SUNYA NOTES (September)

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INDEX
TOPIC Page Number
1) Environment 2
2) Schemes 12
3) International Relations 21
4) S&T 28
5) Polity and Governance 33
6) Economy 40
7) Defence 44
8) Health 46
9) Indices and Reports 51
10) Art and Culture 51
11) Miscellaneous 55

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1) ENVIRONMENT
Ø Wolf = Also known as the Grey Wolf, it is a canine native to Eurasia and North America +
IUCN: Least Concerned + CITES: Appendix II + Most specialized for cooperative game hunting
and howling + The wolf is mainly a carnivore and feeds on large wild hoofed mammals as well
as smaller animals, livestock, carcass etc.
• Indian Grey Wolf = It is a subspecies of grey wolf that ranges from Southwest Asia to the
Indian Subcontinent + They live in warmer conditions + The Indian wolf inhabits areas
dominated by scrub, grasslands and semi-arid pastoral agro-ecosystems + It has a wide
distribution range that extends from the Indian subcontinent to Israel. There are about 3,000
animals in India, some in captivity + IUCN: Least concern + Recently, it was sighted in
Chambal after a long time. The last wolf sightings were reported during Operation Bhediya
carried out between 1997 and 2000 to map the canines’ footprint in Chambal.
• Himalayan or Tibetan Wolf = Himalayan Wolf, a prominent lupine predator found across
the Himalayas + It is also called as Tibetan wolves, which live at more than 4,000 metres
altitudes are genetically distinct from grey wolves + Living at such high altitudes, these
wolves have genetically adapted themselves to live in low oxygen (hypoxic) conditions + In
China, the Himalayan wolf lives on the Tibetan Plateau and In northern India, it occurs in
the Union Territory of Ladakh and in the Lahaul and Spiti region in northeastern Himachal
Pradesh + IUCN: Vulnerable + CITES: Appendix I + Wildlife Protection Act, 1972:
Schedule I.
• Wild Arctic Wolf = It inhabits the Arctic regions of North America and Greenland + Unlike
other species of wolf, these rarely comes into contact with humans and is not threatened by
hunting or persecution + Industrial development threatens the Arctic wolf as an increasing
number of mines, roads, and pipelines encroach on its territory and interrupt its food supply
+ IUCN Status: Least Concerned + China has successfully cloned a wild Arctic wolf for the
first time in the world+ The newly cloned wolf named Maya, which means good health. +
The donor cell of the wolf came from a skin sample of a wild female Arctic Wolf and its
oocyte was obtained from a dog. + The Beagle was chosen as the surrogate mother because
dogs share genetic ancestry with ancient wolves.
Ø Polar Bear = It is a hyper-carnivorous (animals with over 70% meat diet) species whose native
range lies largely within the Arctic Circle + they are not found in the Antarctica region + It is
the largest extant bear species, as well as the largest extant land carnivore + Polar bears do not
hibernate in true sense in dens like the brown and black bears do, instead they remain active
throughout winter despite the cold + IUCN: Vulnerable + Polar bears are one of the most
significant predators in the Arctic region and they keep biological populations in balance + The
big kills made by them serve as a food resource for scavengers like Arctic foxes and Arctic birds.
Ø Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros = Also known as “Indian rhino” is the largest of the rhino
species (total 5 species) + Out of 5 species, only the Great One-Horned Rhino is found in India
+ These are restricted to small habitats in Indo-Nepal terai, northern West Bengal, Assam, and
Uttar Pradesh + Assam has an estimated 2,640 rhinos in 4 protected areas, i.e. Pobitora Wildlife
Reserve, Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park, Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park
+ Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary has the highest density of one-horned rhinos in the world and the
2nd-highest number of Rhinos in Assam after Kaziranga National Park + IUCN Red List:
Vulnerable; CITES: Appendix I; Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I + It is the only large
mammal species in Asia to be down-listed from Endangered to Vulnerable in the International
Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN Red list in 2008 + Rhinos are umbrella species
primarily found in grasslands, savannas, and forests in Africa and Asia + Indian rhino is one of
the 5 species of Rhinos, other 4 are: (1) White Rhino (IUCN: Near Threatened) native to South
Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Kenya; (2) Black Rhino (IUCN: Critically Endangered) native
to African countries specially Namibia, Kenya and South Africa; (3) Javan Rhino (IUCN:
Critically Endangered) also known as Sunda rhino or lesser one-horned rhino and confined to

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 Ujung Kulon National Park in island of Java; (4) Sumatran Rhino (IUCN: Critically
Endangered) species of rhino endemic to Sumatra and Borneo + Threats faced by Rhinos are
habitat loss and poaching for horns + World Rhino Day is celebrated every 22 September.
• White Rhino = Recently, Scientists in Berlin announced the first successful embryo transfer
in a white rhinoceros + Also known as the square-lipped rhinoceros due to their square upper
lip + White rhinos are the 2nd largest land mammal after the elephant + They are the only
grazers among the 5 rhino species, feeding almost exclusively on short grasses + They have
2 horns on the end of their nose + Two subspecies of white rhino: (1) Northern White Rhinos:
Critically Endangered species with only two individuals left; and (2) Southern White Rhinos:
Near Threatened species mostly found in South Africa, with smaller translocated populations
found in Kenya, Namibia and Zimbabwe.
• International Rhino Foundation (IRF) = IRF is a Texas-based charity focused on the
conservation of the 5 species of rhinoceros + The State of the Rhino Report 2023 was
released by the International Rhino Foundation (IRF) + According to a report by the IRF, the
worldwide rhino population has experienced a slight rise + The report observed stable
populations of black rhinos and the greater one-horned rhino.
Ø Mithun = Mithun or gayal (Bos frontalis) is considered a descendant of the Indian Gaur or bison
+ It plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of tribes such as the Nyishi,
Apatani, Galo and Adi in Arunachal Pradesh + It is distributed in Northeast India, Bangladesh,
northern Myanmar and in Yunnan, China + It is known as the ‘cattle of the mountain’ + The
gayal is the state animal of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland + IUCN: Vulnerable + CITES:
Appendix I + Recently, Mithun gets a ‘food animal’ tag from the Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India (FSSAI) + Food animals are those that are raised and used for food production
or consumption by humans. The move is expected to help check decline in the population of the
high-altitude bovine animal by making it a part of the conventional milk and meat industry.
Ø Spotted Deer = The spotted deer, or chital/ cheetal is a deer species native to the Indian
subcontinent + It is the most common deer species in Indian forests + It is widely distributed in
Asia, especially in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and a small group in Pakistan +
Habitat: Subtropical grasslands and forests + IUCN Red List: Least Concern + They mainly feed
on grasses throughout the year + Only males have antlers, and their bodies are larger than
females.
Ø Lion-tailed Macaque = It is an old World monkey and sometimes called as Beard Ape + Males
define the boundaries of their home ranges by calls and their communication system contains as
many as 17 vocalisations + IUCN: Endangered + CITES: Appendix I + The Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972: Schedule I + They are sometimes + The Lion-tailed macaque is named due to its lion-
like, long, thin, and tufted tail + In the wild, these are only native to India + It is a primate
endemic to rainforests of the Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Ø Green Sea Turtle = Also known as the green turtle, black (sea) turtle or Pacific green turtle, is
a species of large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae + Its range extends throughout tropical and
subtropical seas and is found in Atlantic, Pacific Oceans, and Indian Ocean + They lay eggs on
beaches and the sex of their offspring is dependent on incubation temperature + IUCN status:
Endangered + CITES: Appendix I.
Ø Elongated Tortoise = Also known as Sal Forest Tortoise + It is medium-sized Tortoise species
with a yellowish-brown or olive-colored shell + It is prominently found in the Sal deciduous and
hilly evergreen forests + Also distributed over eastern as well as northern India and Southeast
Asia + IUCN: Critically Endangered + CITES: Appendix II + WPA of 1972: Schedule IV +
Recently, an Elongated Tortoise was spotted for the first time in the Aravallis.
Ø Anole = Anoles are vertebrate, cold-blooded species of small tree-dwelling lizards related to
iguanas (family Iguanidae) + Anoles have distinctive features, including an ability to change
skin colour (called ‘chameleon’), the presence of a dewlap (a throat fan), and adhesive toe pads
to climb vertical surfaces + Anoles are a classic example of adaptive radiation, a process where

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 a single ancestral species evolves into many descendant species, each adapted to different
ecological niches + These are native to North America and also found in Puerto Rico (an island
in the Caribbean Sea), tropical and subtropical regions + Currently, it is not considered
threatened.
Ø Amur Falcon = It is a small raptor of the falcon family + World’s longest travelling raptors. It
starts journey for about 22,000 kms with the onset of winters + It breeds in south-eastern Siberia
and northern China before migrate a long distance across India and over the Arabian sea to winter
in Southern and East Africa + They get their name from the Amur River that forms the border
between Russia and China + Doyang Lake (Nagaland) is known as a stopover for the Amur
falcons during their annual migration from their breeding grounds to warmer South Africa. Amur
Falcon stays for a month in Nagaland and helps in maintaining the ecosystem by feeding on a
large number of insects, thus controlling the population of insects + IUCN: Least Concern +
Nagaland is known as the “Falcon Capital of the World”.
Ø Dodo = The dodo was a forest bird endemic to the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean + It
could not fly and became extinct + The dodo became extinct in the late 17th century due to
human activities and introduced species + The dodo was closely related to the bird ‘Rodrigues
solitaire’, which was also extinct and unable to fly + Dodo and Solitaire created a subgroup
called Raphinae, which consisted of extinct birds that couldn’t fly. These birds belonged to the
same family as pigeons and doves + The Nicobar pigeon is most closely related to the dodo.
Ø Solitaire = Solitaire (Pezophaps Solitaria) is a flightless bird endemic to Rodrigues in the Indian
Ocean. It belongs to the Columbidae family and is descended from a species of pigeon or dove
+ Solitaire exhibits sexual dimorphism i.e. males are larger in size + It became extinct and was
last confirmed in the 1760s.
Ø Emu = It belongs to a group of flightless running birds known as ratites + It is the second-largest
living bird in the world after the ostrich + It is found ONLY in Australia and it lives throughout
most of the continent, ranging from coastal regions to high in the Snowy Mountains + They are
omnivores and adult female emus are larger and heavier than males + IUCN Red List: Least
Concern + As per recent research, a mechanism behind the reduction and asymmetry of emu
wing bones was uncovered. The wings of Emu show significant shortening and asymmetrical
skeletal elements. It highlighted the role of differences in embryonic and foetal movement that
may play in driving morphological evolution.
Ø Sea Robins = Triglidae, commonly known as Gurnards/Sea Robins, are a family of bottom-
feeding scorpaeniform ray-finned fish + It is a bottom-dwelling fish that uses leg-like (modified
pectoral fins) appendages to navigate the ocean floor + Sea robins are classified as carnivores
and are mainly distributed in temperate and tropical seas worldwide + IUCN status: Least
Concern + Researchers have recently discovered new insights into evolutionary adaptations by
examining the unusual walking abilities of sea robins.
Ø Guppy Fish = These are a small invasive alien species of fish popular for home aquariums +
Native to tropical regions of South America and the Caribbean + Found in freshwater streams
and pools + Guppies have been introduced to various countries (including India) for mosquito
infestations as they eat large numbers of mosquito larvae + Males are smaller and more brightly
colored than females + They come in nearly every color of the rainbow + Lifespan is generally
2 to 3 years + They are used as a model organism in the fields of ecology, evolution, and
behavioural studies.
Ø Water Spinach = Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) is a semi-aquatic perennial plant native to
tropics and subtropics + It is rich in folic acid (vitamin B9), Beta carotene, calcium, vitamin E
and C + It is useful for peoples with Anemia and neural tube defects in unborn children + It has
aquatic habitat purifying qualities + In India, it is regionally known as Kalmi saag in West
Bengal, Naari ka saag in Uttar Pradesh, Nalichi-bhaji in Marathi + According to recent research,
water spinach is a vital source of folic acid.
Ø Casuarina Tree = It is also known as She-oak, Savukku, and Kattadi + Native to native to
Australia + It has good nitrogen fixing ability and adaptability to grow in a variety of soil,
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 temperature, and climatic conditions + These are are widely planted in the tropics, subtropics
and Mediterranean countries + It’s wood is extensively used for papermaking.
Ø Onitis Bordati = A dung beetle species recently discovered Meghalaya + Dung beetle species
were previously only found in Vietnam and Thailand + They play key role in the ecosystem by
dispersing seeds, recycling nutrients, controlling pests, and promoting plant growth.
Ø Syntretus Perlmani = New Parasitoid Wasp Species found in USA + It is the 1st wasp found to
infect adult fruit flies + It is a new species of wasp that lays eggs inside living, adult fruit flies,
which then burst from the hosts' abdomens while they're still alive + Wasps are parasitoids rather
than parasites because they always kill their hosts, while parasites generally leave them alive.
Ø Phrynarachne Decipiens = New Species of Spider, Found in Assam + Also known as the bird
dung or bird-dropping crab spider + web of this spider mimics a bird’s excrement (It mimics a
bird dropping in its appearance and the way it behaves) + It is a species of tropical crab spider
from Malaysia and Indonesia (Sumatra and Java) + It has been recorded for the first time in
Assam’s Sonapur in the Kamrup district and the Chirang Reserve Forest in the Kokrajhar district.
Ø Carrhotus Piperus = New spider species found in the Palani Hills of Tamil Nadu + It is a
jumping species of spider + Habitat is pepper (Piper nigrum) plants.
Ø Exostoma Sentiyonoae = New species of glyptosternine Catfish found in the Dzuleke River (a
tributary of the Barak River) Nagaland + It is endemic to the Mekong River basin and particularly
found in Thailand + Fish has unique features like an adipose fin attached to the upper caudal-fin
rays, tubercles on its dorsal-fin spine, and 41 vertebrae.
Ø Garra zubzaensis and Psilorhynchus kosygini = Both are new fish species found in Nagaland
+ Garra zubzaensis discovered in Zubza River (tributary of Brahmaputra river) in Nagaland and
found in various regions across Asia + Psilorhynchus kosygini discovered in Tepuiki River (a
tributary of Barak River) in Nagaland and primarily found across South Asia and Southeast Asia.
Ø Globba tyrnaensis and Globba janakiae = New ginger species discovered in Meghalaya +
They are also referred to as "dancing girls” + These are native to tropical regions such as
Southeast Asia, India, and the Eastern Himalayas + IUCN classifies (informally) Globba
tyrnaensis species as Endangered and Globba janakiae as Critically Endangered.
Ø Curcuma ungmensis = New relative of turmeric found in Nagaland + The plant belongs to the
genus Curcuma (the ginger family Zingiberaceae) + It is a rhizomatous herb (rhizome part is
branched and deeply buried in the soil) + It is widely distributed in south and southeast Asia and
south China + In India, it is found in northeast, southern States and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
Ø Trilobites = Trilobites are a group of extinct arthropods whose living relatives include lobsters
and spiders + First appeared during the Cambrian Period (about 520 million years ago) and
disappeared at a major extinction event at the end of the Permian Period (about 250 million years
ago) + They were the first group of animals in the animal kingdom to develop complex eyes and
multiple appendages for moving around + They have segmented bodies with several fused
segments into a head region, which enables them to roll up into a ball for protection by bending
the thorax and bringing the tail underneath the head + Like all arthropods, trilobites grow by
moulting, old skeleton was shed and replaced by a new one + All trilobites lived in ocean waters.
Most lived on or burrowed into the sand and mud on the seafloor, but some swam above the
bottom.
Ø Ngamugawi Wirngarri = Researchers have discovered a well-preserved Devonian coelacanth
fish (Ngamugawi Wirngarri) in Western Australia, shedding light on the connection between
plate tectonics and evolutionary changes + New Evidence of Evolution of Earth + The new fossil
from the Gogo Formation in Western Australia was named Ngamuk Gawi waringarri + It helps
to fill in an important transition period in coelacanth history, between the primitive forms and
other more ‘anatomically-modern’ forms + Please Note: Coelacanth are ancient deep-sea fish,
which believed to be extinct until rediscovered in 1938.
Ø Prosopis Julifora/Angreji Babool (PYQ 2018) = Native to Mexico, South America and
becoming an invasive weed in Africa, Asia and Australia + It is an aggressive coloniser
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 distributed throughout the country + It is a water greedy plant that depletes groundwater. It is
one of the world’s top 100 least wanted plants + It is also used to erect fences + It is affecting
the wild ass population in Kutch, Gujarat.
Ø Mikania Micrantha = Also known as Bitter vine, Climbing hempvine, or American rope + It is
vigorously growing perennial invasive creeper plant + Native to the North, Central, and South
America + It has allelopathic potential which inhibit seed germination and seedling growth of
other plants.
Ø Mansagar Lake = It is located in the Jaipur city (UNESCO World Heritage Site) of Rajasthan
+ It is an artificial lake named after Raja Man Singh, the ruler of Ajmer, who constructed it in
1610 by damming the Dharbawati River + The Jal Mahal is situated in the middle of the lake.
Ø Pangong Tso = World's highest saltwater (brackish) lake located in Ladakh + An endorheic
lake spanning eastern Ladakh and West Tibet + Divided into five sub-lakes: Pangong Tso, Tso
Nyak, Rum Tso (twin lakes) and Nyak Tso + Despite being saline water, the lake completely
freezes during the winter + It is famous for its colour-changing water, which can be blue, red, or
green + Approximately 50% of the length of the overall lake lies within Tibet, China, 40% in
Ladakh India and the rest is disputed and is a defacto buffer zone between India and China +
Karakoram Mountain range (Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China & India) ends at the north
bank of Pangong Tso + The Line of Actual Control (LAC) which separates India and China
passes through it.
Ø Ashtamudi Lake = Located in the Kollam district of Kerala + 2nd largest lake in Kerala (after
Vembanad Lake) + It is connected to the sea through the Neendakara estuary and thus regarded
as the "Gateway to Kerala Backwaters" + Lake is fed by the River Kallada that originates in
Kulathupuzha in the Western Ghats + In 2012, the brackish water Ashtamudi Lake with eight
creeks was declared a Ramsar site + Endangered species of plants called Syzygium
Travancoricum and Calamus Rotang are present in Ashtamudi’s marshy mangroves + Kollam
city is located on its banks and the Neendakara port is located at its confluence + Moroccan
explorer Ibn Battuta highlights Quilon city on the banks of Ashtamudi Lake as one of the major
trading centres in the ancient period.
Ø Sardar Sarovar Dam = Located in Gujarat’s Narmada district + It is a concrete gravity dam
built on the Narmada River + 3rd highest concrete dam (163 meters) in India, the first two being
Bhakra (226 metres) in Himachal Pradesh and Lakhwar (192 meters) in Uttar Pradesh + It is a
part of the Narmada Valley Project, involving large irrigation and hydroelectric multi-purpose
dams on the Narmada River + Narmada Main Canal in Gujarat is the largest irrigation-lined
canal in the world.
Ø Yettinahole Project = Karnataka + Also called as Netravati River Diversion, it is a river flow
diversion project of the west flowing Yettinahole, a tributary of the Netravathi + Project
envisages the construction of eight dams in several districts of Karnataka.
Ø Kaziranga National Park = Assam + World Heritage Site + It is declared National park, Tiger
reserve and recognized as An Important Bird Area + It is the home of the world's most one-
horned rhinos + Diphlu River flows through this park + Kaziranga’s ‘Big Five’ are Rhinoceros,
Tiger, Elephant, Wild Water Buffalo, and Swamp Deer + Please Note: Pobitora Wildlife
Sanctuary has the highest density of one-horned rhinos in the world and second highest number
of Rhinos in Assam after Kaziranga National Park + Kaziranga has become the first in the
country to use satellite phones, which are generally used by the law-enforcing agencies + Please
Note: Orang National Park, located on the north bank of the Brahmaputra River in Assam is also
known as the mini Kaziranga National Park.
Ø Barak Bhuban Wildlife Sanctuary = It is in Assam’s Barak Valley, which also harbours Borail
Wildlife Sanctuary + It is named after Barak river, which is 2nd largest river in Northeast +
Barak and Sonai rivers flow through sanctuary + It is a part of the Indo Myanmar biodiversity
hotspot + Vegetation is characterised by the tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, tropical
deciduous + Sanctuary has an abundance of king cobras (IUCN: Vulnerable).

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 Ø Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary = Situated in Telangana, near the borders of Maharashtra
and Chhattisgarh + Godavari and Dayyam Vagu Rivers flows through the sanctuary + Sanctuary
harbours the Sammakka-Saralamma Temple + It is dominated by tropical dry deciduous forests
with species like teak, bamboo, madhuca, and terminalia + Indian gour and giant squirrel are the
keystone species in the sanctuary + It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1952 by then
Hyderabad Nizam Government.
Ø Peechi -Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary = Kerala + It is situated in catchment areas of the Peechi
and Vazhani Dams + It is part of the Palapilii-Nelliyampathy forests + It forms the northern
boundary of the Chimmini Wildlife Sanctuary + Vegetation consist of tropical evergreen forests,
tropical semi evergreen forests, and moist deciduous forests.
Ø Typhoon Yagi = Recently, Typhoon Yagi began as a tropical storm in the western Philippine
Sea and affected Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar + Vietnam and
the Philippines are frequently affected by typhoons due to their geographic location in the
Western Pacific, which is one of the most active typhoon basins (Pacific typhoon belt) in the
world.
• Typhoon = Typhoon is a type of tropical cyclone (PYQ-2020) that forms in the
Northwestern Pacific Ocean, primarily between 100°E and 180°E + It particularly affects
East Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Oceania + Sustained winds must exceed 119 km/h to
be classified as a typhoon + Typhoons typically occur from May to October and peak is from
August to September + Typhoons have a central eye (calm area) surrounded by a violent
eyewall, characterised by strong winds and heavy rain which causes severe flooding, and
storm surges.
Ø Bishnoi Community = Bishnoi community was founded in the 16th century by Guru
Jambheshwar in the Marwar desert region of Rajasthan + Bishnois are a Hindu religious sect
prominently found in Rajasthan and northern Indian states, they follow 29 principles or
"Niyamas" governing their conduct + The Bishnoi Movement was started in the early 18th
century by Amrita Devi to protect Khejri trees + Killing animals and felling trees was banned in
the community. Thus, Khejri tree is sacred for the Bishnois + Important places to the Bishnoi
community are Janglu, Rotu, Jambha dhām or Jambholav, and Lalasar + (Guru Jambheshwar
= Guru Jambheshwar, also known as Guru Jambhoji, (1451–1536) was the founder of the
Bishnoi Panth, a Hindu subsect of Vaishnavism + His teachings were in the poetic form known
as ‘Shabadwani’, in which he laid down 29 principles or ‘Niyamas’ as code of conduct for the
sect).
Ø Irula Tribe = Irula (people of darkness) is one of the PVTG known for extracting and selling
snake venom + They inhabit in Nilgiris region of Tamil Nadu and are also spread over Karnataka
and Kerala + Irula is one of the oldest tribal communities of India belonging to the Negrito race
(migrated from Africa) + They speak the Irula language that is closely related to Dravidian
languages like Tamil and Kannada + The Irula Snake Catchers' Industrial Cooperative Society
is a major producer of anti-snake venom in the country.
Ø Saora Tribe = Saora is one of the ancient tribes (PVTG) of Odisha + It also finds its mention in
the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata + Also known by different names like Savaras, Sabaras,
Saura, Sora etc + They are highly distributed in Odisha but also inhabits in Andhra Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Assam + Sora is native spoken language, which is a Munda
language + Tattoo tradition called “Tantangbo” is a unique art practice among tribes + Saora
painting (also called as Iditala paintings) are created by Saora tribes + Recently, Odisha has
granted habitat rights to the Saora tribals and became the only state in India to extend such rights
to the highest number of PVTGs.
Ø Konyak Tribe = It is largest of the Naga ethnic tribe primarily inhabit the Mon district
(Nagaland), which is also known as The Land of the Anghs + Also found in Arunachal Pradesh
(known as Wanchos), Assam and Myanmar + About 95% of the population follows Christianity
+ Koyank is a spoken language which belongs to the Sino-Tibetan group + Important festivals:

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 Aolingmonyu, Aonyimo, and Laoun-ongmo + They are expert in making ‘janglaü’ (machetes)
and wooden sculptures + Please Note: Konyak Tribe is NOT categorised as PVTGs.
Ø Mankidia Tribe = Recently, the Mankidia community became the 6th particularly vulnerable
tribal group (PVTG) PVTG to get habitat rights over forests in Odisha + They have been
identified as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) in Odisha + They speak a form of
Munda language and some of them are also conversant in Odia + They live in dome shaped leaf
huts, known as Kumbha + The community is famed for its skill in catching monkeys and trapping
small birds and animals.
Ø Poumai Naga Tribe = It is indigenous ethnic group primarily residing in the Manipur (95%
population lives in Senapati district) and parts of Nagaland + Christianity is dominant religion +
Tribe is well known for their Pouli (Pottery) and Poutai (Pou salt) production + Laonii and
Thounii are important festivals + Poula is native language of the tribe + It is one of the oldest
and largest Naga tribes in Manipur.
Ø Sahariya Tribe = Also known as Sahar, Sehariya, Sawar or Sahariya + It is a PVTG residing in
the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Chhattisgarh + Saharia Swang is popular dance of
tribe performed during the month of Holi + Tribe is skilled in making catechu from Khair trees
+ They mostly live in a separate area in the village, called ‘Seharana’.
Ø Poumai Naga Tribe = It is indigenous ethnic group primarily residing in the Manipur (95%
population lives in Senapati district) and parts of Nagaland + Christianity is dominant religion +
Tribe is well known for their Pouli (Pottery) and Poutai (Pou salt) production + Laonii and
Thounii are important festivals + Poula is native language of the tribe + It is one of the oldest
and largest Naga tribes in Manipur.
Ø Sahariya Tribe = Also known as Sahar, Sehariya, Sawar or Sahariya + It is a PVTG residing in
the states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Chhattisgarh + Saharia Swang is popular dance of
tribe performed during the month of Holi + Tribe is skilled in making catechu from Khair trees
+ They mostly live in a separate area in the village, called ‘Seharana’.
Ø Teal Carbon = Recently, India's first teal carbon study was conducted at Keoladeo National
Park (KNP) in Bharatpur, Rajasthan + Teal carbon is the carbon stored in non-tidal freshwater
wetlands, including carbon sequestered in vegetation, microbial biomass, and dissolved and
particulate organic matter + Primary reservoirs of teal carbon are peatlands, freshwater swamps,
and natural freshwater marshes + Teal carbon ecosystems helps in sequestering carbon, raising
groundwater levels, reducing urban heat islands, controlling greenhouse gasses and mitigating
floods.
Types of Carbon
Purple Carbon captured through the air or Black Carbon released through burning of fossil
industrial emissions fuels
Blue Carbon stored in ocean plants and Grey Carbon released through Industrial
sediments emissions
Teal Carbon stored in freshwater and wetland Brown Carbon released by incomplete combustion
environments of organic matter
Green Carbon stored in Terrestrial plants Red Carbon released through biological particles
on snow and ice that reduce albedo
Ø Integrated Ocean Energy Atlas = Recently launched by Indian National Centre for Ocean
Information Services (INCOIS) + The atlas covers Indian EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone),
which extends 200 nautical miles beyond a nation's territorial sea + Atlas consists of marine
meteorological energy sources like solar and wind, and hydrological energy forms such as
waves, tides, currents, ocean thermal, and salinity gradients + It provides annual, monthly, and
daily energy estimates via a WebGIS interface.
• Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) = Established in 1999
+ It is an autonomous organization under the Ministry of Earth Sciences + Mandate: To
provide various ocean information and advisory services to support various ocean-based
activities and decision-making in India + Headquarter: Hyderabad.

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 Ø IndOBIS = IndOBIS stands for Indian Ocean Biodiversity Information System + It is the only
Indian regional node of Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS) + It has been developed,
facilitated, and is being run by Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology (CMLRE).
• Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology (CMLRE) = Established in 1998 + It
is a premier research institution under the Ministry of Earth Sciences + It is dedicated to
studying, advancing marine science, and sustainably managing marine living resources in
India + Ocean Eyes is a mobile application developed by CMLRE for Real-time reporting of
observations.
• Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS) = It is originated from the Census of
Marine Life (2000-2010) + It was established by Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission (IOC) of UNESCO + It is supported by a network of nearly 30 regional nodes
(including India’s IndOBIS i.e. Indian Ocean Biodiversity Information System) + It provides
detailed information on species distribution across the world’s oceans, including data on their
occurrence, habitats, and environmental parameters + It is now an integral component of the
International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange (IODE) of IOC.
Ø Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH) = The Union Cabinet recently
approved the continuation of IDWH scheme for the 15th Finance Commission cycle (2021 to
2026) + IDWH was launched in 2008-09 as a centrally sponsored umbrella scheme of the
Ministry of Environment + Components include-support to protected areas (national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries, conservation reserves and community reserves), protection of wildlife
outside protected areas and recovery programs for saving critically endangered species and
habitats + Till now, 22 species have been identified under the Species recovery program + Sub-
schemes Under IDWH includes: (1) Project Tiger (1973): It benefits a total of 55 Tiger Reserves
spread across 18 tiger range states, distributed in 5 landscapes of the country. It also supports the
ambitious Project Cheetah in the country; (2) Development of Wildlife Habitats:
Implementation of Project Dolphin and Project Lion; (3) Project Elephant (1992): Aimed at
protecting elephants, their habitat, & corridors to address issues of human-animal conflict and
welfare of captive elephants (Implemented in 22 elephant range states/UTs + Project Tiger and
Project Elephant schemes have been merged w.e.f. FY 2023-24 and now known as Project
Tiger & Elephant.
Ø Nagar Van Yojana (NVY) = Launched in 2020 to emphasise on urban forestry + It aims to
develop 1000 Nagar Vans and 400 Nagar Vatikas by 2027 with the financial support from
National CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority)
Fund + Nagar Van areas range from a minimum of 10 ha to 50 ha. + Each Nagar Van must have
at least 2/3rd of its area under tree cover and will feature components like Biodiversity Parks,
Smriti Vans, Butterfly Conservatories, and Herbal Gardens and now Matri Van created under
Ek Ped Ma Ke Naam + Scheme provides financial assistance of Rs. 4 lakh per hectare for the
creation and maintenance of these urban forests + Scheme covers all cities with Municipal
Corporations, Municipalities and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) + It encourages the involvement
of citizens, students, and other stakeholders in the creation and management of these green
spaces + Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) is nodal ministry.
Ø National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) = Recently, apex Tiger Conservation
Authority NTCA asked 19 States to ‘prioritise’ the removal of residents from core tiger zones +
NTCA was established in 2005 as a statutory body constituted under the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 (2006 amendment) following the recommendations of the Tiger Task Force +
Composition: the Union Environment Minister (Chairperson), Minister of State in MoEFCC
(Vice-Chairperson), 3 Members of Parliament, Secretary (MoEFCC), and other members +
Nodal agency is the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change + NTCA conducts a
comprehensive country-level assessment of the status of tigers, co-predators, prey, and habitat
every four years + NTCA is a nodal agency for the Cheetah Translocation project + Presently,
there are 55 tiger reserves in India across 19 States.

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 • Core Zones and Buffer Zones = These are areas within a biosphere reserve, national park or
tiger reserve that are designed to protect the natural environment + Tiger reserves are constituted
on a core/buffer strategy + The “core zone” refers to the portion in a tiger reserve where human
activities, hunting and collecting forest produce are strictly banned + Core areas have the legal
status of a national park or a wildlife sanctuary + These areas are notified by the State
Government in consultation with an Expert Committee + “Buffer Zone” is a concentric circle
outside the core zone is called the “buffer zone” where these restrictions are eased but regulated
+ It aims at promoting coexistence between wildlife and human activity with due recognition of
the livelihood, developmental, social and cultural rights of the local people + It allows limited
human activity for research and education purposes.
Ø India-Germany Platform for Investments in Renewable Energies Worldwide = It is an
initiative under Green and Sustainable Development Partnership (GSDP) + It was signed in 2022
between India & Germany + It aims to develop concrete & sustainable solutions for accelerated
expansion of renewable energy in India and Globally + It will serve as an international forum
for stakeholders from across globe to develop solutions to support India in attaining goal of 500
GW non-fossil energy capacity by 2030 + Recently, India-Germany Platform for Investments in
Renewable Energies Worldwide was launched at 4th Global Renewable Energy Investors Meet
and Expo (RE-INVEST) + RE-INVEST is organized by Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy.
Ø Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) = CDRI was announced by the Indian
PM at the UN Climate Action Summit 2019 held in the USA + Since its launch, 31 Countries, 6
International Organizations and 2 private sector organizations have joined CDRI as members.
Its other founding members include: Australia, Bhutan, Fiji, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Maldives,
Mexico, Mongolia, Rwanda, Sri Lanka and the UK + It is a voluntary international grouping,
linking governments, UN agencies, banks, private sector groups, and academia to develop the
resilience of infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks + It is 2nd major coalition
launched by India outside the UN, after the International Solar Alliance (ISA) + India is member
of CDRI and its secretariat is in New Delhi + UK was confirmed as the first co-chair of the
Governing Council on the India-led global Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
+ CDRI is co-chaired by India and a representative of another national government nominated
by rotation every 2 years + Recently, Cabinet approved Ratification of the Headquarters
Agreement (HQA) between India and CDRI for granting CDRI exemptions, immunities and
privileges as contemplated under Section- 3 of United Nations (Privileges & Immunities) Act,
1947 + Signing of HQA will provide CDRI an independent and international legal persona, so
that it can carry out its functions internationally, more efficiently + HQA will allow CDRI to
depute experts, deploying funds globally, providing technical assistance to member countries
and Leveraging international engagement to foster disaster resilient infrastructure at home.
Ø Air Quality Management Exchange Platform (AQMx) = It is a one-stop-platform which
provides the latest air quality management guidance and tools proposed to meet WHO Air
Quality Guidelines interim targets + It is a component of Climate and Clean Air Coalition
(CCAC) + It contributes to implementation of UNEP-6 Resolution to increase regional
cooperation and action on improving air quality globally + Recently, CCAC launched an AQMX
in the context of International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies (7 September) + It is led by UN
Environment Programme (UNEP) with the theme ‘Invest in Clean Air Now’.
• Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) = Found in 2012, it is the only international
body working to reduce short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) such as methane, black
carbon, hydrofluorocarbons that drive both climate change and air pollution + India is a
CCAC Partner since 2019 + It is a voluntary global partnership of governments,
intergovernmental organizations, businesses, scientific institutions, and civil society
organizations working to reduce SLCPs that have a significant impact on climate change and
public health.

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 • Short Lived Climate Pollutants (SLCPs) = Also known as Super Pollutants, SLCPs are a
group of greenhouse gases and air pollutants that have a near-term warming impact on
climate and can affect air quality + SLCPs include black carbon, methane, ground-level
ozone, and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) + They are also known as Super Pollutants + Short
lived climate pollutants are responsible for up to 45% of current global warming.
• Clean Air Conference 2024 = Annual meeting held on the sidelines of the 6th session of
the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA-6) + took place in Nairobi, Kenya.
Ø Food Recovery to Avoid Methane Emissions (FRAME) Methodology = It is a tool designed
to quantify and mitigate the environmental impact of food loss and waste through food recovery
and redistribution + Developed in 2023 by The Global Food Banking Network (GFN) in
collaboration with the Global Methane Hub and the Carbon Trust + It provides for calculating
the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that can be avoided by redirecting food destined for
landfills to human consumption + The FRAME system was first piloted in Mexico and Ecuador
with six community-run food banks + Please Note: Food Waste Index Report is published on
every 3 years by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
• Global Food Banking Network (GFN) = Launched in 2006 + GFN is a global not-for-profit
organization dedicated to alleviating world hunger through food banking + It aims to nourish
the world’s hungry through uniting and advancing food banks.
Ø Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) = Also referred to as the Indian Niño, it occurs because of
differences in sea-surface temperature (SST) + IOD condition occurs when the SST of the
western region of the Indian Ocean alternately becomes abnormally colder and then abnormally
hotter than the eastern region + Types of IOD: (1) Positive IOD means warmer sea surface
temperatures in the western Indian Ocean and cooler temperatures in the eastern Indian Ocean.
It leads to a stronger monsoon season over the Indian subcontinent and causes drier conditions
in parts of Australia due to reduced rainfall. The situation is vice-versa in the Negative IOD
phase; (2) Negative IOD means cooler sea surface temperatures in the western Indian Ocean
and warmer temperatures in the eastern Indian Ocean; (3) Neutral IOD is an average sea surface
temperature in both regions without significant anomalies + Indian Niño can neutralise or worsen
the impact of El Niño/La Niña depending on which phase it is in + IOD develops in the equatorial
region of the Indian Ocean from April to May and peaks in October.
Ø El Niño = It is a climate pattern associated with the warming of the ocean surface temperatures
in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean + Name derived from the Spanish words for
"little boy" or "Christ child" + El Nino is NOT a regular event and generally occurs on average
every 2 to 7 years + It occurs more frequently than La Nina + During an El Nino event, the Sea
Surface Temperatures (SST) in the equatorial Pacific Ocean off the northern coast of South
America became 5-10 degrees C warmer than the long-term average + El Niño represents an
extension of the warm equatorial current, which temporarily displaces the cold Peruvian or
Humboldt current + El-Nino Causes: Intense droughts in Australia, Indonesia, India, and
southern Africa, Weakening of the monsoon circulation over the Indian subcontinent, Heavy
rainfall in places like California, Ecuador, and the Gulf of Mexico, and Strong convective storms
and hurricanes to the central Pacific.
• El Niño Modoki = It is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the tropical Pacific + It is
different from another coupled phenomenon in the tropical Pacific namely, El Niño + It is
associated with strong anomalous warming in the central tropical Pacific and cooling in the
eastern and western tropical Pacific + It causes warm moist conditions in the Central Pacific and
dry cold conditions in the Eastern and Western Pacific + This phenomenon is leading to an
increase in the frequency of cyclones in the Arabian ocean.
• El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) = ENSO is an irregularly periodic variation in winds and
sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean + Though ENSO is a single
climate phenomenon, it has 3 phases: (1) El Niño (warming phase) – A warming of the ocean
surface or above-average sea surface temperatures (SST), in the central and eastern tropical
Pacific Ocean. It leads to drought and deficient rainfall in Asia; (2) La Niña (cooling phase) –
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 A cooling of the ocean surface or below-average sea surface temperatures (SST), in the central
and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean; (3) Neutral: Neither El Niño nor La Niña + Often tropical
Pacific SSTs are generally close to average.
• La Niña = La Niña or “Little Girl” is the opposite of El Niño, representing periods of cooling of
sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean + La Niña events
typically occur every 2 to 7 years and can last from several months to two years + It generally
strengthens the Indian monsoon and increases cyclonic activity in the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea + It leads to drier conditions in the Southern U.S. and heavy rainfall in Canada + La
Niña is the Cool Phase of a larger phenomenon called the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
and El Niño is the Warm Phase of ENSO.
• Triple dip La Niña = It is a rare event that occurs when the La Niña effect lasts 3 years in a row
+ Recent triple-dip La Niña conditions (2020–2023) had widespread impacts on the ocean and
climate across the globe.
• Oceanic Niño Index = It is the primary indicator for monitoring the ocean part of the seasonal
climate pattern called the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or “ENSO” + It tracks the running 3-
month average sea surface temperatures (SST) in the east-central tropical Pacific between 120°-
170°W, near the International Dateline + Index values of +0.5 or higher indicate El Niño and
values of -0.5 or lower indicate La Niña + This index also tracks whether they are warmer or
cooler than average.
Ø Gold Nuggets in Orogenic Quartz Veins = Gold nuggets are naturally occurring pieces of gold
formed through erosion and contain 75 to 97 % gold + Most nuggets originate from the quartz
veins formed in orogenic (a large-scale geological process that creates mountains) gold systems
found around the world + Recently, A study explained the reasons behind the accumulation of
gold nuggets in orogenic quartz veins in mountainous areas.
Ø Aerobiology = It is the study of the movement and impact of airborne biological particles, or
bioaerosols, on human, animal, and plant health + Bioaerosols include bacteria, fungal spores,
pollen grains, viruses + Bioaerosols reflect changes in biodiversity, plant flowering patterns and
distribution; all of which are sensitive to climate shifts + New observational techniques are high-
resolution image analysis, holography, multi-band scatterometry, fluorescence spectrometry and
nanotechnology for DNA sequencing.

2) SCHEMES
Ø RESET Programme = The Retired Sportsperson Empowerment Training Programme +
Objective is to empower India’s eminent retired sports persons + Aimed at up-skilling,
employability and career development of retired athletes + For pilot project, Lakshmibai
National Institute of Physical Education (LNIPE) is implementing the Programme + Eligible
sportspersons or athletes are those aged between 20-50 years, winners of an International
Medals, participants in international events, National medallists/State medallists, participants in
competitions recognized by National Sports Federations/Indian Olympic Association/Ministry
of Youth Affairs and Sports + It will be a hybrid programme with a combination of portal based
self learning and on-ground training and internship + Recently launched by the Union Minister
of Youth Affairs & Sports and Labour & Employment on the occasion of National Sports Day
(29th August).
Ø SPICED Scheme = Recently approved by the Union Ministry of Commerce and Industry +
Aimed to enhance the export of spices and value-added spice products along with the increasing
productivity of cardamoms and upgrading the post-harvest quality of spices across India for
export + Scheme is to be implemented until 2025-26 + The Spice Board of India oversees the
promotion and export of a wide range of spices including.
Ø BHASKAR Initiative = DPIIT (Ministry of Commerce and Industry) launched Bharat Startup
Knowledge Access Registry (BHASKAR) initiative + Launched under the Startup India program

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 aimed at strengthening India’s startup ecosystem + It is a platform designed to centralize,
streamline, and enhance collaboration among key stakeholders within entrepreneurial
ecosystem, including startups, investors, etc + Its primary goal is to build world’s largest digital
registry for stakeholders within startup ecosystem.
Ø NIDHI Programme = Stands for National Initiative for Development and Harnessing
Innovations (NIDHI) + It is an umbrella program launched in 2016 + It aims at nurturing ideas
and innovations (knowledge-based and technology-driven) into successful startups + It is
pioneered by the Department of Science & Technology (DST), GoI + Components of
programme: NIDHI- PRAYAS, NIDHI Entrepreneurs-In-Residence (EIR) Program, NIDHI
Seed Support Program, NIDHI Accelerator + It is funded by the National Science & Technology
Entrepreneurship Development Board (NSTEDB).
Ø VisioNxt Initiative = VisioNxt is a Fashion Forecasting portal of the National Institute of
Fashion Technology (NIFT) developed under Ministry of Textiles + It combines AI and
Emotional Intelligence to forecast fashion trends + It is bilingual in nature and aims to provide
India-specific fashion trend insights and reduce dependence on global forecasting agencies.
Ø SAMRIDH Scheme = Launched in 2021, it is a flagship programme for startups acceleration
under National Policy on Software Products (2019) + It aims to support 300 software product
startups with outlay of ₹99 crore over a period of 4 years + It is being implemented by MeitY’s
Start-up Hub (MSH), Digital India Corporation (DIC) + Ministry of Electronics and Information
Technology is nodal agency.
Ø Bio-RIDE Scheme = Launched by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) under the Ministry
of Science and Technology + Biotechnology Research Innovation and Entrepreneurship
Development (Bio-RIDE) scheme combines 2 existing schemes: (1) Biotechnology Research
and Development (R&D) and (2) Industrial and Entrepreneurship Development (I&ED), with a
news component i..e. (3) Biomanufacturing and Biofoundry + It aims to foster research,
innovation, and entrepreneurship in biotechnology, positioning India as a global leader in this
field + Objective is to make India a USD 300 billion bioeconomy by 2030 + Implementation
period is during the 15th finance Commission period (2021-22 to 2025-26).
Ø NAMASTE Scheme = It is the National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem launched
in 2022 + Central Sector Scheme + Self-Employment Scheme for Rehabilitation of Manual
Scavengers (SRMS) has been renamed as the NAMASTE + It targets Zero fatalities in sanitation
work in India and all sanitation work is performed by skilled workers + It intends to profile all
SSWs across the country to create a central database + It is a joint initiative of the Ministry of
Social Justice & Empowerment (MoSJE) and the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
(MoHUA) + Under the scheme, Five hundred cities (converging with AMRUT cities) will be
taken up + It is implemented by the National Safai Karamchari Financial Development
Corporation (NSKFDC) for the period 2022-26 + The scheme extends the Ayushman Bharat
Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY) benefits to sanitation workers + Please Note:
Rashtriya Garima Abhiyaan is an another national campaign for dignity and eradication of the
practice of manual scavenging and rehabilitation of manual scavengers.
Ø PM e-DRIVE Scheme = Cabinet has approved ₹10,900-cr. scheme for adoption and promoting
e-mobility + PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE)
scheme aims to encourage EV adoption and infrastructure development + It has replaced the
flagship Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME)
programme + The scheme will run from October 1, 2024, to March 31, 2026 under the
jurisdiction of the Ministry of Heavy Industries + Major components of the PM E-DRIVE
Scheme include incentives for EVs (e-2Ws, e-3Ws, e-ambulances, e-trucks), installation of
public charging stations, e-bus procurement via CESL, and modernization of test agencies for
green mobility.
Ø PM-eBus Sewa Scheme = Under the PM-eBus Sewa Scheme, 10,000 e-buses will be deployed
across cities in the country + Moreover, city bus operations will be done on a Public Private
Partnership (PPP) model + This scheme will support bus operations for 10 years + States/Cities
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 shall be responsible for running the bus services and making payments to the bus operators +
The Central Government will support these bus operations by providing subsidies to the extent
specified in the proposed scheme + Implementing agency: Convergence Energy Services
Limited (CESL) + Nodal agency: Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs.
Ø Digital Bus Initiative = Launched in 2017 to provide digital education and access to remote
areas of India + It is a joint venture between the National Digital India Mission and the NIIT
Foundation (Education NGOs) + Buses are solar-powered, 5G-enabled and are fully furnished
classrooms with computers, Internet, and camera/video capabilities, with preinstalled e-courses,
all available free of cost.
Ø Voluntary Vehicle Modernization Program (V-VMP) = It is also known as Vehicle Scrapping
Policy + Launched by the Union Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) in 2024+
V-VMP aims to phase out unfit polluting vehicles across the country through a network of
Registered Vehicle Scrapping Facilities (RVSFs) and Automated Testing Stations (ATSs) +
Under this, multiple commercial and passenger vehicle manufacturers would offer discounts for
a period of 2 years and 1 year respectively against a Scrappage Certificate + V-VMP prevents
the re-registration of vehicles that are older than a certain age, which is 20 years for cars and 15
years for commercial vehicles + Previous Vehicle Scrapping Policy was announced in 2021 to
gradually phase out the vehicles older than 15-20 years to reduce air pollution, improve road
safety, and boost vehicle sales.
Ø Plan for Reliability Improvement and Maintenance Effectiveness (PRIME) = Initiative of
Indian Railways to enhance the reliability and maintainability of its signalling systems + It
targets the reduction of signal failures + It will focus on the replacement of outdated signalling
assets and regular staff training on safety and maintenance protocols.
Ø Centralised Pension Payment System (CPPS) = The Union Labour Ministry has approved a
CPPS for pensioners under the Employees’ Pension Scheme, 1995 + It is a new system that
enables pension payments through any bank or branch across the country + With the new system,
pensioners no longer need to transfer their Pension Payment Orders (PPOs) when they relocate
or change their bank or branch + It will be operationalised as part of EPFO’s ongoing IT
modernisation project Centralised IT Enabled System (CITES 2.01) from January 1, 2025.
Ø Unified Pension Scheme (UPS) = UPS is a minimum guaranteed pension scheme mainly
targeted at unorganised sector workers + UPS is to be implemented from April 1, 2025 + It aims
to give an ‘Assured Pension’ of 50% of average basic pay over the last 12 months prior to
retirement for employees with 25+ years of service + Unlike the market-dependent NPS, UPS
provides a guaranteed pension amount, a minimum pension, increased government contribution,
fixed family pension, and a lump sum payment at superannuation + UPS gives ‘Assured Family
Pension’, which is 60% of the pension that the employee was drawing before their death +
Employees can choose between UPS and NPS starting from the upcoming financial year; the
choice is final once made + It will include proportionate benefits for 10-25 years of service +
Same amount of pension is guaranteed for the spouse for life after the subscriber's death + It
includes Assured Minimum Pension of ₹10,000 per month for employees with at least 10 years
of service + Government contribution will be 18.5% of basic pay and DA, increased from 14%
under the National Pension System (NPS) + One-tenth of the last drawn monthly pay (including
DA) for every 6 months of completed service, in addition to gratuity will be Lump Sum Payment
on Superannuation + Central government employees with at least 10 years of service are eligible
for UPS + Only one member of a family can join the scheme + Employee Contribution will be
10% of basic pay and Dearness Allowance (DA) (same as under NPS) + Pensions are indexed
to inflation and Dearness Relief (DR) based on the All India Consumer Price Index for Industrial
Workers (AICPI-IW).
Ø NPS Vatsalya Scheme = Announced in the Union Budget 2024-25 as a Centrally sponsored
scheme + It is an extension of the existing National Pension Scheme (NPS) with specific focus
on children + The initial investment can be made of Rs. 1000/- per year with child’s name +
Subscriber needs to make a minimum contribution of Rs 1000/- per annum with no limit on the
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 maximum contribution + All minor citizens up to the age of 18 are eligible to open an account,
including NRIs and OCIs + Account is opened in the name of the minor and managed by their
guardian until the child become major (18+ year) + On attaining the age of majority, the plan
can be converted seamlessly into a normal NPS account + Pension will come from the account
only after they turn 60 + In the case of a subscriber's death, the entire corpus is given to the
nominee, usually the guardian + In case of death of both parents, a legal guardian can manage
the account without further contributions until the child turns 18 + Contribution under scheme is
beneficial under section 80C and section 10(14) of income tax Act in terms of tax exemptions +
Permanent Retirement Account Number (PRAN) cards will be issued to newly registered minor
subscribers + Scheme is regulated and administered by the Pension Fund Regulatory and
Development Authority (PFRDA).
Ø Fast Track Immigration-Trusted Travellers' Programme (FTI-TTP) = Aims to speed up the
immigration clearance process for eligible persons at select major airports through electronic
gates + Bureau of Immigration under the Ministry of Home Affairs is the Nodal Ministry +
Implemented in 2 phases-In the 1st phase, Indian citizens and OCI cardholders are covered and
in the 2nd phase, foreign travellers will be covered + It covers 21 major airports in the country
+ The FTI-TTP was inaugurated at Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi in June 2024.
Ø National Health Mission (NHM) = NHM was launched in 2013 by subsuming the National
Rural Health Mission (2005) and the National Urban Health Mission (2013) + Main program
components include Health System Strengthening (RMNCH+A) in rural and urban areas-
Reproductive-Maternal- Neonatal-Child and Adolescent Health, and Communicable and Non-
Communicable Diseases + It envisages the achievement of universal access to equitable,
affordable and quality healthcare services that are accountable and responsive to the needs of the
people + Major initiatives under NHM are Accredited Social Health Activists, National
ambulance services, Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram, Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram,
Free drugs and free diagnostic service, National Mobile Medical Units, PM National Dialysis
Programme, Ayushman Bharat, and Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY) + It is
implemented by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
• National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) = It was launched in 2005 for equitable,
affordable and quality health care to the rural population, especially the vulnerable groups +
It targets cities and towns with populations below 50,000. The above 50000 population is
covered by the National Urban Health Mission + The basic objectives of NRHM are
reduction in infant mortality rate and maternal mortality rate, ensuring population
stabilisation, prevention and control of communicable and non-communicable diseases, and
upgrading AYUSH for the promotion of a healthy lifestyle + Under the NRHM, the
Empowered Action Group (EAG) States, as well as the North Eastern States, Jammu and
Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh have been given special focus + The Ministry of Health and
Family Welfare is the nodal ministry for the NRHM.
Ø Bharat 6G Alliance = Launched by Department of Telecommunications under Ministry of
Communications in 2023 + It is a collaborative platform that aims to lead the development and
deployment of 6G technology in India + Key objective is to achieve universal and affordable
connectivity, promote indigenous technology, and establish India as a global leader in the
telecom sector + B6GA consists of public and private companies, academia, research
institutions, and standards development organizations + 6G is the successor of 5G with ability
to use higher frequencies (Sub-6 GHz and 95 GHz to 3 THz (Terahertz)) with greater speed (Up
to 1,000 Gbps) and lower latency (1 millisecond) + Significance of 6G: Support high-
performance computing, edge computing, Technology Convergence etc.
Ø Mission Mausam = Recently, the Union cabinet has approved 'Mission Mausam' with an outlay
of Rs 2,000 crore over the next two years (2024-2026) + Aim to enhance India’s weather and
climate research, forecasting and modelling capabilities by 2026 + Ministry of Earth Sciences is
the nodal body implementing the mission + Three institutes of the Ministry of Earth Sciences:
the India Meteorological Department, the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, and the
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 National Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting will primarily implement Mission
Mausam + It will establish a network of 50 Doppler Weather Radars, additional observation
stations, and research facilities + Critical elements of the mission include: deploying ‘next-
generation radars’ and satellite systems with advanced sensors and high-performance
supercomputers, developing improved earth-system models and a GIS-based automated
Decision Support System for real-time data dissemination.
Ø National Monsoon Mission = Launched in 2012 by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) +
Aim to improve monsoon prediction and intra-seasonal monsoon forecasts in India + Mission
uses models to provide forecasts for short-range (1–10 days), medium-range (10–30 days), and
seasonal (up to one season) time periods + Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) in
Pune is responsible for executing and coordinating the mission.
• Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) = Established in 1962 as an autonomous
institute of the Ministry of Earth Sciences + It is a scientific institution in India for expanding
research in the tropical Indian Ocean with special reference to monsoon meteorology, and
air-sea interaction of South Asian climate + Based in Pune, Maharashtra.
Ø Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS) Scheme = It is an initiative of the Ministry of Earth
Science launched in 2021 + Under this, India Meteorological Department (IMD) in collaboration
with State Agricultural Universities/Indian Council of Agricultural Research disseminated crop
and location-specific weather based agro advisories to the farmers + Scientists and researchers
trained in meteorology and agriculture were recruited as DAMU staff.
• District Agro-Meteorology Units (DAMUs) = DAMUs were established by India
Meteorological Department (IMD) in 2018 in collaboration with the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) + It was located within Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) and
mandated to disseminate advisories of IMD weather data such as rainfall, temperature, wind
speeds in local languages twice a week along with providing guidance + DAMUs were closed in
March 2024, now IMD is considering reviving them under the Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa
(GKMS) scheme to continue supporting farmers effectively.
Ø White Revolution 2.0 = Recently, Union Home and Cooperation Minister launched the standard
operating procedure (SoP) for ‘White Revolution 2.0’ + It is an initiative to increase milk
production along with empowerment of women and the fight against malnutrition + Scheme
aims to increase milk procurement by dairy cooperatives from 660 lakh kg per day in 2023-24
to 1,007 lakh kg by 2028-29 + Funding will be provided by the National Programme for Dairy
Development (NPDD) 2.0 + New plan will build on existing the Dairy Processing and
Infrastructure Development Fund (DIDF) and the National Programme for Dairy Development
(NPDD) + Moreover, Margdarshika (SoPs) has been launched to form 200,000 new
multipurpose primary agricultural cooperatives (MPACs).
• White Revolution = Also known as Operation Flood, was an initiative in 1970 that
transformed India into one of the world’s largest milk producers + It was spearheaded by Dr.
Verghese Kurien (Father of the White Revolution) + A "National Milk Grid" was established
to link milk producers with customers in more than 700 cities and villages across the nation
+ Every year on November 26th, India observes National Milk Day, which is the birth
anniversary of Dr. Varghese Kurien.
• National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) = NDDB is (statutory body) institute of
national importance established by an act of the Indian Parliament in 1965 + It was founded
by Dr Verghese Kurien (‘India’s milkman’) + Kurien was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay
Award (1964), the World Food Prize (1989), and Padma Vibhushan (1999) for his
contributions + Nodal agency of NDDB is the Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry +
Its operations and programs are focused on bolstering farmer-owned institutions, as well as
supporting national policies that encourage the expansion of such organisations + Its most
notable achievement is Operation Flood (White Revolution), which lasted 26 years and
transformed India into the world's greatest milk producer + Headquartered in Anand, Gujarat.

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 Ø Smart Precision Horticulture Programme = It is an initiative of the Union Ministry of
Agriculture + The programme will cover 15,000 acres of land from 2024-25 to 2028-29 + It aims
to benefit around 60,000 farmers + The Centre also has set up 22 Precision Farming
Development Centres (PFDCs) to test and modify farming technologies according to local
conditions + Currently, the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund (AIF) has provisions for financing
infrastructure projects for smart and precision agriculture + Union Ministry of Agriculture is also
planning a Smart Precision Horticulture Programme under the existing Mission for Integrated
Development of Horticulture (MIDH) scheme.
Ø Vibrant Village Programme (VVP) = Ministry of Home Affairs + It was announced in the
Budget Speech 2022 + VVP is aiming at enhancing infrastructure in villages along India's
border with China, in states like Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Arunachal Pradesh +
Activities under the VVP include building infrastructure such as housing, tourist centres,
road connectivity, providing decentralised renewable energy, direct-to-home access for
Doordarshan and educational channels, and support for livelihood generation + Vibrant
Village Action Plans will be formulated by the district administration in collaboration with
Gram Panchayats.
Ø PM-AASHA Schemes = The Union Cabinet recently approved the continuation of schemes of
the Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay SanraksHan Abhiyan (PM-AASHA) + Launched in 2018,
PM-AASHA is an umbrella scheme aimed at ensuring remunerative prices to the farmers for
their produce + It encompasses three major schemes: (1) PM’s MSP (Minimum Support Price);
(2) Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi; and (3) Agri-Market Infrastructure Fund + Nodal
agency is the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare + Key components of PM-AASHA
consist of:
• Price Deficiency Payment Scheme (PDPS): Compensates farmers when market prices fall
below the MSP. The central government covers the difference, limited to 15% of MSP. All
oilseeds fall under the purview of PDPS.
• Price Support Scheme (PSS): Provides market intervention to purchase crops directly at
MSP. Food Corporation of India (FCI) and the National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing
Federation of India (NAFED) will be instrumental in implementing the scheme.
• Price Stabilisation Fund (PSF) = Central Sector Scheme + Nodal agency is Department of
Agriculture Cooperation & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture + Objective of the PSF
was to safeguard the interest of the growers and provide them financial relief when prices
fall below a specified level + To support market interventions for price control of perishable
agri-horticultural commodities
• Market Intervention Scheme (MIS): It focuses on managing price volatility through
strategic purchases.
Ø Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY) = PMKKKY was launched by
the Ministry of Mines in 2015 + Aim to minimise the impacts of mining on the people in mining
districts with developmental welfare programmes of the State and central governments and
ensure long-term sustainable livelihoods + District Mineral Foundations (DMFs) in each district
implement the PMKKKY using funds accruing to DMF + At least 60% of the funds are to be
spent on high-priority areas, such as drinking water supply, education, health care, and more.
The remaining 40% can be spent on other priority areas, such as physical infrastructure,
irrigation, and energy development + Recently, the PMKKKY scheme entered its tenth year on
September 16, 2024.
Ø Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) = PMJDY was launched in 2014 under the
Ministry of Finance + It aims to promote financial inclusion by providing access to various
financial services such as basic savings & deposit accounts, remittance, credit, insurance,
pension, etc. + Applicants should be an Indian national and aged between 18 and 59 years to be
eligible + Accounts opened under PMJDY can be opened with zero balance, and no minimum
balance requirement + RuPay debit card will be given to the account holders under this scheme

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 + Scheme has provisions of accident insurance up to ₹2 lakh and life insurance up to ₹30,000
for eligible first-time account holders + It also provides overdraft facility up to ₹10,000 to one
account per household + PMJDY accounts are eligible for Direct Benefit Transfers (DBT),
Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY), Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana
(PMSBY), Atal Pension Yojana (APY), and the Micro Units Development & Refinance Agency
Bank (MUDRA) scheme + Government has a target to open an additional 3-crore PMJDY
accounts in FY 2024-25.
Ø National Industrial Corridor Development Programme (NICDP) = The National Industrial
Corridor Development Programme began with the launch of Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor
(DMIC) in 2007 + Plans to create Smart Cities with the development of 14 corridors + The
National Industrial Corridor Development Corporation (NICDC) oversees 11 industrial corridors
in various stages of development + The union Cabinet has recently approved 12 new Industrial
nodes/cities under National Industrial Corridor Development Programme + These industrial
areas will be located in Khurpia in Uttrakhand, Rajpura-Patiala in Punjab, Dighi in Maharashtra,
Palakkad in Kerala, Agra and Prayagraj in UP, Gaya in Bihar, Zaheerabad in Telangana, Orvakal
and Kopparthy in AP and Jodhpur-Pali in Rajasthan.
Ø Saarthi App = Launched by Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) + It is a reference
application designed to assist businesses in creating their own customised buyer-side apps + It
was launched in collaboration with Bhashini, India's Artificial Intelligence (AI)-led language
translation platform + It includes real-time translation, transliteration, and voice recognition
technology.
• Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) = It is an open-source network set up in
2021 + It enable buyers and sellers to transact with each other irrespective of the e-commerce
platform on which either of them are registered + Aim: To promote open networks for all
aspects of exchange of goods and services over digital or electronic networks + It is an
initiative of the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) under the
Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
Ø Invest India = It is National Investment Promotion and Facilitation Agency of India +
Established in 2009 under Section 25 of the Companies Act 1956 + It acts as the first point of
reference for investors in India + It facilitates and empowers all investors under the ‘Make in
India’ initiative to establish, operate, and expand their businesses in India + It provides sector
and specific state inputs and other support to investors throughout the entire investment cycle +
It is under the aegis of the DPIIT (Ministry of Commerce and Industry) + Headquarter: New
Delhi + Recently, the Ministry of Commerce and Industries announced that the Start-up India
initiative will be moved out of the aegis of Invest India to a new non-profit company that could
also house the National Start-up Advisory Council.
Ø INDIAsize Initiative = It is an initiative by the Ministry of Textiles to develop standard body
sizes for the Indian apparel sector + Present brands available in India use measurements from
the US or the UK for garments + It will serve as a benchmark for Indian and international fashion
brands selling in India.
Ø India Graphene Engineering and Innovation Centre (IGEIC) = It is a not-for-profit company
registered under Section 8 of the Companies Act, 2013 + It is exclusively incorporated to create
a hub of excellence in Graphene technology commercialization + It will focus on applications in
electronics, energy storage, healthcare, material coating, conveyance systems and sustainable
material development + Recently, Union Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology
(MeitY) launched IGEIC under the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047 + Its R&D centre is setup in
Trivandrum (Kerala) and Corporate & Business Development hub in Bangalore (Karnataka).
Ø India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) = Launched in 2021 with a total financial outlay of Rs
76,000 crore + It aims to provide financial support to companies investing in semiconductors,
display manufacturing and design ecosystem + ISM has been set up as an Independent Business
Division within Digital India Corporation + ISM has all the administrative and financial powers
and is tasked with the responsibility of catalysing the India Semiconductor ecosystem in
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 manufacturing, packaging and design + Mission is part of the comprehensive program for the
development of sustainable semiconductor and display ecosystems in the country + 4
Components of ISM: (1) Scheme for setting up of Semiconductor Fabs in India: Provides fiscal
support to eligible applicants for setting up of Semiconductor fabrication; (2) Scheme for setting
up of Display Fabs in India: Provides fiscal support to eligible applicants for setting up of Display
fabrication; (3) Scheme for setting up of Compound Semiconductors/Silicon Photonics/Sensors
Fab and Semiconductor Assembly, Testing, Marking and Packaging (ATMP) / OSAT facilities
in India: Provides a fiscal support of 30% of the Capital Expenditure to the eligible applicants
for setting up of Compound Semiconductors/ Silicon Photonics (SiPh)/Sensors (including
MEMS) Fab and Semiconductor ATMP/ OSAT (Outsourced Semiconductor Assembly and
Test) facilities in India; (4) Design Linked Incentive (DLI) Scheme: It offers financial incentives,
design infrastructure support across various stages of development and deployment of
semiconductor design for Integrated Circuits (ICs), Chipsets, System on Chips (SoCs), Systems
& IP Cores and semiconductor linked design + ISM will serve as the nodal agency for efficient,
coherent and smooth implementation of the schemes + Mission is under the aegis of the Ministry
of Electronics and IT (MeitY).
Ø INSPIRE – MANAK Programme = Million Minds Augmenting National Aspiration and
Knowledge is a flagship scheme of the Department of Science and Technology (DST), GoI + It
aims to inspire students in the age group of 10-15 years and studying in classes 6 to 10 to study
science and pursue research careers + Scheme is jointly implemented by DST and the National
Innovation Foundation (NIF) – India.
Ø Vishvasya-Blockchain Technology Stack = Recently launched by the Ministry of Electronics
and Information Technology (MeitY) + Blockchain Technology Stack refers to the layers of
technologies needed to build and operate a blockchain + Vishvasya offers Blockchain-as-a-
Service (BaaS) using a distributed infrastructure to support permissioned blockchain
applications + BaaS is a cloud-based service where third parties provide infrastructure and tools
to build and use blockchain applications without needing to develop or maintain the blockchain
themselves + It is part of the National Blockchain Framework which aims to utilize blockchain
in areas like health, agriculture, and finance while addressing adoption challenges +
Applications: e-Stamps Solution, Judiciary Application, Forensic Application, Health data and
tracking, Consent Management Framework, etc.
Ø Vigyan Dhara Scheme = Recently, the Union Cabinet approved the merger and continuation of
3 schemes under the umbrella of a unified scheme ‘Vigyan Dhara’ + Department of Science and
Technology (Ministry of Science and Technology) is the Nodal Ministry + It is a Central Sector
Scheme with timeline of 2021-22 to 2025-26 + It is aimed at enhancing India’s R&D ecosystem,
S&T capacity building and improving the Full-Time Equivalent (FTE) researcher count, bring
gender parity in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) + It will also promote research,
innovation and technology development towards strengthening the Science, Technology and
Innovation ecosystem in India + The research and development component of the scheme will
be aligned in line with the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) + 3
Schemes/components under Vigyan Dhara are: (1) Science & Technology Institutional and
Human Capacity Building; (2) Research and Development; and (3) Innovation, Technology
Development & Deployment.
Ø Cyber Commandos Programme = The central government announced the plan to train and
prepare 5,000 ‘Cyber Commandos’ over the next five years to tackle the rising cybercrime threats
+ It aims to bolster India’s cyber defence capabilities and a special wing of trained 'Cyber
Commandos' in States/UTs and Central Police Organizations (CPOs) will be established to
counter threats of cyber security + The Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal ministry.
Ø Anubhav Portal: On the direction of the Prime Minister, the Department of Pension &
Pensioners’ Welfare (DoPPW) launched an online platform entitled ‘Anubhav’ in 2015 + Aimed
at creating a rich repository of knowledge and wisdom to serve as a foundation stone for future
administrative reforms and good governance practices.
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 • Anubhav Awards = Anubhav awards started in 2016 to motivate retiring government
employees to share their experiences + Anubhav Awards 2024 (7th in Series) was held on
August 28, 2024, at Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi + It offered 2 levels of recognition: Anubhav
Awards (A medal, a certificate, and an incentive of Rs. 10,000) and Jury Certificates (A
medal and a certificate) + It was notable for its highest-ever representation of women
awardees at 33% indicating growing role in governance + Award categories included
Administrative Work, Good Governance, Research, Simplification of Procedures, Accounts,
Field Work Contributions, and Constructive Feedback for Work Improvement.
Ø PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana = Launched in February 2024 + In this scheme, the central
government will provide 300 units of free electricity per month to its beneficiaries +It aims to
light up 1 crore households + Subsidy has been capped at 3 kW capacity + Under the scheme,
Urban Local Bodies and Panchayats shall be incentivised to promote rooftop solar systems in
their jurisdictions + Central Government will guarantee no financial burden on the people by
providing significant subsidies directly to their bank accounts and offering highly concessional
bank loans + Scheme has an outlay of ₹75,000 crore and is to be implemented till FY 2026-27
+ Nodal agency is Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.
Ø Jal Sanchay Jan Bhagidari Initiative = Recently launched initiative from Surat, Gujarat +
Ministry of Jal Shakti is the nodal ministry + It is based on the success of the Jal Sanchay
initiative of Gujarat Government that dealt with the mobilization of citizens, local bodies,
industries and other stakeholders + It seeks to conserve water with emphasis on community
partnership and ownership + It aims to construct around 24,800 rainwater harvesting structures
through community participation, for long-term water sustainability across the state.
Ø Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0 = It was launched in 2014 by the Ministry of Housing and Urban
Affairs + Aimed to achieve universal sanitation coverage, eliminate open defecation, effective
waste management across urban and rural areas of India + Components of the mission are the
construction of toilets, behavioural change campaigns and Solid waste management + SBM-
Urban (Implemented by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs) and SBM-Gramin (Rural
component implemented by the Ministry of Jal Shakti) + Swachh Bharat Kosh (SBK) has been
set up to facilitate and channel individual philanthropic contributions and Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) funds to achieve the objective of Clean India (Swachh Bharat) + The
National Air Quality Index (AQI) was launched in New Delhi, in 2014 under the Swachh Bharat
Abhiyan.
• Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban): SBM-U 2.0 is a 5 year program launched in 2021 to
make all cities in India "garbage-free" by 2026 + Implemented over 5 years, from 2021 to
2026 + It aims to go beyond being open defecation-free to focusing on making urban India
garbage-free and proposing sustainable solutions and practices for waste management +
Focus areas of the mission are - Faecal sludge management and wastewater treatment, Source
segregation of garbage, Reduction in single-use plastic, Reduction in air pollution and
Bioremediation of all dump sites + ODF, ODF+ and ODF++ Protocol are initiatives under
SBM(U) to ensure the sustainability of open defecation-free status by focusing on toilet
maintenance and effective sewage management + Water+ Protocol under SBM(U) is
designed to ensure that no untreated wastewater is discharged into the open environment or
water bodies + Swachh Survekshan Awards are instituted under the Swachh Bharat Mission
(Urban).
• Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin): SBM (G) will be implemented from 2020-21 to 2024-
25 in a mission mode + It focuses on maintaining the open defecation-free status, managing
solid and liquid waste in rural India, and constructing household toilets + It also addresses
liquid waste management + The GOBARdhan Scheme is being implemented as part of the
Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin).
Ø Lakhpati Didi Initiative = Launched on August 15, 2023 + It is not a scheme but an output of
the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) scheme

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 (under Ministry of Rural Development) + A "Lakhpati Didi" is a member of a SHG who has
successfully achieved an annual household income of Rupees 1 Lakh or more. This income is
calculated for at least 4 agricultural seasons and/or business cycles, with an average monthly
income exceeding Rs. 10,000 + Initiative aimed at training women in self-help groups (SHGs)
so that they can earn a sustainable income of at least Rs 1 lakh per annum per household +
Initiative encourages women to start micro-enterprises within their villages to ensure economic
empowerment + Government has a target to create 3 crore women Lakhpati Didis by 2025 +
Nodal ministry: Ministry of Rural Development.

3) INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Ø United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) = UNICEF was created in 1946 as the
International Children’s Emergency Fund (ICEF) by the UN Relief Rehabilitation
Administration to help children affected by World War II + Became a permanent part of the
United Nations (UN) System in 1953 + Later, its name was changed to United Nations Children's
Fund (still referred to UNICEF) + United Nations Economic and Social Council (UN ECOSOC)
is parent organisation of UNICEF + It is guided by the Convention on the Rights of the Child,
1989 and works in over 190 countries and territories with 7 regional offices + It is mandated by
the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) to advocate for the protection of children's rights,
to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities for reaching their full potential
+ It relies entirely on voluntary contributions from governments and private donors +
Headquartered in New York, U.S + UNICEF began its work in India in 1949 with an office in
New Delhi + Ministry of Women and Child Development is Nodal ministry + Reports Released
by UNICEF: Child Nutrition Report 2024; Climate Crisis Is a Child Rights Crisis (Introduces
the new Children’s Climate Risk Index), etc + UNICEF is governed by an Executive Board,
consists of 36 members for a 3 year term by the UN ECOSOC + UNICEF was awarded the
Nobel Prize for Peace in 1965 for the “promotion of brotherhood among the nations”.
Ø UN Summit of the Future (2024) = Recently, the United Nations (UN) Summit of the Future
(SoTF) took place on September 22-23 in New York, USA + Theme of the SoTF 2024: ‘Summit
of the Future: Multilateral Solutions for a Better Tomorrow’ + The UN SoTF is aimed at
reforming and strengthening international governance + Note: SoTF is not an annual event of
UN + SoTF event brings UN Member States, UN agencies, non-governmental organisations
(NGOs), civil society organizations (CSOs), academic institutions, the private sector, and youth
together + Summit concluded with the adoption of: (1) Pact for the Future – aimed at
accelerating Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement for climate action;
(2) Global Digital Compact – promotes equitable access to technology, ensuring it benefits
everyone; (3) Declaration on Future Generations – focuses on long-term thinking by urging
current decision-makers to consider the interests of future generations + India supported the
UN’s Pact for the Future and initiatives on AI governance, and digital cooperation.
• Pact of the Future = It was adopted by the World leaders at the UN Summit for the Future
+ Pact promises to reform the UN Security Council + The Pact is the first UN summit
document to address Security Council reform in detail with the aim of accelerating SDGs
and the Paris Agreement for climate action + It includes commitments to a just transition
from fossil fuels and ensuring a sustainable and peaceful future + It prioritises redressing
historical injustices, especially for Africa, and improving representation for regions like
Asia-Pacific and Latin America + The reforms aim to make the UN Security Council more
representative, inclusive, transparent, efficient, effective, democratic, and accountable.
• Global Digital Compact (GDC) = GDC is an international non-binding diplomatic
instrument recently adopted at the UN’s "Summit of the Future", 2024 to harness and regulate
digital technologies for the common good + It aims to create a digital future that is open,
secure, and inclusive for all + It has the objective of ensuring human oversight of digital
technologies while promoting sustainable development and addressing challenges posed by

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 digitalization + GDC is part of the UN Secretary-General's "Our Common Agenda" report +
It aligns its objectives with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and the UN
Agenda + GDC will also include Digital Public Goods that will include open-source
software, open data, open Al models, adherence to privacy and best practices + To meet
compact goals, UN member countries have committed to establish two panels: (1)
Independent International Scientific Panel on AI; and (2) Global Dialogue on AI
Governance.
Ø Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) = AOSIS is an intergovernmental organisation of low-
lying coastal and small island countries + It was established in 1990, ahead of the Second World
Climate Conference (1990) + Main purpose of the alliance is to consolidate the voices of Small
Island Developing States (SIDS) to address global warming + It primarily functions as an ad-
hoc lobby and negotiating voice for SIDS through the United Nations (UN) system + It’s 39
members are among the least responsible nations for climate change, having contributed less
than 1% to the world's GHGs emissions + It has no regular budget, permanent secretariat or
formal charter + Headquarter: New York.
Ø Coffee Club (Uniting for Consensus) = It is a movement developed in the 1990s that aims to
counter the bids for permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) proposed
by G4 nations (Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan) + Under the leadership of Italy, it is supported
by China, Argentina, and Pakistan, among others + The reason for opposition is that increasing
the number of permanent members could lead to decreased efficiency and effectiveness in
decision-making within the UNSC.
Ø L.69 = L.69 is a pro-reform grouping that consists of 42 developing nations from Asia, Africa,
Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Pacific (Small Island Developing States) + The countries
were united by a common objective to achieve a comprehensive reform of the UNSC and
strengthen multilateralism + India is a member and leading country in L.69 + Mission of India
serves as the Secretariat for the meetings of the L.69 Group of Developing Countries.
Ø Yogyakarta Principles = It is a document about human rights in the areas of sexual orientation
and gender identity + It was published in 2006 as the outcome of an international meeting of
human rights groups in Yogyakarta, Indonesia + Under Yogyakarta Principles plus 10, more
principles were supplemented in 2017 + However, the Principles have never been accepted by
the United Nations (UN) and the attempt to make gender identity and sexual orientation new
categories of non-discrimination has been repeatedly rejected by the General Assembly, the UN
Human Rights Council and other UN bodies.
Ø GlobE Network = Recently, India was elected to the GlobE Network’s Steering Committee
during the plenary session held in Beijing + Global Operational Network of Anti-Corruption
Law Enforcement Authorities (GlobE Network) was launched in 2021 + It is a platform that
helps law enforcement agencies work together to tackle corruption and financial crimes + It is a
G-20 initiative and supported by India since 2020 + It is governed by its members and supported
by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) + Currently, it has 121 member
countries (including India) and 219 authorities + It is open to UN Member States and states that
are parties to the UN Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) + Secretariat is provided by
UNODC + The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is the central authority in India, with the CBI
and Enforcement Directorate (ED) as member authorities.
Ø Council of Europe (CoE) = An Intergovernmental organisation formed in 1949 with 46
members (Japan, the U.S, EU bloc countries etc.) + Mission is to promote democracy, human
rights and the rule of law across Europe and beyond + India is NOT a member + Headquarters:
Strasbourg, France + Recently, Council of Europe (COE) Framework Convention on Artificial
Intelligence (AI) and human rights, democracy and the rule of law, the first legally binding
international treaty on AI, was opened for signature. CoE Framework Convention on AI covers
AI systems used by public authorities and private actors.
Ø Bletchley Declaration = The Bletchley Declaration is an international agreement signed by 28
countries, including the UK, US, China, and several EU member states at Bletchley Park,
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 England + India has also signed the declaration + It establishes a shared understanding of the
opportunities and risks posed by frontier AI and the need for global cooperation to address these
challenges + Frontier AI refers to highly capable foundation generative AI models that can
produce realistic outputs, such as text, images, audio, or video, on demand.
Ø QUAD = Quad, formally Quadrilateral Security Dialogue is a plurilateral framework comprising
India, Australia, Japan, and the USA + It brings together these four countries with a shared
commitment to work as a force for global good and to support an open, free, and inclusive Indo-
Pacific that is prosperous and resilient + Quad Leaders' Summits and Foreign Ministers'
Meetings are held on an annual basis + Leaders of the Quad group of countries recently met at
their sixth summit-level meeting at Archmere Academy, Delaware, USA + India will host the
next Quad Leaders’ Summit in 2025 + Initiatives Launched at Sixth Summit-Level Meeting –
• Wilmington Declaration = It refers to a joint statement made by the leaders of the QUAD
nations (Australia, India, Japan, and the United States) during their meeting in Wilmington,
Delaware in 2023 + It is regarding China's (declaration didn’t named China directly)
aggressive behavior in the Indo-Pacific region + It addresses global conflicts like the war in
Ukraine and the humanitarian crisis in Gaza, advocating for peace and international
cooperation.
• Quad Cancer Moonshot = It aims to reduce the burden of cancer in the Indo-Pacific region
+ It will involve contributions from all Quad countries to combat cervical cancer + India will
commit $10 million towards screening for the disease + Serum Institute of India and GAVI
will provide up to vaccines for the region, subject to approvals.
• Maritime Initiative for Training in the Indo-Pacific (MAITRI) = It was launched to help
regional partners effectively utilise tools from the Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness
(IPMDA) and other Quad initiatives + India will host the first MAITRI workshop in 2025.
● Mineral Security Partnership (MSP) = It is a US-led global alliance to secure supply
chains of critical minerals, aimed at reducing dependency on China + India Joined in 2023 +
It includes 14 countries and the European Union, which collectively account for over 50%
of Global GDP + Investments by MSP are not limited to projects in MSP partner countries
+ The alliance wants to make sure that essential minerals are produced, processed, and
recycled in a way that promotes nations' ability to realise the maximum economic
development advantage of their geological endowments + The focus would be on the supply
chains of minerals such as Cobalt, Nickel, Lithium and also the 17 “rare earth” minerals +
There is no global definition of critical minerals, but essentially, they are mineral deposits
with high economic vulnerability and high global supply chain risk.
• MSP Finance Network = An initiative of the Minerals Security Partnership + it is a joint
financing body designed to fund critical minerals projects across the globe + Objectives: To
unite institutions from the Indo-Pacific region and Europe to strengthen cooperation, promote
information exchange and co-financing among participating institutions, with the aim of
advancing diverse, secure, and sustainable supply chains for critical minerals + Recently,
India joined the US-led Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) Finance Network to secure
sustainable supply chains for critical minerals.
Ø BRICS = BRICS is a group of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa + Recently, it was
expanded to include Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, and the UAE + It aims to promote peace, security,
development and cooperation in the world + First BRIC summit was held in 2009 in Russia + It
became BRICS after being formally joined by South Africa in 2010 + The notion behind the
coinage of BRICS was that the nations' economies would come to collectively dominate global
growth by 2050 + Group together represents about 42% of the population, 23% of GDP, 30% of
the territory and 18% of the global trade + BRICS Leaders’ Summit is convened annually +
Chairmanship of the forum is rotated annually among the members, in accordance with the
acronym B-R-I-C-S + Russia hosted the 16th BRICS Summit in October 2024 + Sixth BRICS
Summit in Fortaleza (2014) the leaders signed the Agreement establishing the New Development

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 Bank (NDB), headquartered in Shanghai (China) + Recently, the BRICS group was expanded to
include Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE as full-fledged members from 1
January 2024.
• New Development Bank (NDB) = Formerly referred to as the BRICS Development Bank,
it was formed in 2014 by BRICS members under the Fortaleza Declaration + It is a
multilateral development bank with headquarters in Shanghai, China + Primary focus is on
financing infrastructure projects, along with supporting public or private projects through
loans, guarantees, equity participation and other financial instruments + The initial
authorised capital bank is 100 billion dollars and an initial subscribed capital of 50 billion
dollars + Membership in NDB is open to any member of the United Nations + Unlike the
World Bank, which assigns votes based on capital shares, here each participant country will
be assigned one vote, and no country will have veto power + The first regional office of the
NDB has been opened in Johannesburg, South Africa and the second in São Paulo, Brazil
(2019) + Egypt was the 4th new member admitted into the NDB, after Bangladesh, the
United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Uruguay.
Ø African Union (AU) = Continental body consists of the 55 member states/countries of the
African Continent + Officially launched in 2002 by replacing the Organization of African Unity
(OAU), which was founded in 1963 + Aims to strengthen political, and socio-economic
integration among African countries, with a vision of achieving an integrated, prosperous, and
peaceful Africa + In 2023, the AU was made a permanent member of the G20 with India’s
support/presidency + At the 37th African Union Summit member countries took the initiative of
forming the Africa Club + Headquarters: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
• Africa Club = It is the Alliance of African Multilateral Financial Institutions (which are African-
owned and controlled) launched at the African Union summit + Initiative aims to enhance
Africa's influence in the global financial system.
• Ezulwini Consensus and Sirte Declaration = Both are related to the African Union's (AU)
position on reforming the UNSC + Ezulwini Consensus is the AU's common position on UNSC
reform, which calls for Africa to have at least two permanent seats and five non-permanent seats
on the UNSC + The Sirte Declaration reiterated the need for at least 2 permanent seats and 5
non-permanent seats for African states on the UNSC.
• Common African Position (CAP) = It is a set of positions adopted by the African Union (AU)
on various issues + It emphasises a multi-sectoral approach, integrating efforts across health,
education, water, sanitation, and hygiene sectors to tackle the root causes of Neglected Tropical
Diseases (NTDs).
• C-10 Group = It is a Committee of 10 Heads of State and Government of the African Union
(C10), comprising 10 African nations + Members of C-10: Algeria, Botswana, Cameroon, Egypt,
Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, the Central Bank of West African States (CBWAS), and
the Central Bank of Central African States (CBCAS) + C-10 focuses on UNSC reform,
advocating for better representation of Africa and pushing the Common African Position (CAP)
based on the Ezulwini Consensus and Sirte Declaration.
Ø Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons (TENW) = TENW is the first legally binding
international agreement that comprehensively prohibits the development, testing, production,
transfer, stationing and possession of nuclear weapons + TENW or Ban Treaty was adopted by
the UN Conference in 2017 + Treaty came into force in 2021 due to efforts of the International
Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) + For this, ICAN received the Nobel Peace
Prize in 2017 + At present, 86 member-states have signed the Treaty, and 51 of them have ratified
it + The US, Russia, China, Britain, France, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel (countries
possessing nuclear weapons) and the NATO alliance did not take part in the negotiation or vote
+ India believes that the treaty does not constitute or contribute to the development of customary
international law, nor does it set any new standards or norms + India supports the commencement
of negotiations on a Comprehensive Nuclear Weapons Convention in the Conference on
Disarmament, which is the world’s single multilateral disarmament negotiating forum working

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 on the basis of consensus + While NPT bans proliferation and nuclear disarmament; TENW goes
beyond to ban non-civilian nuclear use including deterrence. However, TENW lacks a robust
enforcement mechanism.
Ø Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 1968 = The treaty was signed in 1968 and entered into force
in 1970 + Treaty defines nuclear weapon states (NWS) as those that had manufactured and
detonated a nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967 + All the other states are considered
non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS) + It is aimed at preventing the proliferation of nuclear
weapons and technology, prohibition of acquisition of nuclear weapons by non-nuclear states
and promotion of cooperation in the field of peaceful nuclear technology + It represents a binding
commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by nuclear-weapon States +
Israel, India and Pakistan have never signed it + North Korea withdrew from the Treaty in 2003
+ NPT Review Conference is held every 5 years to review the operation of the treaty and consider
means to strengthen it + The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) verifies Non-NWS
(NNWS) compliance with commitments under the NPT not to acquire nuclear weapons + Article
III of IAEA requires non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS) to conclude agreements with IAES to
safeguard all nuclear materials in all peaceful nuclear activities.
Ø REAIM (Responsible AI in the Military Domain) Summit 2024 = The 2nd REAIM summit
(1st took place in 2023 in The Hague, Netherlands) has begun in Seoul (South Korea) + REAIM
was announced as a legally non-binding "Blueprint for Action" to govern responsible use of AI
in the military + It focuses on setting global norms and guidelines for the ethical and responsible
use of AI in military use +It aims to address the implications of AI in warfare + It is being co-
hosted by Kenya, the Netherlands, Singapore, and the United Kingdom + India has been
observing but not actively participating.
Ø Indian Ocean Commission (IOC) = An intergovernmental organisation created in 1984 by the
Port-Louis Declaration in 1982 + Aim to protect the interests of the Western Indian Ocean
islands + IOC is the only regional organisation in Africa composed exclusively of islands, which
brings together five member states: Union of Comoros, Réunion (French overseas territory),
Madagascar, Mauritius, and Seychelles + It has five observers: India (2020), China, the European
Union (EU), Malta and the International Organisation of La Francophonie (OIF) + Headquarter:
Ebene, Mauritius + IOC lends depth to India’s SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the
Region) policy unveiled in 2015.
Ø Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) (PYQ 2015) = It is an international organisation
consisting of 23 states bordering the Indian Ocean + Genesis of IORA came from a speech
Nelson Mandela gave in Delhi in 1995 + Later, it was formed in 1997 (then called the Indian
Ocean Region Association for Regional Cooperation) in Mauritius + IOR aims to maintain the
Indian Ocean as a “free, open and inclusive space” with “respect for sovereignty and territorial
integrity” based on the UN Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS) + IORA membership
is based on consensus + Members of IORA include Australia, Bangladesh, Comoros, France,
India, Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique,
Oman, Seychelles, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Thailand, the UAE
and Yemen + Pakistan has not been a member to the grouping since it first applied in 2001 (since
it has not extended Most Favored Nation status to India) + China is a dialogue partner in the
IORA + Secretariat of IORA: Ebene, Mauritius.
Ø G4 (Group of Four) = The G4 nations, comprising Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan support
each other's bids for permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) + While
G7 focuses on economic cooperation, the G4's primary aim is permanent membership to the
seats on the Security Council + G4 nations traditionally meet on the sidelines of the annual high-
level UN General Assembly session + Reforms proposed by G4 and L.69 Group are opposed by
groups like Uniting for Consensus (the Coffee Club).
Ø India-Australia: Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (ECTA) = Signed in 2022
between India and Australia for cooperation in economic and commercial relations through
institutional mechanisms + Impact on Exports, Post ECTA signing: Indian exports of apparel to
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 Australia increased by over 20%, iron and steel by 25%, and agriculture exports by 30% while
85% of Australian goods exports by value to India are now tariff free. This will be raise to 90%
by 1 January 2026 + Impact on Imports, Post ECTA signing: 96% of imports from India are now
tariff free and will be raise to 100% by 1 January 2026. [Mentioned in Editorial, The Hindu]
Ø India-Singapore Relations = Singapore is India’s largest trade partner in ASEAN; it’s India’s
6th largest trade partner (2023-24) + Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement
(CECA) resulted in enhanced bilateral trade (India is a net importer) + India signed Direct Tax
Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) with Singapore in 2016 to check tax evasion + Bilateral
exercises ⇒ Exercise Agni Warrior (Army), Exercise SIMBEX (Navy) and Air Force Exercise
Joint Military Training (JMT) + RuPay card & UPI-Paynow Linkage are landmark developments
in the area of cross-border Fintech + India and Singapore are part of multilateral groups like the
East Asia Summit, G20, Commonwealth, IORA (Indian Ocean Rim Association) and IONS
(Indian Ocean Naval Symposium) + Singapore has joined the International Solar Alliance and
Global Biofuel Alliance + Both countries cooperate and support on the Indo-Pacific Economic
Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) + Ethnic Indians constitute about 9.1 % of the resident
population in Singapore + Among the 1.6 million foreigners residing in Singapore, about 1/5th
are Indian citizens + Tamil is one of the four official languages of Singapore.
• India-Singapore Comprehensive Strategic partnership: Recently, Prime Minister of India
visited Singapore + Strategic Partnership established in 2015 was elevated to Comprehensive
Strategic Partnership + India and Singapore signed 4 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
in the fields of digital technologies, semiconductors, health cooperation and skill
development + MoU on India-Singapore Semiconductor Ecosystem Partnership aims to
foster cooperation in semiconductor cluster development, talent cultivation and advanced
manufacturing; especially developing resilient supply chains.
Ø Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) = IPOI is a non-treaty-based voluntary arrangement that
promotes cooperation for a free and open Indo-Pacific and the rules-based regional order + It
was launched by India in 2019 at the East Asia Summit (EAS) in Bangkok (Thailand) + It aims
to create new partnerships with like-minded countries through practical cooperation + For that,
it builds upon India’s ‘Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR)’ initiative of 2015
+ Recently, the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI) completed 5 years.
• SAGAR: It aims to have inclusive development with economic assistance and maritime security
concerns on a common platform + Respecting international maritime laws and norms.
Ø TAPI Project = Started in mid-1990s, it is designed
to transport natural gas extracted from the
Galkynysh gas field in southeastern Turkmenistan
+ It spans 1,800 kms from Turkmenistan to
Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India + It is expected to
transport approximately 33 billion cubic meters of
natural gas annually + Asian Development Bank
(ADB), acting as the transaction adviser, is
financing the project + Recently, Afghanistan and
Turkmenistan officials jointly inaugurated
Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) gas pipeline project on Turkmenistan side and
Afghanistan said to begin work on TAPI pipeline.
Ø Operation Sadbhav = Launched by India in 2024 to provide humanitarian assistance and
disaster relief (HADR) to Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam which have been hit by severe flooding
caused by Typhoon Yagi + Please Note: Operation Sadbhavana (which is different from
Operation Sadbhav) was launched in 2023 by the Indian Army in Ladakh to address the
aspirations of people affected by terrorism sponsored and abetted by Pakistan.
Ø IBSA Group = IBSA is a trilateral, developmental initiative between India, Brazil and South
Africa + It promote South-South cooperation and exchange + It was formalised and named the
IBSA Dialogue Forum by the Foreign Ministers in Brasilia (Brazil) in 2003 under the Brasilia
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 Declaration + IBSA does not have a headquarters or a permanent executive secretariat + The
IBSA Fund is a special feature of the IBSA collaboration + 5 IBSA Leadership Summits have
been held so far. The 5th was held in Pretoria (South Africa) in 2011 and the 6th was hosted by
India in 2021 + Brazil assumed the rotating presidency of the IBSA Dialogue Forum on March
2, 2023 + IBSAMAR (IBSA Maritime Exercise) is an important part of IBSA trilateral defence
cooperation.
• IBSA Fund = IBSA Fund (IBSA Facility for Poverty and Hunger Alleviation 2004) is a
Fund for the execution of development projects in developing countries + It is managed by
the United Nations (UN) Office for South-South Cooperation (UNOSSC) + Each IBSA
member country is required to contribute USD 1 million per annum to the fund + In February
2024, India contributed USD 1 million to a fund established by IBSA.
Ø Swiss Peace Process = Launched in 2023, the Swiss peace process refers to diplomatic efforts
to resolve the Russia-Ukraine conflict, with Switzerland acting as a neutral ground + The 1st
Summit in Switzerland produced a joint communique focusing on humanitarian access and
nuclear safety but lacked direct participation from Russia and Ukraine + India attended the
summit but did not sign the joint communique + The second Summit is scheduled for November
2024.
Ø Pacific Policing Initiative (PPI) = It is the Australian funded initiative recently endorsed by the
Pacific Islands forum (PIF) + PPI is designed to elevate the law enforcement capabilities of
Pacific nations, including law and order challenges and internal security threats + PPI aligns with
the Pacific Islands Forum's 2050 Strategy for the Blue Pacific Continent.
• Pacific Islands forum (PIF): Founded in 1971, PIF has 18 members across Pacific Ocean
+ It is the region’s premier political and economic policy organization + It works towards a
Pacific Vision of peace, harmony, and prosperity
Ø China’s Global Development Initiative (GDI) = GDI is building on 2030 SDGs for Stronger,
Greener and Healthier Global Development + t is a multilateral development initiative proposed
by China’s Xi Jinping in 2021. He identified GDI as a way to achieve the SDGs for 2030 + It
has also been named as a "twin engine" together with the Belt and Road Initiative.
• China’s Global Security Initiative (GSI) = GSI is an initiative proposed by China’s
Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping during the annual Boao Forum in 2022 + As
an element of China’s security policy, it aims to contribute to global peace and stability by
promoting fairness and justice among nations + Principles outlined by the GSI are long-
standing elements of China's security policy.
• China’s Global Civilization Initiative (GCI) = GCI was announced by Xi Jinping in his
keynote speech to the Chinese Communist Party High-Level Dialogue with World Political
Parties + China’s GCI is alongside the previously announced Global Development Initiative
(GDI) and Global Security Initiative (GSI).
Ø International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI) = It is an autonomous,
independent and non-political organization + It operates as an umbrella organization for the
external government audit community + It has special consultative status with the Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC) of the United Nations + It works to promote auditing standards, good
governance of SAIs, and SAI independence, among other work + Comptroller and Auditor
General (CAG) of India is India’s SAI.
• Supreme Audit Institutions (SAIs) = SAIs are independent national public oversight
institutions responsible for the audit of government revenue and expenditure + The
Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) and the Indian Audit and Accounts
Department (IAAD) functioning under him constitute the SAI of India + They also conduct
performance audits to scrutinize the efficiency, effectiveness, or economy of government’s
undertakings + Almost every SAI from a UN-member country is a member of the
International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI).

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 • Asian Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (ASOSAI) = It is one of the Regional
Groups of the International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions + It was established
in 1979 with 11 members, now the membership has grown to 48 + The first Assembly and
Governing Board meeting was held in New Delhi, India + India is holding the current chair
of ASOSAI + Recently, 16th ASOSAI assembly was organised by the Comptroller and
Auditor General (CAG) of India in New Delhi.
Ø International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) = IFRC is a
worldwide humanitarian aid organisation formed in 1919 + It carry out relief operations to assist
victims of disasters of its member National Societies + It is part of the International Red Cross
and Red Crescent Movement along with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
and 191 National Societies + Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland + Indian Red Cross Society is
a member of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.
• International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) = Humanitarian organization based in
Geneva, Switzerland + Mandated to protect victims of international and internal armed
conflicts, including war wounded persons, prisoners, refugees, civilians, and other non-
combatants + It is a three-time Nobel Prize laureate (1917, 1944, and 1963) + It is a part of
the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, along with the IFRC.

4) S&T
Ø Lunar Glass Beads = Lunar glass beads are tiny, glossy spheres found on the moon's surface +
They form when molten rock, expelled during volcanic eruptions or created by the high
temperatures of meteorite impacts, cools quickly in the vacuum of space, solidifying into glass-
like structures + The glass beads’ atoms are composed of silicon, magnesium, and iron with trace
amounts of potassium, titanium, and uranium, arranged in a haphazard manner + Recent analysis
of glass beads collected by the Chang'e-5 mission indicates some of these beads as recently as
120 million years ago + Age of lunar glass beads can be determined using techniques such as
uranium-lead radiometric dating.
Ø Quasars (J0529-4351)= Acronym of "Quasi-Stellar Radio Source” + They are the active
galactic nuclei with bright cores of distant galaxies powered by supermassive black holes + Best
known for their luminosity in the known Universe + However, they cannot be seen with an
unaided eye due to their great distance from Earth + They emit radio waves, visible light, UV
rays, infrared waves, X-rays, and gamma-rays + Recently, astronomers discovered the brightest
quasar ever observed (Named J0529-4351) using European Southern Observatory's (ESO) Very
Large Telescope (VLT).
Ø Saturn’s Rings = They are completely composed of chunks of water ice of varied size and about
30 feet total thickness + They’re named alphabetically in order of their discovery + Main Saturn's
rings are A, B, and C + Scientists observed that the Saturn’s rings will briefly ‘disappear’ from
view in 2025, possibly because of Saturn’s tilt and an optical illusion + Please Note: Other
planets with rings are Jupiter and Uranus.
Ø SpaceX Polaris Dawn Mission = Recently, private astronaut mission of SpaceX returned off
the coast in Florida safely + Polaris Dawn is set to be the first non-governmental mission to
conduct a spacewalk, reaching an unprecedented altitude of approximately 700 kilometres (435
miles) above Earth + Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule of SpaceX are used for the mission +
Mission involves orbiting through the Van Allen Belts + Spacecraft will travel in an elliptical
orbit, reaching altitudes from 190 km to 1,400 km, farther than humans have gone since NASA’s
Apollo missions (1972) to the Moon + The Crew Dragon capsule will not dock with the
International Space Station (ISS), therefore the weather had to be favourable during both the
launch and splashdown phase + It will focus on researching the effects of space radiation on
human biology + Mission will investigate Decompression Sickness (DCS), a condition caused
by nitrogen gas bubbles damaging human tissue + Mission also includes studying its impact on

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 eyesight and brain structure and addressing risks such as Spaceflight Associated Neuro-ocular
Syndrome (SANS).
• “Pre-breathe” Protocol = Prebreathe protocol involves breathing pure oxygen for a total of 2
hours and 20 minutes and includes a short period of high-intensity exercise at the beginning of
the pre-breathe procedure + Days before the spacewalk, the crew will begin a “pre-breathe”
process to fill the cabin with pure oxygen and remove any nitrogen from the air.
• Van Allen Belt = Van Allen Belts are two zones of charged particles streaming mainly from the
Sun that surround Earth and are held in the magnetosphere: (1) Inner Belt = It is located
approximately 680 to 3,000 km above Earth’s surface + It is primarily composed of high-energy
protons. It is formed by cosmic rays interacting with Earth’s atmosphere; (2) Outer Belt = It is
located about 15,000 to 20,000 km above Earth’s surface + It mainly consists of high-energy
electrons captured from the solar wind; + Belts contain high levels of radiation which can cause
radiation sickness, damage human tissues, and increase the risk of cancer.
Ø GOES-16 Satellite = GOES-R Series is the next generation of geostationary weather satellites
+ Operated by NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) +
GOES-16 is the first of the GOES-R series of Geostationary Operational Environmental
Satellites (GOES) + It was launched in 2016 and designed life is up to 2026 + GOES-16's
Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) is the first operational lightning mapper flown in
geostationary orbit + GOES-16 instrument suite consists of Earth sensing, solar imaging, and
space environment measurement payloads + There are 4 satellites in the series: GOES-R, GOES-
S, GOES-T, and GOES-U.
Ø BepiColombo Mission = Launched 2018 + Joint European Space Agency (ESA) and Japan
Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) mission to Mercury + It aims to study Mercury's surface,
composition, magnetic field, and its interaction with the solar environment + Components: (1)
JAXA’s Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) for mapping and studying Mercury's surface,
composition and topography; (2) ESA’s Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO) for studying
Mercury's magnetic field and magnetosphere + Spacecraft is expected to enter Mercury’s orbit
by late 2026 + BepiColombo recently made its closest flyby of Mercury + Please Note:
BepiColombo is the 2nd mission ever to orbit Mercury (after NASA’s Messenger, 2004).
Ø Soyuz MS-26 = Soyuz MS-26 is a Russian three-crewed Soyuz space flight launched from
Baikonur Cosmodrome in 2024 to the International Space Station + The Baikonur Cosmodrome
is the largest operational space launch facility (in terms of area) operated by Russia in
Kazakhstan + All Russian crewed space flights are launched from Baikonur + The mission is
planned for 180 days i.e. till March 2025.
Ø Chamran-1 = Iran + It is Iran’s recently launched research satellite which aims to test hardware
and software systems for orbital manoeuvre technology + It was carried into space by Iran’s
Qaem100 rocket.
Ø TRISHNA Mission = Thermal Infra-Red Imaging Satellite for High-Resolution Natural
Resource Assessment (TRISHNA) is a joint mission between India and France + The satellite
will be launched in 2026 + It uses thermal infrared imaging to provide high-resolution data for
monitoring natural resources + Applications: Climate change assessment, agricultural
management, drought forecasting, and urban heat island monitoring.
Ø Wood Wide Web = It is a term used by scientists for the network of communication of trees,
bacteria, fungi and other plants (similar to the internet) + In case of fungi, they are underground
fungal threads (mycelium) connecting plant roots and enabling them to share nutrients and
communicate through chemical signals + This subterranean network is nearly 500 million years
old + Recently, an international study produced the first global map of the "mycorrhizal fungi
networks".
Ø Natural Language Processing (NLP) = It is a branch of AI that focuses on enabling computers
to understand, interpret, and respond to human language + It combines linguistics with computer
science to allow machines to process and analyse large amounts of natural language data, like
text or speech + NLP works by breaking down language into smaller parts, like words and
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 sentences, and then analysing these parts using algorithms + It involves tokenization (splitting
text into words), parsing (understanding grammar), and sentiment analysis (detecting emotions)
+ Siri, Alexa, and customer service bots are common examples of NLP.
• Quantum Natural Language Processing (QNLP) = QNLP merges quantum computing
with natural language processing (NLP) to address model complexity and interpretability
challenges faced by classical NLP + QNLP incurs lower energy costs than conventional
LLMs by leveraging quantum phenomena + It requires fewer parameters than traditional
LLMs, which potentially reduces energy consumption and improves computational accuracy
+ QNLP models better understand both syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (meaning)
simultaneously thereby addressing the issues of misinterpretations. Thus, it requires less
training time and data + It can offer insights into how language processing occurs in the
human mind, leading to more sophisticated models.
Ø Generative AI (Gen-AI) = Generative AI, or generative artificial intelligence, is a form of
artificial intelligence (AI) in which algorithms automatically produce content in the form of text,
images, audio, and video + Unlike traditional AI systems that are designed to recognize patterns
and make predictions, Gen-AI creates new content + It is powered by foundation models (large
AI models) that can multi-task and are trained on massive amounts of data + It works by using
a Machine Learning (ML) model to learn the patterns and relationships in a dataset of human-
created content. It then uses the learned patterns to generate new content.
• Quantum Generative Model (QGen) = A QGen model generates or analyses time-series
data using quantum computing techniques + It is designed to handle complex time-series
data with fewer parameters, improved pattern identification and anomaly detection +
Researchers in Japan developed a QGen AI model effective with both stationary and non-
stationary data + Stationary data refers to information that doesn’t change much over time.
It stays fairly constant or fluctuates around a stable average. The current price of a
commodity like gold or the world’s population can be considered stationary + Non Stationary
data keep changing, such as ambient temperature, stock prices, and the GDP.
Ø OpenAI o1 = OpenAI has introduced a new AI model called OpenAI o1 as part of its “Project
Strawberry.” + It is a new large language model (LLM) trained with reinforcement learning to
perform complex reasoning + The model “thinks” before responding, similar to human problem-
solving processes + The o1 series is designed to excel in reasoning, tackling complex tasks in
science, coding, and maths.
Ø Robotic Mules = The Robo-Dogs, known as MULES (Multi-Utility Legged Equipment) are
robotic units designed in the shape of dogs + developed by the Indian Army's research and
development teams + It is a high-endurance, agile and durable all-weather ground robot for use
in a broad range of environments for defence applications + It can operate in extreme
temperatures (−40 to 55 degrees Celsius) and is able to walk up to 3 years + It can carry 15 kg
of payload and has a firing platform + It is equipped with sensors for object recognition,
including electro-optics and infrared + Equipment can be used on Wi-Fi or Long-Term Evolution
(LTE) + Recently, the Indian Army has inducted 100 robotic mules to enhance logistics in high-
altitude areas.
Ø Pagers = Pagers or beepers are communication devices popularised before the widespread use
of smartphones + They are more reliable as their use of radio frequencies makes them more
difficult to intercept, unlike cellular devices + Pagers can employ one-way or two-way systems.
They can send short, encrypted, or coded messages in sensitive situations + Less vulnerable to
high-tech surveillance techniques due to their lack of GPS and internet connectivity + Pagers are
still used in healthcare, emergency services and remote locations.
Ø Pollen = Pollen is a powdery substance produced by most types of flowers of seed plants for the
purpose of sexual reproduction + It is a gametophyte which is transported from the anther to the
stigma through a process called pollination + Pollen is an important substance used by plants for
reproduction, and its study is known as palynology + Each pollen grain contains reproductive

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 and non-reproductive cells + Upon landing on a compatible plant, the non-reproductive cells
form a pollen tube, while the reproductive cells multiply to create the nuclei of sperm cells +
The sperm travels through the tube to the pistil, initiating the process that leads to seed and fruit
formation + Pollen grains are protected by a natural polymer called sporopollenin + Pollen from
anemophilous plants (e.g., birch, hickory) can cause allergic reactions, commonly known as hay
fever + Please note: Pollen Agents can be biotic agents such as bees, butterflies, birds, wasps,
bats etc and Abiotic agents such as wind and water.
Ø Circumnutation = It is a small, continuous spiral/zigzag movement of plants to explore their
environments + As inherent behavior across plant species, it allows them to adapt to
environmental conditions and maximize their growth potential + Example-Sunflower has zigzag
pattern of growth in dense rows which allows sunflowers to lean away, avoid shade and
maximizing sunlight exposure + Researchers found that circumnutation is not always based on
pattern, but is sometimes random.
Ø Pheromone = These are chemical substances secreted by organisms and detected by other
organisms of the same species + Pheromones are present in bodily secretions, such as urine,
sweat, and other excretions + They are categorized as ecto-hormones (meaning they are released
outside the body) + They are used for communication and trigger a variety of responses such as
changes in behavior and hormone levels + Recently, Indian scientists have developed a
sustainable pheromone dispenser that allows controlled release, potentially reducing pest control
costs.
Ø Bio-Decomposer by IARI = It is a microbial liquid spray which is sprayed on paddy stubble to
break it down for easier absorption into the soil + Its benefits include pollution reduction, soil
enrichment with organic carbon and increase in soil fertility + It is developed by the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) as an efficient and effective, cheaper, doable, and
practical technique to stop stubble burning + It has been used by the States of Punjab, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh and NCT of Delhi. E.g. In practice in Delhi since 2020.
Ø Heat-Resistant Rice (Emihokoro) = Researchers in Japan are working on new varieties of rice
like 'Emihokoro' (beaming smile) that can withstand higher temperatures while maintaining
quality + This is being done by using Cross Pollination technique + Saitama is one of the hottest
regions in Japan and leading development of heat-resistant rice.
• Cross-Pollination Technique = Cross-pollination involves transferring pollen from one
plant's anther to another plant's stigma within the same species + It produces seeds that have
combined traits from both parent plants + Resulting offspring are often more vigorous and
disease-resistant + Another famous example of cross-pollination variety is ‘Ambrosia’
variety of corn which is resistance to common fungal diseases, ensuring healthier crops.
• Golden Rice = It is a variety of rice (Oryza sativa) developed through cross-pollination to
produce beta-carotene and vitamin A, in the edible parts of the rice + Philippines approved
its commercial production in 2021 and became the first country to issue a biosafety permit +
Currently, there is no cultivation or commercialization of Golden Rice in India + The
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and its national research partners have
developed Golden Rice to complement existing interventions to address vitamin A
deficiency (VAD) + Please Note: Bt cotton is the only GM crop approved for commercial
cultivation in India.
Ø Palaeogenomics = Palaeogenomics is the study of ancient DNA extracted from archaeological
sites to understand historical populations and their development + It helps reveal details about
past human societies, such as their migrations, cultural interactions, and genetic diversity +
Scientists analyse DNA from ancient bones, teeth, or hair and use advanced sequencing
technologies to read and interpret these genetic codes + Applications of Paleogenomics are in
population studies such as migration, understanding societal structures, health, and dietary
habits.

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 Ø Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) = Recently, India’s third home-built 700 MWe
nuclear power reactor at Rawatbhata, Rajasthan + It has achieved criticality recently + A PHWR
is a nuclear power reactor, commonly using unenriched natural uranium as its fuel that uses
heavy water (deuterium oxide D2O) as its coolant and moderator + India’s first PHWR was
constructed in the late 1960s at the Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS-1), built through
Indo-Canadian collaboration + India is currently in the 2nd stage of its three-stage nuclear
program.
• Criticality = Criticality is the point where a nuclear reactor achieves a self-sustaining chain
reaction, with nuclear fission occurring at a steady rate + Criticality for the first time on the
project timeline marks the completion of the construction phase and commencement of the
operation phase.
Ø Critical Minerals = These minerals are critical for the development of materials for defence,
aerospace, nuclear, and space applications + The Government of India (GoI) classified some
minerals as ‘critical’ by amending the Mines and Minerals Development and Regulation Act of
1957 + GoI in the “Critical Minerals for India” report has identified 30 critical minerals –
Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium,
Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, Phosphorous, Potash, REE, Rhenium,
Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium,
Selenium and Cadmium + In the Budget 2024, Critical Mineral Mission has been announced to
give a boost to India’s critical minerals Sector + KABIL is exploring opportunities to acquire
critical mineral assets in countries like Australia, Argentina, and Chile + Recently China has
announced it would restrict the export of antimony, a key mineral used in military equipment
like missiles and ammunition + Important critical minerals and their applications:
• Antimony: It is a critical mineral used in strategic sectors such as defence, for military equipment
such as missiles, infrared sensors, flares, ammunition, and even nuclear weapons
• Graphite and Natural Flake Graphite: Used in electric vehicle (EV) batteries, fuel cells, nuclear
reactors, and energy storage systems.
• Gallium: Used in semiconductors, LEDs, and solar panels.
• Germanium: Used in fibre optics, infrared optics, computer chips, and solar cells.
• Lithium: Essential for rechargeable batteries in EVs, laptops, and smartphones.
• Cobalt: Used in batteries, superalloys, and catalysts.
• Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Used in magnets, electronics, and various high-tech applications.
Ø National Critical Minerals Mission = It is a policy initiative announced in the Union Budget
2024-25 + Mission aims to boost domestic output, recycling of critical minerals, and overseas
acquisition of critical mineral assets + It is designed to advance India's journey towards self-
reliance in the raw materials essential for the nation's economic growth and the transition to a
net-zero economy + The Ministry of Mines is the nodal agency for India's National Critical
Minerals Mission.
Ø Silicon Carbide = Also known as Carborundum + Exceedingly hard, synthetically produced
crystalline compound of silicon and carbon + Known for excellent thermomechanical
characteristics such as high thermal conductivity, excellent mechanical properties, wear and
oxidation resistance + Applications in semiconductor devices, Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs),
mechanical seals, structural ceramics, heat exchangers, optical mirrors, ballistic armor, car
brakes, car clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof [Link]. + India will set up the 1st silicon
Carbide manufacturing facility in Odisha.
Ø Sonoluminescence = It is a phenomenon of producing light through the irradiation of liquids
with ultrasonic waves + It is formed when bubbles formed by cavitation in liquids interact with
powerful sound waves + The alternating high and low pressure of sound waves lead to rapid
expansion and contraction of bubbles + This results in intense temperature rise, ionization of
gases within the bubble and release of light energy + Example-Pistol shrimp of family Alpheidae
exhibits Sonoluminescence by rapidly snapping their claws.

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 Ø Butterfly Effect = The butterfly effect, a core concept in chaos theory which suggests that even
tiny changes in a system's initial state can lead to dramatically different outcomes over time +
Scientists have observed the butterfly effect in a variety of fields such as weather forecasting,
economics and social sciences + A new branch of study called quantum chaos is concerned with
understanding “classical” chaos using quantum theory.

5) POLITY & GOVERNANCE

Ø Official Language of India = Article 343 of the Constitution declares that Hindi in Devanagari
script shall be the official language of the Union + Hindi was declared the official language of
the Union and it was also provided that the English language will continue for 15 years from the
commencement of the Constitution + It was further provided that, if needed, Parliament may
provide by law that English will continue even after the period of 15 years + Accordingly,
Parliament enacted the official languages Act in 1963, providing for the continuance of English
indefinitely as official language along with Hindi for the official purposes of the Union and for
transaction of business in Parliament.
• Official Language Act, 1963 = Articles 343 to 351 (Part XVII) of the Constitution deal with
the official languages of India + The Official Languages Act of 1963 outlines the use of
languages for official purposes in the Union of India, Parliament, and Central and State Acts
+ Alongside Hindi, it allows English to continue as an official language even after the 15-
year transition period stipulated by the Constitution. + The Act specifies that: (1) English
and Hindi can be used in Parliament and for official Union purposes beyond the initial 15-
year period; (2) Translations of Central Acts or ordinances authorised by the President are
considered authoritative in Hindi; (3) The Governor of a State, with the President's consent,
can allow the use of Hindi or a State's official language in addition to English; (4) High Court
judgments, if issued in a language other than English, must include an English translation;
(5) English is used for Union-State communication when the State has not adopted Hindi;
(6) Similarly, when Hindi is used between two States, and one does not recognize it as the
official language, an English translation is required.
• Parliamentary Committee on Official Language = Constituted in 1976 under the
provisions of Section 4 of the Official Languages Act, 1963 + Purpose of the Committee is
to review the progress made in the use of Hindi for official purposes, and make
recommendations to increase the use of Hindi in official communications + Committee
comprises 30 members of Parliament (Lok Sabha = 20 + Rajya Sabha = 10) + Committee is
chaired by the Union Home Minister + As per 1963 Act, the panel submits its report to the
President, who shall then cause the report to be laid before each House of Parliament and
sent to all the State Governments + Recently, the 38th meeting of the Committee of
Parliament on Official Language was concluded.
Ø Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) = Recently, The Union Home Ministry extended
the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) in parts of Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh
for another six months + The British promulgated the Act in its original form in response to the
Quit India movement in 1942 + Enacted in 1958, AFSPA gives the armed forces special powers
and immunity to maintain public order in “disturbed areas” in the North Eastern states of India
+ The Governor, Union Territory Administrator, or Central Government can declare the whole
or part of an area "Disturbed Areas" through an official notification + It can also be invoked in
places where the use of armed forces in aid of the civil power is necessary + Powers under
AFSPA include: Firing or using force, even if it causes death, to control unlawful assemblies or
those carrying weapons, Arresting people without a warrant based on reasonable suspicion,
Searching premises without a warrant, Prohibit a gathering of five or more persons in an area +
Army personnel operating under AFSPA are protected from legal action unless specifically

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 allowed by the central government + Currently, it is in force in Jammu and Kashmir, Assam,
Nagaland, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh.
Ø POCSO Act 2012 = Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act was enacted in
2012 and amended in 2019 + It protects all children below the age of 18 years from sexual crimes
+ Section 4 deals with Punishment for penetrative sexual assault + Section 6 deals with
Punishment for aggravated penetrative sexual assault + Section 15 criminalised storage and
possession of child pornographic material + According to the doctrine of “constructive
possession”, any act of viewing or displaying child pornographic material over the Internet
without actual possession or storage in any device would also amount to “possession”, made
punishable + An intent to share or transmit such material can also be inferred from any failure
to delete, destroy or report such material + Scheme for Care and Support to Victims under
Sections 4 and 6 of the POCSO Act 2012 is a centrally funded scheme from the NIRBHAYA
Fund of the MoWCD + NCPCR is mandated to monitor the proper and effective implementation
of the POCSO Act, 2012 + Recently, The Supreme Court urged Parliament to seriously consider
amending the POCSO Act to substitute the term “child pornography” with “Child Sexual
Exploitation and Abuse Material” or CSEAM + Please Note: Section 67B of the Information
Technology (IT) Act 2000 penalised the use, transmission and publication of obscene materials,
including child pornography and made browsing, creation, collection, online facilitation or
enticement of children into any sexual act or conduct an offence.
• Fast Track Special Courts (FTSCs) = It was formulated as a centrally sponsored scheme
to establish FTSCs for the timely disposal of cases related to rape and the POCSO Act in
August 2019 + Initially commenced in October 2019 for one year, the scheme was extended
for an additional two years until March 31, 2023. Now it has been further extended until
March 31, 2026 + The Central Share is funded from the Nirbhaya Fund + It is implemented
by the Department of Justice, Ministry of Law & Justice.
Ø Digital Services Act (DSA), 2024 = Passed by the European Parliament in 2022, it aims to
enhance online safety and transparency for all users within the European Union (EU) + It
mandates online platforms to actively prevent and remove illegal or harmful content, including
hate speech, terrorism, and child abuse + Online platforms are prohibited from using personal
attributes like sexual orientation, religion, ethnicity, or political beliefs for targeted advertising
+ Platforms must provide users with mechanisms to report illegal content.
Ø Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000 = Amended in 2008 and 2011, the act aims to regulate
cybercrime, data protection and privacy and facilitates electronic governance in India + It gives
legal recognition to electronic records and digital signatures that are at par with physical
documents and handwritten signatures + It applies to all government and private entities that use
electronic records, computers, or communication networks + The Act covers all electronic
records and communication whether created, stored, sent or received within or outside India +
The 2011 amendments expanded the scope of cybercrimes to include child pornography,
voyeurism, identity theft and breach of privacy + The Act enables the central government to
appoint Controlling Officers to oversee compliance with the provisions of the Act + It established
the Cyber Regulations Appellate Tribunal to adjudicate IT-related disputes and hear appeals against
orders of authorities constituted under the Act + Indian Computer Emergency Response Team
(CERT-In) supervises compliance with data protection, data storage and cybersecurity provisions of
the act + The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) is the custodian of the IT
Act + Under the act, information can be restricted from public access in the interest of: the
sovereignty and integrity of India, defence of India, security of the State, friendly relations with
foreign States, public order, and to prevent incitement to the commission of any cognisable offence
relating to above + In Shreya Singhal vs. Union of India (2015), the Supreme Court struck down
Section 66A of the IT Act, which criminalised sending offensive or annoying messages online +
Recently, the government has notified Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital
Media Ethics Code) Rules 2021.

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 Ø Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 2023 = It replaced the Mines and
Minerals (Development and Regulation) (MMDR) Act, 1957 + Earlier, MMDR was
comprehensively amended in 2015 to bring several reforms in the mineral sector, such as
establishing the District Mineral Foundation (DMF) and National Mineral Exploration Trust
(NMET) + Act was further amended in 2016, 2020 and 2021 to bring further reforms in the
sector, such as removal of the distinction between captive and merchant mines and removal of
the restrictions on the transfer of mineral concessions + Act of 2023 allows the private sector to
mine six out of 12 atomic minerals such as lithium, beryllium, niobium, titanium, tantalum and
zirconium + Under the act, the Centre has powers to auction mining leases and composite
licences for critical minerals such as gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, nickel etc. + Act has
introduced exploration licences and it will be granted by the state government through
competitive bidding + It also allows activities under a single exploration licence in an area up to
1,000 sq. km + Prior permission is required from the Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate
Change for mining and prospecting in forest land.
• District Mineral Foundation (DMF) (PYQ-2016) = DMF is a trust set up as a non-profit body
under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) (MMDR) Amendment Act 2015
+ Objective: to work in the interest and benefit of persons and areas affected by mining-related
operations in a manner as may be prescribed by the respective State Government + DMF is
funded through the contributions from the holders of major or minor mineral concessions in the
district, as may be prescribed by the Central or State Government + The composition and
functions of the District Mineral Foundation shall be such as may be prescribed by the State
Government + The fund for DMF is collected at the district level + Operation of DMFs falls
under the jurisdiction of the relevant State Government + ‘National DMF Portal’ digitises the
administration and oversight of DMFs across India + Recently, the Supreme Court bench ruled
that taxation powers on minerals and ores are the exclusive domain of state governments.
However, Parliament can impose an upper bar to limit the taxation by states. Moreover, the
MMDR Act has nothing to do with tax collection by the Union.
• National Mineral Exploration Trust (NMET) = It is a statutory body established under the
Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Amendment Act, 2015, (MMRDA) + This
Act has mandated the setting up of the NMET + Structure: NMET has a two-tier structure + The
apex body is the Governing Body, chaired by the Minister of Mines.+ It holds the overall control
of the Trust + The Executive Committee, chaired by the Secretary, Ministry of Mines,
administers and manages its activities + To implement mandated activities an NMET Fund has
been established + The NMET Fund receives money from holders of mining lease or a
prospecting license-cum-mining lease, an amount equivalent to 2% of royalty paid in terms of
the Second Schedule of the MMDR Act.
Ø Habitat Rights = Section 2(h) of the FRA defines habitat as an area comprising the customary
habitat and other habitats in reserved and protected forests of primitive tribal groups, pre-
agricultural communities, and other forest-dwelling scheduled tribes + The granting of habitat
rights is governed under section 3(1)(e) of Forests Rights Act (FRA) 2006 + This empowers the
tribes to protect and preserve natural entities, sacred sites, and places of religious and spiritual
importance within their habitat + The procedure is based on guidelines from the Ministry of
Tribal Affairs (MoTA) in 2014.
Ø Right to Silent = In Selvi vs. State of Karnataka (2010), the Supreme Court ruled that no lie
detector tests should be administered “except on the basis of consent of the accused” in
accordance with Article 20(3) of the Constitution + Article 20(3) of the Constitution of India is
a fundamental right which states that no person accused of an offence can be forced to give
evidence or testimony that could incriminate themselves + A person’s right to make a statement
or remain silent is integral to their right to privacy + Compelling an individual to make a
statement would constitute a violation of the fundamental right under Article 21 of the
Constitution.

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 Ø Jaseela Shaji vs Union of India case (2024) = In this, SC highlighted the rights of detained
person to make an effective representation against preventive detention + Detenu (detained
person) has the right to be furnished with the grounds of detention along with the documents
relied on for such detention, failure of which will lead to denial of the right to make an effective
representation under Article 22(5) of the Constitution.
Ø Plea Bargaining = It is a practice whereby the accused forgoes his right to plead not guilty and
demand a full trial and instead uses a right to bargain for a benefit + It aimed to streamline the
judicial process by allowing accused persons to admit guilt in exchange for leniency in
sentencing + It was incorporated into the CrPC in 2005 + It applies only to offences punishable
by up to seven years of imprisonment + It can take place at any stage of the criminal justice
process + Once the sentence is pronounced, it becomes final, and the accused cannot appeal
against it, except on the grounds of manifest injustice + It is NOT available in cases involving
crimes against women, children, socio-economic offences and offences against the State.
Ø Anticipatory Bail = It is the bail granted to a person in anticipation and apprehending arrest +
Under Section 438 of CrPC, any individual who discerns that he may be tried for a non-bailable
offence can apply for anticipatory bail + The application shall be made to the High Court or
Sessions Court, where the crime is alleged to be committed + Anticipatory Bail is bail before the
arrest, and the police can't arrest an individual if the Court has granted anticipatory Bail + It is
meant to be a safeguard for a person who has false accusations or charges made against him/her,
most commonly due to professional or personal enmity, as it ensures the release of the falsely
accused person even before he/she is arrested + (Bail = Bail is a judicial release of an accused
person from custody on the condition that the accused person will appear in court at a later date
+ Sections 436 to 439 of the Criminal Procedure Code deal with the concept of Bail + Under the
CrPC, bail can be granted to an accused person either by a police officer or by a judicial
magistrate).
Ø Curative Petitions = Concept of a curative petition was evolved by the court in the Roopa Hurra
vs Ashok Hurra case (2002) + A curative petition is supported by Article 137 of the Indian
Constitution, in which the Supreme Court has the power to review any judgement or order it has
made + It is a procedural tool to prevent miscarriage of justice by the Courts and used as the last
legal remedy available against the final judgements of the apex court + It may be filed after a
review plea against the final conviction is dismissed. Such a petition needs to be filed within 30
days from the date of judgement or order + The petition is circulated to a special bench
comprising the three most senior judges of the Supreme Court and the judges who delivered the
challenged judgement (if available) + When a majority of the judges conclude that the matter
needs a hearing, then it is listed as far as possible, before the same bench + Admissibility of the
curative petition is usually decided by judges in a chamber.
Ø Black Coat Syndrome = President used this term to highlight the delay in Justice and describe
anxiety experienced by ordinary citizens in court settings + This term is analogous to the “White
Coat Hypertension”, patients feel an increase in blood pressure in the hospital.
Ø One Nation - One Election (Simultaneous Elections) = It envisions a system in which all State
and Lok Sabha elections will be held simultaneously and voters will vote on the same day and
at the same time or in a phased manner + Simultaneous elections in India were last held in 1967
+ First general elections of free India were held simultaneously to the Lok Sabha and the State
Legislative Assemblies of the States in 1951 + Fourth Lok Sabha constituted in 1967 was
dissolved prematurely in 1971 and it ended simultaneous elections + As per the
recommendations of the Law Commission, it would necessitate at least five constitutional
amendments in Articles 83 (duration of Houses of Parliament), 85 (Sessions of Parliament,
prorogation and dissolution), 172 (duration of State legislatures), 174 (Sessions of the State
Legislature, prorogation and dissolution), and 356 (State Emergency) + In 2023, the Union
Government set up a ‘High Level Committee on One Nation, One Election’ under the
chairmanship of former President of India, Ramnath Kovind.

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 • Ramnath Kovind Committee (2023) = on Simultaneous Elections + This High level
committee suggested insertion of Article 324A, which states that Parliament may make a law
to ensure that elections to municipalities and panchayats be held together with General
Elections + As per the committee, the Constitution empowers Parliament, not states, to
conduct Assembly elections. Therefore, implies that simultaneous poll amendments do not
mandate state ratification + Committee also suggested amendment to the Article 325 for a
single electoral roll and electoral identity cards, requiring state ratification.
Ø Lok Adalat (PYQ) = Recently, over 1-crore cases were settled during the third national Lok
Adalat conducted by the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) + Lok Adalat is a statutory
body under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 + It is an Alternative Dispute Redressal
(ADR) mechanism where disputes/cases pending in the court of law or at the pre-litigation stage
are settled/compromised amicably + Lok Adalats can be organised at the district, state and
national levels + Every Lok Adalat organised for an area shall consist of such number of serving
or retired judicial officers and other persons of the area as may be specified by the organising
agency + Generally, a Lok Adalat consists of a judicial officer as the chairman and a lawyer
(advocate) and a social worker as members + No court fee is payable when a matter is filed in a
Lok Adalat + Lok Adalats possess jurisdiction over civil disputes, criminal cases (compoundable
offences) and family matters + Lok Adalat can make awards/decisions, which are deemed to be a
decree of a civil court and are final and binding on all the parties concerned + There is no provision
for an appeal against the award. However, the parties concerned can initiate litigation by approaching
the court + Nature of cases to be referred to Lok Adalat: (1) Any case pending before any court; (2)
Any dispute which has not been brought before any court and is likely to be filed before the court;
(3) Provided that any matter relating to an offence not compoundable under the law shall not be
settled in Lok Adalat.
Ø National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) = NALSA is a statutory authority established
under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 + Aims to provide free legal services to the
weaker sections of society and organise Lok Adalats for amicable dispute settlement + NALSA
helps to enforce the Fundamental Rights guaranteed under Articles 14 and 22(1) which make it
obligatory for the State to ensure equality before the law and a legal system that promotes justice
on the basis of equal opportunity for all + Article 39A of the DPSP provides for free legal aid to
the poor and weaker sections of society and ensures justice for all + The functions of NALSA
are to organise Lok Adalats, Conduct legal literacy programs, Provide free legal services, etc +
Persons eligible for free legal services: Women and children, Members of SC/ST, Industrial
workmen, Victims of mass disasters, violence, floods, droughts, earthquakes, and industrial
disasters, Disabled persons, Persons in custody, Persons with an annual income not exceeding
Rs. 1 lakh (Rs. 5 lakh for the Supreme Court Legal Services Committee), Victims of trafficking
or beggary, Transgender (limit of Rs. 2,00,000) (PYQ) + As per Legal Service Authorities Act,
the Chief Justice of India shall be the Patron-in-Chief + Second senior-most judge of the
Supreme Court of India is the Executive-Chairman + NALSA is headquartered at the Supreme
Court of India, New Delhi + In every State, a State Legal Services Authority and in every High
Court, a High Court Legal Services Committee have been constituted + District Legal Services
Authorities, Taluk Legal Services Committees have been constituted in the Districts and and
most of the Taluks.
Ø Bar Council of India (BCI) = It is a statutory body created by Parliament under the Advocates
Act, 1961 to regulate and represent the Indian bar + It performs the regulatory function by
prescribing standards of professional conduct and etiquette and by exercising disciplinary
jurisdiction over the bar + It sets standards for legal education and grants recognition to
Universities whose degrees in law will serve as a qualification for enrollment as an advocate +
Section 29 of the Advocates Act, states that only advocates enrolled with BCI can practise law
+ Recently, The Bar Council of India (BCI) has opened up law practice in India to foreign
lawyers and law firms + It has framed the ‘Bar Council of India Rules for Registration of Foreign

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 Lawyers and Foreign Law Firms in India, 2021’. It allows foreign lawyers and law firms to
practise in India but not appear in court.
Ø Law Commission of India = Law Commission of India is a non-statutory body constituted by
a notification of the Government of India, Ministry of Law & Justice + It functions as an advisory
body to the Ministry of Law and Justice + The first pre-independence law commission was
established in 1834 under the Charter Act of 1833 by the British Government and chaired by
Lord Macaulay + The first Law Commission of independent India was established in 1955 under
the chairmanship of the former Attorney General for India C. Setalvad + Since then, 21 more
Law Commissions have been constituted, each with a 3-year term and with certain terms of
reference + The term of the 22nd Law Commission will end on August 31, 2024 + Centre
recently notified the constitution of the 23rd Law Commission for a period of three years, with
a provision to appoint serving Supreme Court and High Court judges as its chairperson and
members + As per a recent gazette notification, the panel will have a full-time chairperson and
four full-time members including a member-secretary + The Secretary of the Department of
Legal Affairs and the Secretary of the Legislative Department will be its ex-officio members.
There cannot be more than five part-time members + The chairperson/ members “who are
serving judges of the Supreme Court/High Court shall perform their functions on a whole-time
basis up to the date of retirement from the Supreme Court/High Court or expiry of the term of
the Commission, whichever be earlier” + The time spent by the members in the performance of
such functions as chairperson/ member of the Commission will be treated as “actual service”.
Ø Justice Hema Committee Report = It was a 3-member committee appointed in 2017 to
investigate sexual exploitation and rights violations in the Malayalam cinema industry + It
highlighted key issues such as sexual harassment, pay gaps, gender inequality, and lack of basic
facilities in the film industry + The final report was released in August 2024, which
recommended for establishment of Internal Complaints Committees (ICC), gender awareness
training, creation of a Welfare Fund, independent tribunal, legal contracts, etc.
Ø Public Account Committee (PAC) = First set up in 1921 under the provisions of the
Government of India Act 1919 + It is one of the three Financial Parliamentary committees – the
other two are the Estimates Committee (Largest Committee) and the Committee on Public
Undertakings + It consists of not more than 22 members; 15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya
Sabha + Chairperson of the PAC is appointed by the speaker from amongst the members + From
1967, a convention has developed that the Chairperson of the PAC is selected invariably from
the Opposition + Members are elected by the Parliament every year from amongst its members
according to the principle of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote
+ Members are appointed for the tenure of one year + Ministers cannot be elected as a member
of the committee + Functions of PAC are mentioned in Rule 308 of the Rules of Procedure and
Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha + The PAC is empowered to call any person in connection to
its investigations + PAC examines the annual audit reports of the Comptroller and Auditor
General (CAG) laid before the Parliament by the President + CAG is the “friend, philosopher
and guide” of the PAC + CAG attends the sittings of the PAC and assists it in its deliberations +
PAC has a far greater ambit than any department-related Parliamentary Standing Committee +
Recommendations of PAC are not binding on the government. They are advisory in nature +
Recently, Public Account Committee (PAC) is holding a performance review of regulatory
bodies established by the Act of Parliament such as the SEBI and TRAI, among others.
Ø National Medical Commission (NMC) = It is a statutory body established under the National
Medical Commission Act, 2019 + It replaced the Medical Council of India (MCI) on
recommendations of NITI Aayog + NMC is the top regulator of medical education in India + It
aims to regulate medical education, medical professionals, institutes, and research + It grants
recognition of medical qualifications, gives accreditation to medical schools, grants registration
to medical practitioners, and monitors medical practice and assesses the medical infrastructure
in India + Composition of NMC includes a 25-member body nominated by the Central
government (Tenure of 4 years); and 11 part-time members (Tenure of 2 years) + The
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 chairperson and other members cannot be renominated + Decisions are taken by majority –
minimum 13 out of 25 + Headquarters is in New Delhi.
Ø National Anti-Doping Agency (NADA) = It was established in 2005 as an autonomous body
under the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports + It aims to create dope-free sports and is
responsible for promoting, coordinating, and monitoring anti-doping activities in sports + It
follows the World Anti-Doping Code (WADC) and the Prohibited List published annually by
the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).
• World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) = Established in 1999 as an international
independent agency composed and funded equally by the sports movement and governments
of the world + Its foundation was initiated by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to
promote, coordinate, and monitor the fight against drugs in sports + The headquarters of
WADA is in Montreal, Canada + World Anti-Doping Code is a document harmonising anti-
doping policies in all sports and all countries.
Ø Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) = CSIR was established in 1942 and
operates as an autonomous body through the Societies Registration Act, 1860 + CSIR is funded
by the Ministry of Science and Technology + It primarily focused on scientific research and
development in fields such as aerospace, biology, chemistry, earth sciences, engineering, and
medical sciences + Organisational structure: the Prime Minister (President), the Union Minister
of Science and Technology (Vice President), the Director-General (heading the governing body),
and the finance secretary (expenditures) + The most prestigious Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Award
(SSB Award) given annually by the CSIR since 1958 + CSIR has a dynamic network of 37
national laboratories, 39 outreach centres, 1 Innovation Complex, and 3 units with a pan-India
presence + Recently, an Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network (AMRSN) report was
published by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR).
Ø Khanij Bidesh India Ltd. (KABIL) = Formed by the Government in 2019, under the
Companies Act 2013 + It is a joint venture of 3 Central Public Sector Enterprises: National
Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO), Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL) and Mineral Exploration
Company Ltd. (MECL) with ownership in a ratio of [Link] respectively + It is mandated to
identify and acquire overseas mineral assets of critical and strategic nature such as lithium,
cobalt, nickel, Copper, Neodymium, other rare earths etc + Currently, it is engaged with
countries like Australia, Argentina, Bolivia and Chile to tap critical and strategic minerals + The
Ministry of Mines is a nodal ministry.
Ø Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) = CBFC is a statutory body under the Ministry
of Information and Broadcasting + CBFC’s function is to regulate the public exhibition of films
under the provisions of the Cinematograph Act 1952 + Films can be publicly exhibited in India
only after they have been certified by the CBFC + Board consists of non-official members and
a Chairman (all of whom are appointed by the Central Government) + Categories of film
certification are: (1) U (Universal) – Viewers of all age groups can view a U-certified film; (2)
U/A – Although these movies are universal, children under the age of 12 require adult
supervision; (4) A – Only meant for exhibition before adults; (5) S – These are movies for special
classes like doctors and farmers + Film Certification Appellate Tribunal (FCAT) was abolished
in 2021 and appeals can be made only in a High Court (Earlier an applicant aggrieved by the
decision of the CBFC can file an appeal with the FCAT) + Headquarters: Mumbai (with 9
regional centers).
Ø National Institute of Mountaineering and Adventure Sports (NIMAS) = NIMAS is an
autonomous institute founded in 2013 by the Government of Arunachal Pradesh under the
Ministry of Defence + It is the first National Institute of India mandated to conduct adventure
courses in the field of land, air and aqua + It is situated in Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh due to its
proximity to the Eastern Himalayas, offering an ideal setting for mountaineering and adventure
sports training + Recently, China protested after a peak in Arunachal Pradesh was named
"Tsangyang Gyatso Peak" by NIMAS to honour the 6th Dalai Lama, Tsangyang Gyatso.

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 Ø Comprehensive Guidelines for Handling Public Grievances = It seeks to empower citizens,
streamline process, bring clarity and focus to redressal of public grievances + CPGRAMS is a
common open platform for registration of complaints by the citizens on any issue against any
public authority in the Central Government or States/ UTs + Key features of guidelines are
unified platform for all grievances; nodal officers to be appointed in each Ministry/Department;
dedicated grievance cells in every Ministry/Department; timely redressal within 21 days; SMS
and email updates, with appeal options for dissatisfied citizens; AI-powered analysis of citizen
feedback; monthly assessment index for ranking Ministries/Departments; training and capacity
building for grievance officers under SEVOTTAM scheme + It is developed by the Department
of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances in 2007.
Ø Guidelines for Installation and Operation of Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure-
2024 = Implementation will be monitored by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) as the
Central Nodal Authority + Applicable to public and private spaces and sectors +
Government/Public entities shall offer land for the installation of PCS at a subsidized rate to the
entities + It will use revenue-sharing model where the land-owning agency receives 1 per kWh
of electricity used for charging at the station + By 2030, there should be at least one charging
station within a 1 km x 1 km grid in urban areas + Along highways, charging stations will be
placed every 20 km for regular EVs and every 100 km for long range and heavy-duty vehicles
like buses and trucks + BEE in collaboration with State Nodal Agencies (SNAs) maintain a
national database of PCS nationwide + All EV Supply Equipment shall comply with Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) standards + The cost of electricity at charging stations will not exceed
the ‘Average Cost of Supply’ until March 2028.

6) ECONOMICS
Ø Debt-to-GDP Ratio = It is the ratio of a country's public debt to its Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) + It is expressed as a percentage and indicates the country's ability to repay its debt + A
lower ratio indicates a stronger economy with a greater ability to manage and repay debt + The
NK Singh Committee on FRBM proposed a debt-to-GDP ratio of 40% for the central
government and 20% for states + The Centre aims to reduce the debt-to-GDP ratio by 1%
annually starting from 2024-25 + Factor influencing the ratio include government borrowing,
economic growth rates, inflation, fiscal policies, and debt management strategies + Higher ratio
percentage crowds out investment and decreased creditworthiness ratings which raises the
government’s borrowing costs + India's debt-to-GDP ratio in 2022-2023 was 81%, and in 2023-
2024 it was 58.2%.
Ø Windfall Tax = It is a type of tax that is levied on companies or individuals who have
unexpectedly and/or dramatically gained large profits, often due to external factors beyond their
control + Purpose is to capture a portion of the extraordinary profits that companies make and
redistribute it for the public good + It is commonly levied on industries such as oil, gas, and
mining + India first implemented windfall profit taxes on 1st July 2022 + Tax rates are reassessed
every 2 weeks after taking into account international crude prices from the preceding fortnight
+ Recently, the government slashed windfall tax on domestically produced crude oil to 'nil' per
tonne.
Ø Dutch Disease = Dutch Disease in economics refers to a phenomenon where in a country
witnesses uneven growth across sectors due to the discovery of natural resources, especially
large oil reserves + While the idea was first proposed by economists Peter Neary and Max
Corden in 1982, The term ‘Dutch disease’ was first coined by “The Economist” in 1977 to
describe the decline of the manufacturing industry in the Netherlands.
Ø Financialization = It is a process in which financial markets, financial institutions and financial
intermediaries influence economic policy and outcomes + It also explains the shift from
traditional investments and ‘physical’ assets such as real estate, gold towards ‘financial assets’
like mutual funds, pension funds, hedge funds, stock markets (primary and secondary), bond
markets, derivatives, and foreign exchange markets + Example-The Indian mutual fund industry
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 achieved significant growth in 2024, surpassing ₹ 68 lakh crore in AUM (Assets Under
Management)
Ø Perpetual Bonds = They are fund-raising instruments that do not carry any maturity date like
that of bonds + Instead of maturity date, they offer to pay their buyers a coupon or interest at a
fixed date for perpetuity + Investors can get the principal back by selling the bond in the
secondary market, or when the issuer decides to redeem the bonds + These bonds carry the
obligation only to pay interest and not required to repay the debt + Recently, India's 1st additional
Tier I (AT-1) perpetual bond was issued after recent rule changes to make them more appealing.
• Additional Tier-I Bonds: Issued by banks as per the directions of the Reserve Bank of India
(RBI) + Usually issued to fulfil their capital adequacy requirements (CAR) + They are
contingent convertible bonds (CoCos), which is a type of debt instrument that the bank can
convert into equity if its capital levels fall below the specified levels + They have a call
option, which allows the banks to buy back the bonds from the investors.
Ø Presidio Principles = Initiative of the World Economic Forum + Drafted by WEF’s Global
Blockchain Council to help safeguard the promise of this technology + Known as “Presidio
Principles: Foundational Values for a Decentralized Future” + They are a foundational set of
principles for blockchain technology and decentralized infrastructure.
Ø Black Sand (Visakhapatnam Beach) = Black sand is primarily linked to the unique geological
features of the Visakhapatnam region + Geologically, it is rich in minerals, specifically heavy
minerals like magnetite, ilmenite, garnet, and monazite + These minerals are denser and darker
than the usual quartz sand, giving it the characteristic black colour + The heavy mineral-rich
sand, originating from the Eastern Ghats, is transported by rivers and deposited in the Bay of
Bengal.
Ø Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) =
Statutory body established under the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority Act (APEDA) of 1985 + It promotes exports of agricultural & processed
food items and takes care of GI registration for Indian products abroad, filing the certification of
trademark applications + Products specified under the APEDA ACT are called Scheduled
Products, and exporters of such scheduled products are required to register under APEDA + The
APEDA had been undertaking most of the activities as per its mandate and scope of work
allocated spanning its 14 product categories which mainly includes the sector of fruits and
vegetables, processed fruits and vegetables, animal, dairy and poultry products and cereals + It
also supports exports through various schemes like Trade Infrastructure for Export Scheme
(TIES), Market Access Initiative (MAI), etc + A Chairman is appointed by the Central
Government + Nodal Agency is the Ministry of Commerce and Industry (Not Ministry of
Agriculture) + Headquarter: New Delhi.
Ø Vivad Se Vishwas Scheme 2.0 (2024) = Direct Tax Vivad Se Vishwas Scheme 2024 aims to
minimise litigation by allowing taxpayers to resolve income tax appeals without penalties or
interest + It provides for lesser settlement amounts for taxpayers who file a declaration on or
before December 31, compared with those who file thereafter + Under this Scheme, taxpayers
can file appeals across various appellate forums, including the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal
and higher courts (ITAT), High Court, and Supreme Court + The scheme applies to appeals, writ
petitions, and special leave petitions pending as of July 22, 2024 + Exclusions from eligibility
are those involving searches, prosecutions, and undisclosed foreign income + Scheme shall come
into force from October 1, 2024 + Ministry of Finance is nodal ministry for this scheme.
Ø Prompt Corrective Action (PCA) Framework = RBI introduced the PCA framework in 2002
+ PCA is a framework under which banks with weak financial metrics are put under watch by
the RBI + It aims at a structured early-intervention mechanism for banks that become under-
capitalised due to poor asset quality, or vulnerable due to loss of profitability + PCA is invoked
when certain risk thresholds are breached + There are three risk thresholds which are based on
certain levels of Capital, Asset Quality and Profitability/Leverage + Indicators to be tracked for
Capital, Asset Quality and leverage would be CRAR/Common Equity Tier I Ratio, Net NPA
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 Ratio and Tier I Leverage Ratio, respectively + If PCA is triggered for a bank: (1) Banks are not
allowed to renew or access costly deposits or take steps to increase their fee-based income; (2)
Banks will also have to launch a special drive to reduce the stock of NPAs and contain generation
of fresh NPAs; (3) Banks will also not be allowed to enter into new lines of business; (4) RBI
will also impose restrictions on the bank on borrowings from the interbank market + Under PCA,
RBI can supersede the board, reconstruct or amalgamate a bank (with the approval of the Central
government), impose restrictions on capital expenditure, impose withdrawal of restriction +
Payments Banks, Regional Rural Banks, and Small Finance Banks (SFBs) are excluded from
PCA + PCA applies to all banks and NBFCs (w.e.f October 2024) operating in India, including
foreign banks + Recently, RBI released the PCA framework for Primary (Urban) Co-operative
Banks (UCBs). It will come into effect from April 1, 2025.
Ø Unified Lending Interface (ULI) = It is a technology platform of RBI which enables frictionless
credit, seamless and consent-based flow of digital information (Ex-Land records of various
states) from multiple data service providers to lenders + It relies on a common and standardised
Application Programming Interface with a ‘plug and play’ approach + A pilot project for the
digitalisation of Kisan Credit Card (KCC) loans of less than ₹1.6 lakh was started in 2022
Ø National Bank for Financing Infrastructure and Development (NaBFID) = Statutory
institution established in 2021 by National Bank for Financing Infrastructure and Development
Act, 2021 + NaBFID is specialized Development Finance Institution in India + It aims to address
gaps in long-term non-recourse finance for infrastructure development and strengthen bonds and
derivatives markets in India + Regulated and supervised by RBI as an All India Financial
Institution (AIFI).
Ø Garlic = Garlic (Allium sativum) is botanically considered a vegetable, as it has a bulb, tall
stem, and long leaves + It grows best in well-drained, fertile loamy soil with a pH range of 6-8
and rich in organic matter (for their moisture and nutrient retention) + It thrives at 1200–2000
metres above sea level + It requires a cool, moist climate during growth and warm, dry weather
during maturity + India is the second-largest producer of garlic in the world, after China +
Madhya Pradesh is the largest garlic-producing state + Geographical Indication Tag: Riyawan
Garlic from Madhya Pradesh, Kodaikanal Malai poondu (Hill Garlic) from Tamil Nadu and,
Kanthalloor Vattavada Veluthuli from Kerala.
Ø Coconut = It is a member of the palm tree family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the
genus Cocos + Coconuts are distinct from other fruits because their endosperm contains a large
quantity of an almost clear liquid, called "coconut water" or "coconut juice" + Mature, ripe
coconuts can be used as edible seeds, or processed for oil and plant milk from the flesh, charcoal
from the hard shell, and coir from the fibrous husk + Dried coconut flesh is called copra, and the
oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking – frying in particular – as well as in
soaps and cosmetics + Ideal growth conditions required for coconut are: Mean daily temperature
above 12–13 °C (54–55 °F) every day of the year, Mean annual rainfall above 1,000 mm (39 in)
and No or very little overhead canopy, since even small trees require direct sun.
• World Coconut Day = World Coconut Day has been observed on September 2 each year since
2009 + It was established by the International Coconut Community (ICC), a UNESCAP
intergovernmental organisation + The theme for World Coconut Day 2024 is "Coconut for a
Circular Economy: Building Partnership for Maximum Value" + Coconut water is a natural
electrolyte drink that is rich in potassium. It also promotes cardiovascular health, supports red
blood cell production, manages diabetes, and offers antioxidant protection.
• International Coconut Community (ICC) = The ICC was established in 1969 and represents
21 coconut-producing countries + India is a founding member of the ICC + ICC Secretariat is
based in Jakarta, Indonesia + Till 2018, ICC was known as the Asian and Pacific Coconut
Community.
• Coconut Development Board (CDB) = A statutory body established in 1981 under the Ministry
of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare + It aims to enhance coconut cultivation and industry
through improved productivity and product diversification + The top coconut-producing states

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 in India are Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu + Headquarters is in Kochi in Kerala, with
regional offices in Bangalore in Karnataka, Chennai in Tamil Nadu, Guwahati in Assam, and
Patna in Bihar.
Ø Cocoa Cultivation = Known as a crop of humid tropics, it is a plantation crop native to the
Amazon basin of South America grown for chocolates + Cocoa trees grow about 20 degrees
north and south of the equator in regions with warm weather (range of 15°-39°C) and abundant
rain (annual 1500-2000 mm) including West Africa and South America + Cocoa can be grown
up to 300 m above mean sea level and prefers well-drained, fertile soil with a pH between 5.0
and 7.0 + The West African & South American region produces the bulk of the world’s cocoa.
Global Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon produce 70% of the world’s cocoa beans +
Indonesia is the largest producer country in Asia + In India, cocoa is cultivated by intercropping
coconut and Arecanut in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Ø Jute in India = Also known as the Golden Fibre, it is a long, soft and shiny natural fibre used in
many textile applications + Jute is a kharif crop + it is the 2nd most important cash crop in India
after cotton (in terms of cultivation and usage) + Ideal growth conditions for the jute cultivation:
Warm and humid climate with temperatures between 24°C to 37°C, rainfall around 150-250 cm
and well-drained alluvial soil + Jute is extracted from the bark of the white jute plant (Corchorus
capsularis) and to a lesser extent from tossa jute (C. olitorius) + Mesta, Corchorus capsularis and
Tossa jute are varieties of Jute + It is totally biodegradable and recyclable + It not only consumes
carbon dioxide and releases oxygen but also increases soil fertility if grown in crop rotations +
India is the largest producer of jute followed by Bangladesh and China + In terms of acreage
and trade, Bangladesh accounts for three-fourths of the global jute exports in comparison to
India’s 7% + West Bengal, Assam and Bihar account for 99% of the Jute production and other
producing states are Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Tripura and Meghalaya + Over the years, average
area under jute cultivation has also declined + During the same period, production and area in
Bangladesh has shown significant rise [IMPORTANT for Trend based questions] + Please Note:
Bodo Narzi (GI Tag Products 2024 from Assam) is a food prepared with jute leaves and is a
rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, calcium and magnesium.
• Retting = It is a natural process that separates jute fibre from the woody stem of the jute
plant + It is best done in slow-moving clean water + Optimum temperature is around 34
degrees Celsius.
• Minimum Support Price (MSP) for Jute = Jute Corporation of India (JCI) is the Price
Support Agency of the Govt. of India for Jute + Aims to protect the interest of the Jute
Growers through the procurement of Raw Jute under the MSP fixed by the government +
JCI aims to stabilise the raw jute market for the benefit of the jute farmers and the jute
economy as a whole.
• Jute Packaging Materials (Compulsory Use in Packing Commodities) Act 1987 (JPMA)
= Under this Act, the government issues orders from time to time for mandatory use of jute
packaging + Since 2017, the norms provide that 100 % of foodgrains and 20% of sugar
should only be packed in jute bags + Due to this, jute sacks account for 75% of the total
production of the jute industry.
Ø Cardamom = It is popularly known as Queen of Spices and belongs to the Zingiberaceae family
+ It is native to the evergreen, rainy forests of Western Ghats in South India + It is cultivated
mainly in the Southern states, viz., Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu + It is grown in forest
loamy soils, which are usually acidic in nature with a pH range of 5.0–6.5. The growth of
cardamom is enhanced when planted in humus rich soils with low to medium available
phosphorus and medium to high available potassium + This crop can be grown at an elevation
from 600 to 1500m + Rainfall: 1500 to 4000 mm + Temperature: 10 to 35 degree C + It is used
as a flavouring agent and drug in traditional medicine.
Ø India’s Port Sector = India is the 16th largest maritime country in the world + Indian Maritime
Sector contributes to 95% of India’s trade by volume and 70% by value + As per the World
Bank's Logistics Performance Index (Published every 2 years), India ranks 22nd in the
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 International Shipment category, with a better "Turn Around Time" of 0.9 days compared to the
USA, Australia, and Singapore. + India has 12 major ports (Deendayal, Mumbai, Jawaharlal
Nehru, Mormugao, New Mangalore, Cochin, Tuticorin, Chennai, Ennore, Visakhapatnam,
Paradip and Kolkata Port and Haldia Port, 13th Vadhvan and 14th Galathea) and 200+ non-major
ports + The Ministry of Ports, Shipping & Waterways controls major ports in India + Major ports
are administered directly by central government under the Major Port Authorities Act, 2021 +
Non-major ports are governed under the Indian Ports Act, 1908.
Ø Steel Sector in India = India is the 2nd largest producer of steel after China and 3rd largest
consumer of the steel after China and the USA + Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing
carbon (less than 2%), 1% manganese and small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and
oxygen + Higher the carbon content in iron, lower the purity (cast iron) + Important location
factors for the Iron & Steel Industry are ⇒ Iron ore availability as a raw material (Ex-Durgapur
in West Bengal), Access to water (Ex- Tata Steel in Jamshedpur near the Subarnarekha River),
Proximity to Markets (Ex-Bhilai plant in Chhattisgarh) and Transportation (Ex-Vizag Steel Plant
in Andhra Pradesh near Visakhapatnam Port) + Steel in the world is the largest carbon-emitting
manufacturing sector + India’s per capita consumption of finished steel (97.7 kg) is almost half
of the global average (219.3 kg) and 1/6th of China (628.3 kg).
• GoI’s Policies in Steel Sector = Make in India + National Steel Policy (300 million tonnes
(MT) steel-making capacity and 160 kg per capita steel consumption by 2030-31) + PM Gati
Shakti National Master Plan + Revamped Steel Import Monitoring System (SIMS) 2.0 +
Mission Purvodaya (Accelerated development of eastern India (Odisha, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh) through the establishment of integrated
steel hub in Kolkata) + Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme under the National
Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) + Steel Scrap Recycling Policy 2019 +
National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM) to use green hydrogen in steel making + The
Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS).
Ø World Gold Council (WGC) = It is a non-profit association of the world’s leading gold
producers + Established in 1987 + It is the market development organisation and the global
authority on gold related standards and policies + Aims to promote the use of and demand for gold
through marketing, research, and lobbying + It has 32 members, which are the world’s leading gold
mining companies + It covers the markets which comprises about 75% of the world’s annual gold
consumption + WGC was the creator of the first Gold Exchange-Traded Fund (ETF) + Headquarter
is in London with offices in India, China, Singapore, the UAE and the US.

7) DEFENCE
Ø Su-30MKI = Sukhoi 30 MKI is a fourth generation Twin-seater, Multi-role, Long range
Fighter/Bomber/Air Superiority Aircraft + It was developed by Russia's Sukhoi Aviation Center
and built under licence by India's Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for the Indian Air Force
(IAF) + There are many variants of Sukhoi-30 aircraft and the variant used by the Indian Air
Force is Sukhoi 30MKI + Apart from the Russian and Indian Air Force, the other users of
Sukhoi-30 aircraft are Algeria, China, Vietnam, Venezuela, Malaysia + The Su-30MKI fleet of
IAF is fitted with air-launched versions of BrahMos supersonic cruise missiles + It has a range
of 3000 Km with maximum speed of Mach 2 + The Defence Ministry has a contract with
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for 240 AL-31FP aero-engines for Su-30MKI aircraft.
Ø AH-64E Apache Helicopters = The AH-64E Apache (Apache Guardian) is manufactured by
Boeing (US) + It is a highly advanced heavy multi-role combat helicopter + It features open
architecture for advanced systems, enhanced thrust and lift, digital interoperability, improved
survivability, and advanced infrared and night vision capabilities + It has operational limitations
at high altitudes and will be deployed in desert regions + Apaches would be the 2nd attack
helicopters in the Army after the indigenous LCH + AH-64E Apache is operated by India, Egypt,
Israel, Japan, South Korea, UAE, UK, and others + Indian Army is set to receive its first batch
of three AH-64E Apache attack helicopters from Boeing in December 2024.
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 • Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) = LCH is specifically designed for high-altitude
conditions (which Apache fails to do) + LCH is the only attack helicopter in the world which
can land and take off at an altitude of 5,000 metres + Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)
is tasked to develop a Light Combat Helicopter in India + In 2022, IAF inducted the
indigenously developed multi-role LCH Prachanda suitable for high-altitude battlefields.
Ø INS Mulki and INS Malpe = Indigenous INS Mulki and INS Malpe Anti-Submarine Warfare
Shallow Watercraft (ASWCWC) was recently launched by the Indian Navy at Cochin shipyard
+ Both ships are part of the Mahe Class and are designed to perform anti-submarine operations,
mine-laying operations, and low-intensity maritime operations + These vessels are the fourth
and fifth in a series of eight ASWCWC.
Ø Project-17B = The Project-17 Bravo frigates (P-17B) or Next Generation Frigates (NGF) are a
class of planned stealth guided-missile frigates to be built for the Indian Navy + The class will
be a follow-on for Nilgiri-class frigates which are under construction + It includes Next
Generation Destroyers (NGD) or Project 18-class destroyers and Next Generation Corvettes
(NGC).
Ø Pinaka Multi-Barrel Rocket Launcher = It is a multiple rocket launcher indigenously
developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) for the Indian
Army + It was first used during the Kargil War (1999), where it successfully neutralised Pakistan
Army positions on the mountain tops.
Ø HIMARS = High Mobility Artillery Rocket Systems (HIMARS) is a light, multiple rocket
launcher manufactured by a US-based security and aerospace company + It is an air-
transportable wheeled launcher mounted on a Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV) +
It can carry either a launcher pod of 6 rockets or one MGM-140 Army Tactical Missile System
(ATACMS), which has a range of 300 km + ATACMS is a conventional surface-to-surface
artillery weapon system capable of striking targets well beyond the range of existing Army
cannons, rockets, and other missiles + HIMARS launches its weapons and moves away from the
area at high speed.
Ø Pralay Missiles = Tactical Ballistic Missiles Developed by DRDO + It is India's first
conventional quasi-ballistic missile + It is a surface-to-surface short-range ballistic missile with
an operational range of 150 to 500 km with a payload capability of 350 to 700 kgs + It can be
launched from a mobile launcher + Unlike intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) that exit
the Earth’s atmosphere, short-range ballistic missiles stay within it + The Pralay has a similar
range and trajectory to Russia's Iskander-M missile.
Ø Nirbhay Subsonic Cruise Missiles = It is India’s first indigenously-produced long-range
subsonic cruise missile + Developed by the Bengaluru-based Aeronautical Development
Establishment (lab under DRDO) + It has a 1,500 km with a payload capability of up to 450 kg
+ It can be armed with a small nuclear warhead + It is possible to be launched from air, land,
and underwater vessels + Capable of deep penetration into adversary territory to strike high-
value targets with precision.
Ø Agni-4 Missile = First tested in 2011, it is surface-to-surface intermediate-range ballistic missile
+ It is designed and developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO) + It has a range of 4,000 kilometers + It is 20-metre-long missile and can carry a payload
of up to 1,000 kilograms + Agni-4 is is the 4th in the Agni series of missiles which was earlier
known as Agni II prime + It can carry both conventional and nuclear warheads + Agni missiles
have been developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP). 5
missiles (P-A-T-N-A) under the IGMDP are: Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Nag, and Akash.
Ø Operation Chakra III = It was initiated by CBI in 2022 + It is an INTERPOL assisted Global
Action to combat and dismantle organized cyber enabled financial crime networks + Its phase 1
in 2022 and phase 2 was launched in 2023 + Phase III was recently launched by the Central
Bureau of Investigation (CBI) in collaboration with the FBI (U.S.A) to dismantle a virtual asset
and bullion-supported cybercrime network.

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 Ø Exercise AIKYA = Disaster management exercise + Jointly organized by the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA), Indian Army Southern Command, and the Tamil Nadu State
Disaster Management Authority (TNSDMA) + Participants were Tamil Nadu, Kerala,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Puducherry.
Ø Exercise Eastern Bridge VII = 7th edition of the Exercise Eastern Bridge between Indian Air
Force (IAF) and the Royal Air Force of Oman (RAFO) + It was held at Masirah (Oman).
Ø Exercise AL NAJAH = 5th edition + India - Oman Joint Military Exercise + Held at Rabkoot
Training Area in Salalah, Oman.
Ø Exercise Yudh Abhyas 2024 = India-US Bilateral Army Exercise.
Ø Exercise Varuna = It is bilateral naval exercise between India and France + It is conducted in
either Indian Ocean or a Mediterranean Sea + The 22nd edition 2024 of Varuna took place in the
Mediterranean Sea + Other Indo-French Joint Exercises: Desert Knight-21, Garuda (Air
exercise), and Shakti (Army exercise)
Ø Exercise Tarang Shakti 24 = It is India’s largest multinational air exercise hosted by the Indian
Air Force (IAF) and took place in Jodhpur, Rajasthan + It was conducted in two phases, first at
Sulur in Tamil Nadu and second at Jodhpur in Rajasthan + It included participation from
Australia, Greece, Sri Lanka, UAE, Japan, Singapore, and the United States.
Ø Beibu/Interaction (2024) = It is Russia and China's joint naval exercises in the Sea of Japan +
The exercises will include anti-aircraft and anti-submarine weapons + This is the third joint
military drill in this location between the two countries.
Ø Northern United-2024 = These are joint naval and air drills in the Sea of Japan and the Sea of
Okhotsk + Organised by China and Russia + It aims to improve strategic cooperation between
China and Russia and “strengthen their ability to jointly deal with security threats.”
• Sea of Japan = It is the marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean + Bounded by Japan and
Sakhalin Island to the east and by Russia and Korea to the west.
• Sea of Okhotsk = It is a marginal sea of the West Pacific Ocean + Bounded on by Kamchatka
Peninsula and the Kuril Islands (East and Southeast), by the northern coast of the Japanese
island of Hokkaido (South) and by Sakhalin Island (Southwest).

8) HEALTH
Ø Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) (PYQ) = Hepatitis E is caused by the Hepatitis E Virus (HEV) + HEV
is a positive-sense, single-stranded, non-enveloped RNA virus classified under the family
Hepeviridae + Primary transmission route is faecal-oral, especially contaminated water and food
+ The virus has at least 4 different types (genotypes 1, 2, 3 and 4) + Genotypes 1 and 2 have
been found only in humans + Zoonotic transmission is possible with genotypes 3 and 4 + In
Rocahepevirus Ratti strain (also known as “Rat HEV”) rats are the primary reservoir of the virus
+ LCK-3110 strain is linked to human disease + Severe infection affcts pregnant women and
immunocompromised individuals + Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment for acute
HEV + Vaccine Hecolin (HEV 239) is approved for use in China, but no vaccine is widely
available or approved in most countries + Recent research indicates that pigs may act as a
transmission vehicle for a strain of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) commonly found in rats, known
as Rocahepevirus ratti, or rat HEV.
Ø Rabies = Rabies is a zoonotic viral disease caused by the RABV (Ribonucleic Acid i.e RNA)
virus present in the saliva of a rabid animal like a dog, cat, monkey, etc + Transmitted through
the bite, saliva or scratch of an infected animal, often a dog + It primarily affects the central
nervous system (consisting of the brain and spinal cord) + Symptoms: Hyperactivity,
hallucinations, paralysis, hydrophobia (fear of water), and difficulty swallowing + 100%
vaccine-preventable, but it is 100% fatal once symptoms appear + 33% of global rabies deaths
are recorded in India and 96% of cases are from dog bites + Prevention includes four doses of
the rabies vaccine administered intradermally or intramuscularly over 28 days for unvaccinated
individuals + Medical care following a rabies exposure is Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) with

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 a rabies vaccine and Human Rabies Immunoglobulin (HRIg) + Rabies is also one of the
Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) + Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules, 2023 aim to ensure
the safety of stray animals, address cruelty, prevent rabies, and prevent human-animal conflicts.
• National Action Plan for Dog Mediated Rabies Elimination by 2030 (NAPRE) = Under
NAPRE, the Centre encourages all the States and UTs to make Rabies a notifiable Disease
+ A notifiable disease is any disease that is required by law to be reported to government
authorities + “Joint Inter-Ministerial Declaration Support Statement” for Elimination of Dog
mediated Rabies from India by 2030 was also launched + Recently, the Government of
Jammu and Kashmir declared human rabies a notifiable disease under the Epidemic Diseases
Act of 1897.
Ø Zombie Fungus = It refers to a group of fungi, primarily Cordyceps and Ophiocordyceps +
Fungus infects insects and takes control of their minds and motor functions, leading to the host’s
death + It drains entire of nutrients of its host and fills the host body with spores, allowing the
fungus to reproduce + The fungus is largely pantropical and primarily infects carpenter ants +
Cordyceps is a genus of fungi that primarily attacks invertebrates and mainly infects insects such
as ants or spiders + Please Note: The zombie fungus does not infect humans.
Ø Cholera = Cholera is a acute diarrheal water-borne disease caused by the bacteria Vibrio
cholerae (V. cholerae)) strains O1 and O139 + Strain O1 is the predominant cause of outbreaks,
with O139 occurrences being rare and mostly confined to Asia + Infection affects the
functioning of small intestine + V. cholerae bacteria favour warmer waters with lower salinity +
It transmits through ingestion of food or water contaminated with V. cholerae + Currently, WHO
pre-qualified Oral Cholera Vaccines (OCV) are Dukoral, Shanchol, and Euvichol-Plus + WHO
recommends a Reduced Osmolarity Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS), needed for the human
body to rehydrate effectively + African and Asian countries are primarily affected by Cholera +
In India, Diarrhoea is the 3rd leading cause of childhood mortality, accounting for 13% of all
deaths among children under five + Please Note: The Global Task Force for Cholera Control
(GTFCC) was launched by the WHO and has created a Global Roadmap for Ending Cholera by
2030.
Ø Gram-Negative Bacteria = Gram-positive bacteria have a cell wall composed of thick layers of
peptidoglycan whereas gram-negative bacteria have thin layers of peptidoglycan + They have an
additional outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which provides extra
protection and can trigger strong immune responses + Outer membrane acts as a barrier, making
Gram-negative bacteria more resistant to antibiotics like penicillin. Thus, it requires stronger or
more specific antibiotics for treatment + Gram-negative bacteria are responsible for a wide range
of infections including urinary tract infections (UTIs), pneumonia, septicemia (blood infections),
and wound infections + Examples of Gram-Negative Bacteria are Escherichia coli (E. coli),
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Neisseria
gonorrhoeae.
• Fusobacterium Nucleatum (F. nucleatum) = It is a Gram-negative, anaerobic bacterium
that is commonly found in the human oral cavity + In the oral cavity, F. nucleatum is
considered a ‘bridging’ organism that can flourish and, along with other microbes, trigger
inflammation leading to gum, or periodontal, disease + F. nucleatum is rarely seen in the guts
of healthy people. However, in cases of colorectal cancer, the bacteria are found in tumours
in the gut, where they help cancer cells escape from the immune system and spread to other
parts of the body.
• Gram-negative and Gram-positive Bacteria = Gram-negative bacteria are classified by the
colour they turn after Gram staining. They have a thinner peptidoglycan cell wall than gram-
positive bacteria. They do not hold the blue dye used in Gram testing and do not appear blue.
Instead, they appear red or pink in colour + Gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a
positive result in the Gram stain test. They appear blue in Gram staining.

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 • Staphylococcus Aureus = It is a gram-positive spherically shaped bacterium frequently
found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin + A new study highlights the potential
for Staphylococcus aureus to adapt and develop resistance to vancomycin, which is a key
antibiotic used to treat MRSA infections.
Ø Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) = It is a strain of bacteria resistant to
multiple antibiotics, making it difficult to treat + MRSA can cause a range of organ-specific
infections (the most common being the skin and subcutaneous tissues) followed by invasive
infections like osteomyelitis, meningitis, and pneumonia + The mecA gene is responsible for
MRSA's resistance, producing a protein that reduces the effectiveness of beta-lactam antibiotics
+ Vancomycin is an antibiotic critical in the treatment of MRSA infections + MRSA can acquire
resistance to vancomycin through gene transfer, specifically the vanA operon, which can
compromise its growth rate + Resistance arises from mutations in penicillin-binding proteins and
can be transferred between bacteria via bacteriophages.
Ø Narrow-Spectrum Antibiotics = These are antibiotics that are effective only against a selected
group of bacterial types, unlike broad-spectrum + These are administered for the specific
infection + They can act on either gram +ve or gram –ve, but not both + They reduced chances
of bacterial resistance and spread of drug-resistant infections due of their specificity + They
cause less disruption to the body’s normal microorganisms compared to broad-spectrum
antibiotics + Examples: Azithromycin, Clarithromycin, Erythromycin, etc + Recently, the first
narrow-spectrum antibiotic successfully eliminates Fusobacterium nucleatum, a gum disease
pathogen.
Ø Vancomycin = It is a glycopeptide antibiotic that works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial
cell walls, making it particularly effective against gram-positive bacteria like MRSA + It has
remained effective against MRSA due to its ability to target bacteria that have become resistant
to other antibiotics like methicillin + Vancomycin has been the first-line treatment for severe
MRSA infections, such as those affecting the bloodstream, heart, bones, and lungs.
Ø Fluoxetine = It is an antidepressant medication belonging to a group of medicines called
Serotonin Selective Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) + It works by inhibiting the uptake of serotonin
(neurotransmitter that primarily controls mood) by nerve cells + Fluoxetine is used for treating
depression, panic, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorders + Recent study showed that low
concentrations of fluoxetine reduces activity levels and increases refuge-seeking behaviour in
male guppy fish + Long-term exposure to fluoxetine (Prozac) can disrupt the behaviour and
reproductive traits of the male guppy fish.
Ø PresVu = DCGI has approved new eye drop PresVu for individuals affected by Presbyopia +
Presbyopia is a gradual loss of the near-focusing ability of the eye. It is caused as part of the
natural ageing process of the eye as flexibility or elasticity of the lens decreases in older age + It
is a refractive error that occurs when the lens of the eye becomes less flexible and cannot focus
light correctly on the retina + It is a natural part of ageing which becomes noticeable in the early
to mid-40s and continues to worsen around age 65 + Pilocarpine is the active ingredient in the
drops, which works by causing the pupils to constrict, creating a pinhole effect. Pilocarpine is
also used to treat glaucoma.
Ø GLP-1 Agonists = Diabetes and Weight Loss Drug + Recently, a class of drugs called GLP-1
agonists (originally used for diabetes) has gained attention for its role in weight loss + GLP-1
Agonists drugs mimic the gut hormone GLP-1 which enhances insulin release and slows
digestion, promoting a sense of fullness + Higher doses of Semaglutide (use for diabetes since
2017) are now used as a weight-loss drug in Western countries + Recently, An expert committee
of India’s drug regulator has given its approval for the launch of the weight loss drug tirzepatide
+ Tirzepatide is an antidiabetic medication used for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and for
weight loss.
• Semaglutide = It is a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 RA) drug that
increases the secretion of insulin (helps decrease blood sugar levels) after a meal while

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 reducing the production of glucagon (helps increase blood sugar levels) + Besides regulating
glucose levels, the drug also aids in weight loss, lowers the risk of hypoglycaemia, and
improves heart health and kidney function + It also increases gastric emptying time, meaning
food takes longer to pass through the gastrointestinal tract and it makes you feel full for a
longer period of time + It was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to
treat type 2 diabetes + In a study, semaglutide specifically showed greater weight loss in
subjects than other GLP-1 RA drugs.
Ø MVA-BN Vaccine = WHO has recently approved Bavarian Nordic’s MVA-BN (Denmark
based company) as the first vaccine against mpox, adding it to its prequalification list for
expanded access in communities with urgent need + Modified Vaccinia Ankara-Bavarian Nordic
(MVA-BN) is a live, attenuated, non-replicating, proprietary version of the MVA virus + It is
produced using chick embryo cell cultures and used for the prevention of smallpox and
monkeypox, with potential antineoplastic activity + It is approved in the European Union and
United Kingdom (marketed as Imvanex), United States and Switzerland (marketed as Jynneos),
and Canada (marketed as Imvamune).
Ø Organ-on-Chip (OoC) Technology = OoC is one of the human-relevant 3D culture models aka
‘New Approach Methods’ (NAMs) + It is a micro-scale system used for mimicking the human
body environment + It uses microfluidics, membranes, cells to imitate the physiological and
mechanical conditions experienced in the body + Its goal is to develop human tissue models for
disease modelling and drug testing. + It allows researchers to recreate human organs and diseases
together + Its applications include regenerative medicine, drug discovery, precision medicine,
cancer research and gene expression studies + Researchers 1st reported the usefulness of an
organ-on-chip model in a 2010 study + Components of OoC: (1) Microfluidics uses tiny channels
to deliver cells to specific locations and manage fluid flow during the culture process; (2) Living
Cell Tissues arranges specific cell types in the right places to mimic tissue functions; (3)
Stimulation or Drug Delivery for certain tissues needing electrical or chemical signals; (4)
Sensors to track and measure data or visual monitoring systems to evaluate the chip's function +
Other New Approach Methods: (1) Organoids are created by growing cells from a tissue,
embryonic stem cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells in a controlled environment; (2)
Spheroids mimic tumor behavior more effectively than regular two dimensional (2D) cell
cultures; (3) Bio printing (also known as 3D bio-printing or additive manufacturing) uses 3D
printing to create living tissues and organs.
Ø BPaLM = Recently, the Health Ministry approved a new BPaLM Regimen for multidrug-
resistant (MDR) TB + It is a shorter, more effective treatment for drug-resistant TB
recommended by WHO in 2022 + BPaLM regimen consists of 4 drugs – Bedaquiline,
Pretomanid, Linezolid, and Moxifloxacin + Bedaquiline (Bdq) targets the ATP synthase enzyme
in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, disrupting energy production + Pretomanid (Pa) inhibits
bacterial cell wall synthesis and kills bacteria under anaerobic conditions + Linezolid (Lzd)
inhibits protein synthesis, stopping bacterial growth. It is effective against MDR and XDR TB
strains + BPaLM is entirely oral with no injectable + It requires only 3-4 tablets daily for 6
months unlike 13-14 tablets daily for longer regimens + This regimen reduces the treatment time
to around 6 months, compared to the earlier duration of 18 to 24 months + This regimen is safer
and more efficient, has fewer side effects, and has a higher success rate + It is introduced under
the National TB Elimination Programme which aims to eliminate TB in India by 2025.
Ø TDP1 = Recent research by scientists at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science
(IACS), Kolkata, has identified a new approach for cancer treatment by targeting a DNA repair
enzyme called TDP1 + TDP1 is an enzyme that plays a key role in the DNA repair process by
resolving DNA lesions, particularly those caused by Top1 inhibitors (used in chemotherapy of
cancer) + Cancer cells often exploit TDP1 to repair the DNA damage caused by chemotherapy
drugs, leading to drug resistance.
• CDK1 (Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 1) = CDK1 is a crucial protein kinase that regulates the
cell cycle, particularly the transition from the G2 phase (second phase) to the M phase
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 (mitosis) + It ensures proper cell division by interacting with cyclins and phosphorylating
target proteins + CDK1 is often overexpressed in cancer cells, leading to uncontrolled cell
proliferation. Inhibiting CDK1 can disrupt the cell cycle, induce apoptosis (cell death), and
enhance the effectiveness of cancer therapies + Presently, several CDK1 inhibitors such as
avotaciclib, alvocidib, roniciclib, riviciclib, and dinaciclib are currently in various stages of
clinical trials. These inhibitors show potential in treating cancers by targeting the cell cycle.
Ø Cancer Multi-Omics Data Portal = Recently, the Indian Cancer Genome Atlas (ICGA)
Foundation has launched the country’s first comprehensive cancer genomics repository + It is
India's first platform providing open access to data from Indian cancer patients + Aims to provide
a repository of information on various aspects of cancer in the Indian population such as DNA,
RNA and protein profiles of breast cancer patients, integrated with clinical outcomes +
Currently, the platform consists of data from 50 breast cancer patients + Project is inspired by
the U.S.-based Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) + It is a major cancer-genomics program that has
characterised over 20,000 primary cancers.
• Indian Cancer Genome Atlas (ICGA) = It is a national initiative focused on mapping
cancers across India + Its first project focuses on the multi-omics profiling of breast cancer
+ ICGA Foundation is a not-for-profit organisation operated through a public-private-
philanthropic partnership + It aims to enhance cancer diagnosis and treatment for Indian
patients and contribute to the global understanding of cancer biology.
Ø One Health Approach = “One Health” approach recognises the interconnection between
people, animals, plants, and their shared environment + Strategy emphasises collaboration
among veterinary, medical, and environmental sectors to effectively manage rabies at the human-
animal-environment interface.
Ø Vishanu Yuddh Abhyas = Also known as Virus War Exercise + It is a mock drill conducted
under National One Health Mission (NOHM) under pandemic preparedness + NOHM focuses
on the "One Health" approach, which aims to achieve integrated disease control and pandemic
preparedness + It aims to assess the readiness and response of the National Joint Outbreak
Response Team (NJORT), which has experts from human health, animal husbandry and wildlife
sectors + It involved ICMR, AIIMS Jodhpur BSL-3 Lab, and State administrations.
Ø Operation AMRITH = Recently launched by Kerala to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR)
by enforcing the 2011 H1 Rule to prohibit the over-the-counter (OTC) sale of antibiotics + It
aims to completely stop the over-the-counter (OTC) sale of antibiotics without prescriptions by
the end of 2024 + Kerala is enforcing the Indian government’s 2011 H1 rule which prohibits the
sale of all antibiotics i.e. 1st, 2nd and 3rd without a prescription + In January 2024, Kerala
became the first State in the country to ban the OTC sale of antibiotics without a prescription.
Ø Black Box Warning = It is also known as a boxed warning, is the most serious warning the US
FDA can issue for a drug + It's a prominent label on a drug's packaging that indicates a serious
risk is associated with the drug + Recently, The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
issued a ‘black box warning’ for montelukast.
Ø “Breakthrough Device” Status = Given by US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) + It is
intended to accelerate development of devices that offer promising new treatments or diagnostic
capabilities for life-threatening conditions.
• Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) = It is a system that determines functional intent - the
desire to change, move, control, or interact with something in our environment - directly
from brain activity + BCIs allow controlling an application or a device using only our mind
+ Neuralink, an Elon Musk company has successfully installed a wireless brain-computer
interface (BCI) implant in a human patient. In 2023, Neuralink was granted permission by
the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for human trials. It aims to build a next-
generation brain implant with at least 100 times more brain connections than devices
currently approved by FDA.

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9) INDICES & REPORTS
Ø Asia Power Index 2024 = It was launched by the Lowy Institute (Australian think tank) in 2018
+ It annually assesses power dynamics across 27 Asia-Pacific countries + The index assesses on
the basis of 8 themes divided into: (1) Resource-based (Economic Capability, Military
Capability, Resilience, Future Resources) and (2) Influence-based (Economic Relationships,
Defense Networks, Diplomatic Influence, Cultural Influence) + The 2024 edition is the most
comprehensive so far + According to the 2024 Index, India has overtaken Japan to become the
3rd most powerful country in Asia + Please Note: Timor-Leste has been included for the first
time in 2024 assessment.
Ø Global Innovation Index (GII) 2024 = It is annually published by the World Intellectual
Property Organization (WIPO) + GII acts as a benchmarking tool for the governments across the
world to assess the innovation-led social and economic changes in their respective countries +
India secured 39th position (40th rank in 2023) among 133 global economies in the GII 2024.
• World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) = WIPO is the global forum for
Intellectual Property (IP) services, policy, information and cooperation + Its mandate,
governing bodies and procedures are set out in the WIPO Convention, which established
WIPO in 1967 + It is a self-funded and a specialised agency of the United Nations +
Currently, there are 193 members (including India) + Headquarter: Geneva.
Ø Goods Trade Barometer = Released by World Trade Organization (WTO) + It is a composite
leading indicator for world trade which provides real-time information on merchandise trade
trajectory relative to recent trends + Its baseline value is 100. A value greater than 100 suggests
above trend growth while a value below 100 indicates below-trend growth + It is updated on a
quarterly basis + The current 2024 Goods Trade Barometer Index reading is 103, suggesting that
merchandise trade has been picking up in the third quarter of 2024.
Ø Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) 2024 = Released every year by the International
Telecommunication Union (oldest UN Specialised agency) from 2015 + It measures the
comprehensive development and commitment to cybersecurity at a global level + The
assessment is based on 5 pillars: Legal Measures, Technical Measures, Organisational Measures,
Capacity Development, and Cooperation + Under GCI, countries are categorised into 5-tiers
(Tier 1 to Tier 5)) based on their cybersecurity efforts, with Tier 1 representing the highest level
+ The GCI 2024 (5th edition) evaluated 194 countries + India secured Tier 1 status (scored
98.49/100) along with 46 countries such as the US, Japan and Australia + Most countries (105)
are ranked in Tiers 3 and 4 + Please Note: Last GCI was published in 2021.
Ø Air Quality and Climate Bulletin = It is annually released by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) since 2021 + 4th annual bulletin i.e. 2024 theme is ‘Invest in Clean Air
Now’ + It explores the intricate relationship between air quality and climate.

10) ART & CULTURE

Ø Tiruvalluvar = Commonly known as Valluvar, was a Tamil poet and philosopher + His living
period is debated and believed to have lived between the 3rd-4th century or the 8th-9th century
+ He is revered as a moral guide and social reformer in Tamil Nadu + He is best known as the
author of the ‘Tirukkuṟaḷ’, a collection of couplets on ethics, political and economic matters and
love + A 133-foot statue of Tiruvalluvar stands in Kanyakumari.
• Thirukkural = Thirukkural (Tamil: “Sacred Couplets”) also called Kural, is a classic Tamil
text written by Thiruvalluvar + It is a collection of 1,330 couplets (kurals) that offer timeless
wisdom on ethics, governance, love and spirituality + It is known for its universality and
secular nature + Thirukkural is divided into three main parts or books – Aram (Virtue), Porul
(Wealth) and Inbam (Love)
• Tiruvalluvar Day = It is usually celebrated either on the 15th or 16th of January in Tamil
Nadu and is a part of Pongal celebrations + The day is similar to Raksha Bandhan where

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 women pray for the well-being of their brothers + Thiruvalluvar Day was first celebrated on
May 17 and 18 in 1935.
Ø Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan = Teachers' Day, celebrated annually on 5th September since
1962 to honour the contributions of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan + He served as the first Vice-
President of India (1952 - 1962) and the second President of India (1962 - 1967) + He was
posthumously (after death) awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1984 + His notable works include Reign
of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy, Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore, The Hindu View
of Life, Kalki or the Future of Civilisation, An Idealist View of Life, The Religion We Need,
and Gautama the Buddha.
• National Teachers Awards 2024 = The National Awards to Teachers (NAT) 2024,
announced by the Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education + It is conferred
on the exemplary teachers/faculty members of higher education institutions (HEIs) and
Polytechnics + The award is open to all the faculty members of colleges/universities/higher
educational institutions/polytechnics in India + It is felicitated by the President on Teacher’s
Day (5 September) at Vigyan Bhawan in Delhi + Vice-Chancellor/Director/Principal (regular
or officiating) are not eligible to apply + Nominees for the award should be a regular faculty
member and must have at least five years of full-time experience + The nominee should not be
over 55 years of age and still in active service.
Ø Srinivasa Ramanujan = Born on 22 December 1887 + He was an Indian mathematician who
made contributions to infinite series, mathematical analysis, number theory, theory of partitions,
and continued fractions + National Mathematics Day is observed annually on December 22 (birth
anniversary of Srinivasa Ramanujan) + “The Man Who Knew Infinity” is a biography and a
movie on the life of Ramanujan + "Lost notebook," is his posthumous work influencing modern
mathematics + “1729” is known as the Ramanujan number, the smallest number that can be
expressed as the sum of two different cubes in two different ways + He was elected to the Royal
Society of London in 1918 + Ramanujan was the first Indian elected a Trinity College,
Cambridge University Fellow.
Ø E.V Ramasamy Naicker (Periyar) = He was born in 1879 and worked as a Congress worker
till 1925 + Later, associated himself with the Justice Party of Madras + In 1924, Erode
Venkatappa Ramasamy Naicker participated in non-violent agitation (satyagraha) in Vaikom,
Travancore and demanded the entry of Dalits in temples in Kerala + He is referred to as Vaikom
Veerar (Hero of Vaikom) for his contribution to Vaikom + He opposed Brahminical dominance
and gender and caste inequality in Tamil Nadu + Periyar’s ideology was spread through the
Tamil weekly, Kudi Arasu (The Republic) + He became the head of the Justice Party in 1939
and later changed its name to Dravidar Kazhagam in 1944 + He advocated for an independent
Dravida Nadu (land of the Dravidians) + Regarded as the 'Father of Modern Tamil Nadu' and
‘Father of the Dravidian movement'.
Ø Bhagat Singh = September 28 is celebrated as Shaheed Bhagat Singh Jayanti + He was born on
27 September 1907 + Joined Lala Lajpat Rai’s National College in Lahore in 1923 + Bhagat
Singh was able to communicate in Urdu, Punjabi, Hindi, and English, and was familiar with the
fundamentals of Sanskrit + He popularised the slogan “Inquilab Zindabad” (“Long live the
revolution”) + In 1927, Bhagat Singh was detained in connection with the Lahore Dussehra
bomb case of 1926 + In 1928 Bhagat Singh plotted to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, and
mistakenly killed J.P. Saunders + He and Jatin Das held a hunger strike demanding better prison
conditions for Indian prisoners + In 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw bombs at
the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi in opposition to the introduction of the Public Safety
Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill + Bhagat Singh undertook a hunger strike for 116 days in 1929
to protest against the poor treatment of political prisoners by the British authorities in jail + He
was convicted of the murder of John Saunders and Channan Singh in the Lahore Conspiracy
case and was given a death sentence + Shaheed Bhagat Singh, along with Sukhdev and Rajguru,
was hanged in March 1931 at Lahore.

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 • Associations = Member of the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), a left-
wing radical revolutionary organisation + He founded Naujawan Bharat Sabha in 1926 to
encourage revolution against British rule by rallying the peasants and workers + He was also
associated with the Kirti Kisan Party + He was a supporter of Gandhiji’s Non Cooperation
Movement + Singh approved the thoughts of members of Gadar Party, such as Kartar Singh
Sarbha and Bhai Parmanand.
• Ideas/Ideologies = Socialism and Secularism were two most important reforms propagated
by Singh + He also opposed Capitalism and Imperialism + He borrowed ideas from
Bolshevism and anarchism to promote militant nationalism in India in the 1930s. (Anarchist
society-not controlled by the state) + He was a follower of Marxism and Leninism and sought
to establish a socialist and communist society in India + Shaheed Bhagat Singh considered
himself to be an atheist.
• Books and Literature = “Why I am an Atheist” is an essay in which he explains his views
on religion and why he became an atheist + “The Jail Notebook and Other Writings” book is
a compilation of Bhagat Singh’s writings from prison + “The Problem of Punjab’s Language
and Script”-The distinction between the Gurmukhi script and the Punjabi language + In
“Vishwa Prem (Universal Love)”, he declares “Visva Bandhuta (Universal Brotherhood) +
He extols Rana Pratap, Mazzini, Gandhiji, Lenin, Washington, Savarkar, Tilak, and
MacSwiney as models for the youth + In “Students and Politics”, he explained how the then
Punjab government required aspiring collegiate to sign off on an undertaking that they will
not take part in political activities + In “The Problem of Untouchability”, he exhorts the “so-
called untouchables, the real sustainers of life” to take pride in the fact that they were part of
Guru Gobind Singh and Chh. Shivaji Maharaj’s armies + In “What is Revolution?”, he links
the spirit of revolution with the soul of humanity and resistance to reactionary forces + In
“What is Anarchism?,” Singh reflects that anarchists are against God and religion to begin
with because they feel this is the root of mental slavery + In “Letter to Young Political
Workers”, he says revolution means the complete overthrow of the existing social order and
its replacement with the socialist order.
Ø Self Respect Movement (PYQ 2019) = It was founded in 1921 by S. Ramanathan in Tamil
Nadu + In 1925, S. Ramanathan had invited E.V Ramaswamy, (also known as Periyar) to head
the campaign + It was an egalitarian movement primarily aimed at the rejection of Brahminical
authority and culture + It introduced self-respecting marriages, uplifting backward castes and
supported women’s rights such as property ownership, inter-caste marriages, divorce, and widow
remarriage + Annai Meenanmbal and Veeramal were two of the movement's female leaders +
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
(AIADMK) find their origins in the Self-respect movement.
Ø Deoband Movement = The Deoband Movement was started in Deoband in Saharanpur district
in Uttar Pradesh in 1866 by Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi and Rashid Ahmed Gangohi + The
objective was to abolish British rule and restore the Muslim Community by educating them in
the Islamic religion + Deoband was initiated by the orthodox section of the Muslim community
and formed for the moral and religious regeneration of the Muslim community + Deoband school
had supported the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 and had issued a fatwa
against Syed Ahmed Khan's organisations in 1888 + The whole movement was controlled by
Darul Uloom Deoband and Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind.
Ø Odisha Famine 1866 = It is also known as 'Na-Anka Famine' as it occurred during Gajapati
Divya Singha Deva's 9th regnal year + Killed around one-third of Odisha's total population +
After famine, Puri Coast Canal connecting Hooghly River (West Bengal) to River Matai
(Odisha) was built + Famine was occurred during tenure of Thomas Edward Ravenshaw (then
Commissioner of Odisha division) + He also established vernacular schools (Odia Language) in
rural areas and converted Cuttack Zilla School into Ravenshaw College.

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 Ø Tirumala Venkateswara Temple = Andhra Pradesh + The temple is constructed in Dravidian
architecture and dedicated to Lord Sri Venkateswara, an incarnation of Vishnu + Main shrine
houses a gold-plated tower, called Ananda Nilayam + The Chola dynasty played a significant
role in developing and patronising the temple + The temple received significant contributions
and endowments during the reign of the Vijayanagara Empire + Famous saint, Ramanuja played
a role in reviving the temple and its rituals in the 12th century.
• Tirumala Laddu = It is a GI Tagged Prasad distributed to the devotees at Tirumala
Venkateswara Temple + It was recently in news for allegations of adulteration.
• Food Adulterants = Adulteration is an act of degrading the nature and quality of food
through the addition or mixing of poor quality, inferior, harmful, substandard, and
unnecessary substances to food + Food Adulteration has been defined under the Prevention
of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 + Adulteration lowers the quality of food and sometimes,
toxic chemicals are also added which can be hazardous to health + Note: Food articles
containing some ingredients over the prescribed amount which are not hazardous for
consumption are not considered adulterated + Foods and respective adulterants: Milk –
water, chalk, urea, caustic soda and skimmed milk; Khoya – paper, refined oil and skimmed
milk powder; Tea – coloured leaves; Coffee – tamarind seeds, mustard seeds and chicori;
Wheat – Ergot (a fungus containing poisonous substance); Vegetables & Fruits – malachite
green (a carcinogenic chemical dye), oxytocin, saccharin, wax, calcium carbide and copper
sulphate; Sweets – silver vark containing aluminium.
Ø Nanjangud Rasabale Banana = Variety of banana from Karnataka + It has unique taste, aroma,
small size, buttery soft texture + It is cultivated in black saline alluvial soil along the banks of
the Kapila River + It has received Geographical Indication (GI) certification in 2006 for its
unique taste and aroma.
Ø Thanjavur Veena = The Thanjavur veena is the first musical instrument in India to receive the
prestigious Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2012 + Thanjavur is a temple town in Tamil
Nadu + Thanjavur is the sole place where the Saraswati Veena is crafted, making it a unique
centre for this particular type of veena + Saraswati Veena and Chitra Veena are commonly used
in Carnatic classical music + Thanjavur is the only place where the Saraswati veena is made +
Please Note: Rudra Veena and Vichitra Veena are predominantly used in Hindustani classical
music.
Ø Koodiyattam = It is one of the oldest traditional theatre forms of Kerala based on Sanskrit
theatre traditions + Key Characters: Chakyaar (The main actor); Nambiyaar (Instrumentalists)
Nangyaar (Performers of women’s roles) + Performance elements are Netra Abhinaya, Hasta
Abhinaya, and Pakarnattam (technique of embodying and emoting both male and female roles,
showcasing the actor’s versatility) + It is usually performed in Kuttambalams, permanent theatre
structures attached to major temples in Kerala + There are different styles or traditions in
Koodiyattam, chiefly Kalamandalam or Painkulam style, Ammannur style, and Mani Gurukulam
style + It was recognized by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity in 2001 + Cholliyattam is an informal platform for the younger generation of
Koodiyattam artists in Kerala following different styles to collaborate and to keep various
Koodiyattam traditions and styles alive.
Ø Kalaripayattu = It is the traditional martial art that originated during the 3rd century BC and is
popularly practised in Kerala + The term ‘Kalari’ appears in Tamil Sangam literature, denoting
both a battlefield and a combat arena + It is often referred to as the “Father of Modern Kung Fu”
+ Boys and girls in Haryana have taken to Kalaripayattu, largely practised and trained in Kerala
and now treated as a sport + It was introduced to the Khelo India games in 2021, along with
Gatka, Mallakhamb, Thang-ta.
Ø World Sanskrit Day = It is celebrated on August 19 on Shravan Purnima, the full moon in the
Shravan month + It was first celebrated in 1969 to commemorate the 2,500th anniversary of the
birth of Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini (Work - the Ashtadhyayi) + In 2019, UNESCO declared

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 August 19 as an International Sanskrit Day + Sanskrit is among the 22 official languages
included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution + It is also included among 11
Classical languages besides Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, Bengali + Sanskrit is the oldest
language (mother of all languages/language of the gods) and holds a prestigious place in the
liturgical and scholarly traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism + It has a vast literature
base including the Vedas, Upanishads, epics such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana + Sanskrit
received patronage from religious institutions, royal dynasties such as the Guptas and Cholas,
and colonial-era European scholars such as William Jones and Max Müller + Sanskrit was
declared the second official language of Uttarakhand in 2010 + In Mattur village of Karnataka
everyone speaks in the Sanskrit language.
Ø Hindi Diwas = Celebrated on 14th September every year + The first Hindi Diwas was celebrated
in 1953 + It commemorates the designation of Hindi, in the Devanagari script as the official
language of India (Article 343 of the Constitution) + The President of India presents the
Rajbhasha Gaurav Puraskar and Rajbhasha Kirti Puraskar awards to ministries, departments,
public sector units, citizens, etc. for their exceptional work in promoting the language.
Ø Onam = Kerala + Major harvest festival celebrated to honour the home-coming of Asura king
Mahabali + It is 10 days festival commences on Atham (the first day of Onam) and culminates
on Thiruvonam (the final day) + Members of the erstwhile ruling family of Travancore lit a lamp
beside the mammoth floral motif marking Onam in front of the iconic Sree Padmanabhaswamy
temple + A variety of rituals enrich the festival of Onam including Vallam Kali (boat races),
Pulikali (tiger dances), Kummattikali (mask dances), and Onathallu (martial arts) +
Thiruvathirakali is a traditional group dance celebrating womanhood with graceful circular
movements and clapping under moonlight + Please Note: Onam is one of the three major
festivals of Kerala, celebrated during the month of Chingam, the first month in the Malayalam
calendar, Kollavarsham. Other two major festivals of the state are Vishu and Thiruvathira.
Ø Sri Vijaya Puram = Recently, the government renamed Port Blair (capital of Andaman and
Nicobar) as ‘Sri Vijaya Puram’ + Port Blair was named after 18th-century British naval officer
Lieutenant Archibald Blair + The Chola Empire, under Rajendra Chola I, used the Andaman
Islands as a strategic naval base in the 11th century + The Thanjavur inscriptions (1050 CE) refer
to the islands as Ma-Nakkavaram (great open land), later evolving into the name Nicobar Islands
+ The Britishers built the Cellular Jail, also known as Kala Pani (Black Waters) in Port Blair to
house Indian convicts, mostly political prisoners, in solitary confinement.

11) MISCELLANEOUS
Ø Rann of Kutch = It is a salt desert located in the Northwest of the Thar Desert and separated by
the Aravalli Range + It was formed 150-200 million years ago when the Arabian Sea encroached
on the region. Subsequent geological upheavals created a landmass that isolated the Kutch basin
from the sea + It is the only large flooded grassland zone in the Indomalayan realm + Little Rann
of Kutch is situated at the end of the Gulf of Kutch and covers an area of 5,000 sq. km, primarily
in the Surendranagar district of Gujarat + Little Rann of Kutch is a vast, barren salt flat for most
of the year, transforming into a shallow wetland during the monsoon + The wetland features
approximately 75 elevated pieces of land known as "Bets" + Climate of the ecoregion is tropical
savanna/semi-arid + Temperatures average 44°C during the hot summer months and can drop to
or below freezing point during winter + Rainfall is highly seasonal and remains dry for most of
the year. + Protected areas: Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary, Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary and
Pakistan's Rann of Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary + Common grass species: Apluda aristata,
Cenchrus spp., Pennisetum spp., Cymbopogon spp., Eragrostis spp., and Elionurus spp +
Prominent fauna: Indian wild ass, chinkara, nilgai (threatened), blackbuck (threatened), wolf,
striped hyena, desert wildcat, caracal, lesser florican (threatened), houbara bustard (threatened),
demoiselle crane, and lesser flamingo + Little Rann is a significant source of salt production in
India + Koli, Sandhi, Agaria, and Miyana communities collectively known as Saltpan workers,
reside in the Little Rann of Kutch and Saurashtra regions + A tribal herdsmen Maldhari
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 community in Gujarat living in the Gir National Park and Banni Grasslands Reserve area +
Please Note: The Rann of Kutch was a part of both the Maurya and Gupta empires of India.
Ø Vadhvan Port = Maharashtra + It will be developed on Arabian sea coast as a joint venture by
the Jawaharlal Nehru Port Authority (JNPA) and the Maharashtra Maritime Board (MMB) +
The new port has a natural draft of about 20 metres close to the shore, making it possible for it
to handle bigger vessels + It will be developed as a Green Port + It will be built on a landlord-
model through PPP.
Ø Galathea Port = The Central Government notified the Galathea Port in exercise of the powers
conferred by section 5 of the Indian Ports Act, 1908 + It is located in Galathea Bay in Andaman
& Nicobar Islands + It is being developed as an International Container Transshipment Port
(ICTP) and will be the 14th Major Port of India + A transshipment port is a hub or location where
cargo is transferred from one vessel to another for further transportation to its final destination +
It will be close to the choke points like Malacca Strait and the East-West shipping route
connecting Europe, Africa, and Asia.
Ø Sabina Shoal [Mapping] = Also known as Xianbin Reef, is an oceanic coral atoll that developed
on top of a seamount in the eastern part of the Spratlys Islands in the South China Sea + It is
considered to be within the Philippines' 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ) under
UNCLOS + China claims the shoal and much of the South China Sea as its sovereign territory.
Ø Dickson Fjord = Dickson Fjord is a fjord in King Christian X Land, eastern Greenland +
Administratively, it lies in the Northeast Greenland National Park area + This fjord is part of the
King Oscar Fjord system.
• Fjord = A fjord is a deep, narrow sea inlet created by glacial erosion + They often feature
U-shaped channels, high cliffs and are flooded by seawater + They exist on the coasts of
Antarctica, the Arctic, and surrounding landmasses of the northern and southern hemispheres
+ Norway, Chile, New Zealand, and the U.S. state of Alaska have prominent Fjords.
Ø Taiwan Strait = It is known as Formosa Strait, Strait of Fukien or Fujian and the Black Ditch +
It separates Taiwan from continental Asia (China), and connects the South China Sea and East
China Sea + It contains the Pescadores Islands, which are controlled by the government of
Taiwan + Median line of the Taiwan Strait (also known as Davis line) is the informal dividing
line in the Taiwan Strait between the Chinese mainland and Taiwan + It is a major global
shipping corridor with 44% of the world’s container fleet moving through it.
Ø Rapa Nui Island = Known as Easter Island + It is a part of Polynesia and a territory of Chile
situated in the southeastern Pacific Ocean + It has a volcanic origin consisting mainly of three
extinct coalesced volcanoes – Terevaka, Poike and Rano Kau + In 1995, UNESCO named Easter
Island a World Heritage Site, with much of the island protected within Rapa Nui National Park
+ Island is most famous for its nearly 1,000 monumental statues, called Moai, which were created
by the early Rapa Nui people.
Ø Falkland Islands = Also known as Malvinas Islands, Falkland islands as an archipelago in the
South Atlantic Ocean + It comprises East Falkland and West Falkland and is separated by
Falkland Sound (strait) + Falkland is an internally self-governing overseas territory of the United
Kingdom + Its foreign affairs and defence matters are handled by the British government + The
islands are positioned both in the southern and western hemispheres of the Earth and have a cool
temperate oceanic climate + Recently, Researchers have found evidence that the treeless, rugged,
grassland landscape of the Falkland Islands was home to a lush, diverse rainforest up to 30
million years ago.
Ø Mediterranean Sea (PYQ - 2014, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2023) = It is an intercontinental sea that is
bordered by the continent of Europe in the north, by Asia in the east, and by Africa in the south
+ In the west, the Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the narrow Strait of
Gibraltar + In the extreme northeast, it is connected to the Black Sea via the Dardanelles Strait,
the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus Strait + It is connected to the Red Sea via the Suez Canal
+ One territory (Gibraltar - a British Overseas Territory) and 22 countries borders with the
Mediterranean Sea (European countries: Spain, France, Italy, Malta, Monaco, Slovenia, Croatia,
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 Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and Greece; West Asian (Middle Eastern)
countries: Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, the Palestine Gaza Strip, and Cyprus; North African
countries: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt) + The island of Sicily is the largest
island in the Mediterranean Sea + Other Islands include Corsica, Crete, Cyprus, Chios, Euboea,
Lesbos, Mallorca, Rhodes, Sicily, and Sardinia + The Mediterranean region is characterised by
the prevailing subtropical climate known as the Mediterranean climate, with usually “mild, wet
winters and hot, dry summers” + River Ebro, Rhone, Po, Nile, Tiber among others drain into the
Mediterranean Sea + Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea is the deepest point at 5,267 m +
Mediterranean Sea waters are more saline compared to the waters of the Atlantic.
Ø Atacama Salt Flat = Also known as Salar de Atacama, it is the biggest salt deposit in Chile + It
has a rough white surface covering a large salt lake + The salt lake under the salt flat has one of
the largest lithium reserves in the world + It lies in Chile’s Atacama Desert (Driest non-polar
desert in the world) + The northern part of the basin is the San Pedro River delta + Atacama
desert contains the world’s largest supply of sodium nitrate.
Ø Philadelphi Corridor = It is a narrow strip of land that
runs along the entire border between the Gaza Strip and
Egypt + It was the only link for Gaza with the outside
world not controlled by Israel + It includes the Rafah
crossing and runs from the Mediterranean Sea to the
Kerem Shalom crossing with Israel + Corridor was
originally established under the 1979 Israel-Egypt peace
treaty + It was designated as a demilitarised border zone
after the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza in 2005.
Ø International Day of Democracy = The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) declared
September 15 as the International Day of Democracy in 2007 + First-ever International Day of
Democracy was held in 2008 + Aims to promote and uphold the principles of democracy and
human rights + It is observed by all United Nations member states, including India + Theme for
2024: "Navigating AI for Governance and Citizen Engagement".
Ø World Tourism Day = Celebrated annually on September 27 + Theme 2024: 'Tourism and
Peace' + First established in 1980 by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
+ UNWTO is a specialised agency of the UN.
• Travel and Tourism Development Index (TTDI) = An annual report published by the
World Economic Forum (WEF) + In 2024, India ranked 39th out of 119 countries.
• UN Tourism-World Tourism Barometer = Published by UNWTO on a Quarterly basis +
It provides information on global tourism statistics, including international tourist arrivals,
export revenues, and tourism direct GDP.
Ø SASTRA Ramanujan Prize = The 2024 SASTRA Ramanujan Prize will be awarded to
Alexander Dunn of the Georgia Institute of Technology, U.S + Prize was instituted (2005) and
given by the Shanmugha Arts, Science, Technology & Research Academy (SASTRA), Tamil
Nadu + Awarded annually on 22 December (National Mathematics Day- Ramanujan’s birth
anniversary) to individuals aged 32 and below for outstanding contributions influenced by the
work of Srinivasa Ramanujan in the field of mathematics + The prize includes a citation and a
cash award of USD 10,000 + Mr. Dunn was selected for his several breakthroughs in the study
of modular forms, half-integral weight forms, metaplectic forms and their connections to prime
numbers and integer partitions.
Ø Ramon Magsaysay Award = Launched in 1958 + It is annually given on August 31
(Magsaysay’s birth anniversary) in the memory of Ramon Magsaysay, the 7th President of the
Philippines + It is Asia’s highest honor and also called the Nobel Prize of Asia + It was set up
by the ‘Trustees of the Rockefeller Brothers Fund’ and the Philippine government + Categories:
Government Service, Public Service, Community Leadership, Journalism, Literature and
Creative Communication Arts, Peace and International Understanding, Emerging Leadership,

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 Journalism, Literature and Creative Communication Arts (Independent) + Indian winners:
Vinoba Bhave 1958, Mother Teresa 1962, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay 1966, Satyajit Ray 1967,
Mahasweta Devi 1997, Arvind Kejriwal 2006, Anshu Gupta of Goonj 2015, Bezwada Wilson
2016, Ravish Kumar 2019 + Ravi Kannan 2023.
Ø Swachh Vayu Survekshan Award 2024 = Launched in 2022 + It is an initiative spearheaded
by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) + It ranks cities on the
basis of air quality and implementation of activities approved under the National Clean Air
Campaign (NCAP) in 131-Non-attainment cities for reducing air pollution up to 40% by 2025-
26 + Non-attainment cities are those cities which have consistently failed to meet the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM10 or NO2 over a period of 5-year + Awards
are presented to the best performing NCAP cities in 3 categories based on population (2011
census): (1) Category-1 includes population over 10 Lakhs; (2) Category-2 includes population
between 3-10 Lakhs; and (3) Category-3 includes population under 3 Lakhs) + PRANA portal
of MoEF&CC tracks the implementation of NCAP, monitors action plans, and shares best
practices among cities + Recently, 2024 Awards were awarded on the occasion of the
International Day of Clean Air for Blue Skies (7th September) at Jaipur, Rajasthan +
International Day was declared by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 2019.
Ø National Florence Nightingale Award = Instituted in 1973 by the Ministry of Health and
Family Welfare, GoI + Award is a mark of recognition for the meritorious services rendered by
the nurses and nursing professionals to the society + It is given to outstanding Nursing personnel
employed in Central, State/UTs, Private, Missionary and Voluntary Organizations + Recently,
the President of India presented the National Florence Nightingale Awards for the year 2024.
• Florence Nightingale = Florence Nightingale was an English social reformer, statistician and
the founder of modern nursing + Her efforts to formalize nursing education led her to establish
the first scientifically based nursing school—the Nightingale School of Nursing, at St. Thomas’
Hospital in London + In her honour, the annual International Nurses Day is celebrated on her
birthday (12th May)
Ø Hezbollah = Hezbollah is a Shia militia-cum-political party in Lebanon + The Shia community
had historically been marginalised in Lebanon + It was established with the help of Iran’s Islamic
Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) by Lebanese clerics primarily to fight the 1982 Israeli
invasion of Lebanon + It is involved in Lebanese politics and holds seats in the Parliament + US,
the UK, Israel, and Germany have designated Hezbollah as a terrorist organisation.
Ø Axis of Resistance = It is a network of autonomous militant Islamist groups led by Iran + It
originated in the Iranian Revolution of 1979 + It includes-Hezbollah (Lebanese Shia militant
organization), Hamas (Palestinian Sunni militant group), Palestinian Islamic Jihad, Houthis
(Yemen militant group) + Hezbollah (meaning ‘Party of God’), founded in the early 1980s in
Lebanon is the biggest member of the “axis of resistance”.

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