
coefficient 1), so is q(x). Hence, q(x) is of the form (x − d) for some d ∈ F[x]. It follows that

(x − d)(x2 + cx − 1) = x3 + ax + b =⇒ x3 + (c − d)x2 + (−1 − cd)x + d = x3 + ax + b.

By comparing the coefficients of 1, x and x2 , we see that

d = b, −1 − cd = a, c − d = 0.

It follows that
b = d = c and a = −1 − b2 .

(⇐) If c = b and a = −1 − b2 , by long division, we see that

x3 + ax + b = x3 + (−1 − b2 )x + b = (x2 + bx − 1)(x − b) = (x2 + cx − 1)(x − b).

It follows that (x2 + cx − 1) | (x3 + ax + b).

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Q4. Find polynomials p(x) and q(x) in R[x] such that

p(tan θ)
tan(4θ) =
q(tan θ)

for every θ ∈ R where both cos θ and cos(4θ) are non-zero.

Solution(s). Let θ ∈ R. Following Example 8 in Section 10.4 of the course notes, we apply De
Moivre’s Theorem (DMT) and compute

cos(4θ) + i sin(4θ) = (cos θ + i sin θ)4

= cos4 θ + 4i cos3 θ sin θ − 6 cos2 θ sin2 θ − 4i cos θ sin3 θ + sin4 θ
= (cos4 θ − 6 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ) + 4i(cos3 θ sin θ − cos θ sin3 θ).

Equating real and imaginary parts, we find that

cos(4θ) = cos4 θ − 6 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ,

sin(4θ) = 4 cos3 θ sin θ − 4 cos θ sin3 θ.

Therefore,

sin(4θ)
tan(4θ) =
cos(4θ)
4 cos3 θ sin θ − 4 cos θ sin3 θ
=
cos4 θ − 6 cos2 θ sin2 θ + sin4 θ
cos4 θ 4 tan θ − 4 tan3 θ
= ·
cos4 θ 1 − 6 tan2 θ + tan4 θ
p(tan θ)
= ,
q(tan θ)

where
p(x) = 4x − 4x3 and q(x) = 1 − 6x2 + x4 .

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Q5.

(a) Prove that, for every n ∈ N, (x − 1) | (xn − 1).

x2 −1 x3 −1 x4 −1
Hint: Using your favourite computer algebra system compute x−1 , x−1 , x−1 , and so on.
Notice something?
(b) Let z = a + bi be such that a, b ∈ Z and b ̸= 0. Prove that, for every n ∈ N, the number
z n − (z)n
z−z
is an integer.

Solution(s).

(a) Solution 1. Let n ∈ N, and let f (x) = xn − 1. Then f (1) = 1n − 1 = 1 − 1 = 0, so it

follows from Factor Thereom (FT) that (x − 1) | (xn − 1).
Solution 2. Following the hint, we use the long division of polynomials to compute
x2 − 1
= x + 1,
x−1
x3 − 1
= x2 + x + 1,
x−1
x4 − 1
= x3 + x2 + x + 1.
x−1
We conjecture that, for every positive integer n,
xn − 1 = (x − 1)(xn−1 + · · · + x + 1)
n−1
X
= (x − 1) xk .
k=0

Let us prove this conjecture by showing that the right-hand side is equal to the left-hand
side:
n−1
X n−1
X n−1
X
(x − 1) xk = x xk − xk
k=0 k=0 k=0
n−1
X n−1
X
= xk+1 − xk
k=0 k=0
Xn n−1
X
= xk − k
x
k=1 k=0
n−1 n−1
! !
X X
= xn + k
x − 1+ xk
k=1 k=1
n
= x − 1.

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(b) Since b ̸= 0, we see that z = a − bi ̸= 0. Let x = z/z. By the proof of Part (a),
n−1
X
xn − 1 = (x − 1) xk ,
k=0

 z n z  n−1
X  z k
−1= −1 .
z z z
k=0

Multiplying both sides by (z)n ,

n−1
X
z n − (z)n = (z − z) z k (z)n−1−k .
k=0

Since b ̸= 0, we see that z − z = 2bi ̸= 0, so we can divide both sides of the above equality
by z − z:
n−1
z n − (z)n X k
= z (z)n−1−k .
z−z
k=0

At this point we notice that, when k ̸= n − 1 − k, both z k (z)n−1−k and z n−1−k (z)k appear
in the above sum. We can pair them up and notice that, by the Properties of Conjugate
(PCJ),
 
z k (z)n−1−k + z n−1−k (z)k = z k (z)n−1−k + z k (z)n−1−k = 2 Re z k (z)n−1−k ∈ R.

At the end of the proof we will show that Re z k (z)n−1−k is an integer.

When k = n − 1 − k, the term in the sum cannot be paired up, but in this case the number
z k (z)n−1−k itself is an integer due to the Properties of Modulus (PM):

z k (z)n−1−k = z k (z)k = (zz)k = |z|2k = (a2 + b2 )k ∈ Z.

It remains to prove that Re(z k (z)n−1−k ) is an integer for every non-negative integer k. This
follows from the fact that, for all w1 = x1 + y1 i and w2 = x2 + y2 i with x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ Z,

w1 w2 = (x1 + y1 i)(x2 + y2 i) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 )i.

We see that both real and imaginary parts of w1 w2 are integers. By induction we can
conclude that, for every non-negative integer ℓ, if real and imaginary parts of z are integers,
then real and imaginary parts of z ℓ and (z)ℓ are also integers. But then real and imaginary
parts of z k (z)n−1−k are integers as well.

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