Electrical Units

Electrical & electronic units of electric current, voltage, power, resistance, capacitance, inductance, electric
charge, electric field, magnetic flux, frequency:

• Electrical & electronic units table

• Units prefix table

• Electrical units definitions

Electrical & electronic units table

Unit Name Unit Symbol Quantity

Ampere (amp) A Electric current (I)

Voltage (V, E)

Volt V Electromotive force (E)

Potential difference (Δφ)

Ohm Ω Resistance (R)

Watt W Electric power (P)

Decibel-milliwatt dBm Electric power (P)

Decibel-Watt dBW Electric power (P)

Volt-Ampere-Reactive var Reactive power (Q)

Volt-Ampere VA Apparent power (S)

Farad F Capacitance (C)

Henry H Inductance (L)

Conductance (G)
siemens / mho S
Admittance (Y)
Coulomb C Electric charge (Q)

Ampere-hour Ah Electric charge (Q)

Joule J Energy (E)

Kilowatt-hour kWh Energy (E)

Electron-volt eV Energy (E)

Ohm-meter Ω∙m Resistivity (ρ)

siemens per meter S/m Conductivity (σ)

Volts per meter V/m Electric field (E)

Newtons per coulomb N/C Electric field (E)

Volt-meter V⋅m Electric flux (Φe)

Tesla T Magnetic field (B)

Gauss G Magnetic field (B)

Weber Wb Magnetic flux (Φm)

Hertz Hz Frequency (f)

Seconds s Time (t)

Meter / metre m Length (l)

Square-meter m2 Area (A)

Decibel dB

Parts per million ppm

Units prefix table

Prefix Prefix Prefix
Example
Symbol factor

pico p 10-12 1pF = 10-12F

nano n 10-9 1nF = 10-9F

micro μ 10-6 1μA = 10-6A

milli m 10-3 1mA = 10-3A

kilo k 10 3 1kΩ = 1000Ω

mega M 10 6 1MHz = 106Hz

giga G 10 9 1GHz = 109Hz

Electrical units definitions

Volt (V)

Volt is the electrical unit of voltage.

One volt is the energy of 1 joule that is consumed when electric charge of 1 coulomb flows in the circuit.

1V = 1J / 1C

Ampere (A)

Ampere is the electrical unit of electrical current. It measures the amount of electrical charge that flows in an
electrical circuit per 1 second.

1A = 1C / 1s

Ohm (Ω)

Ohm is the electrical unit of resistance.

1Ω = 1V / 1A

Watt (W)
Watt is the electrical unit of electric power. It measures the rate of consumed energy.

1W = 1J / 1s

1W = 1V ⋅ 1A

Decibel-milliwatt (dBm)

Decibel-milliwatt or dBm is a unit of electric power, measured with logarithmic scale referenced to 1mW.

10dBm = 10 ⋅ log10(10mW / 1mW)

Decibel-Watt (dBW)

Decibel-watt or dBW is a unit of electric power, measured with logarithmic scale referenced to 1W.

10dBW = 10 ⋅ log10(10W / 1W)

Farad (F)

Farad is the unit of capacitance. It represents the amount of electric charge in coulombs that is stored per 1 volt.

1F = 1C / 1V

Henry (H)

Henry is the unit of inductance.

1H = 1Wb / 1A

siemens (S)

siemens is the unit of conductance, which is the opposite of resistance.

1S = 1 / 1Ω

Coulomb (C)

Coulomb is the unit of electric charge.

1C = 6.238792×1018 electron charges

Ampere-hour (Ah)

Ampere-hour is a unit of electric charge.

One ampere-hour is the electric charge that flow in electrical circuit, when a current of 1 ampere is applied for 1
hour.

1Ah = 1A ⋅ 1hour

One ampere-hour is equal to 3600 coulombs.

1Ah = 3600C

Tesla (T)

Tesla is the unit of magnetic field.

1T = 1Wb / 1m2

Weber (Wb)

Weber is the unit of magnetic flux.

1Wb = 1V ⋅ 1s

Joule (J)

Joule is the unit of energy.

1J = 1 kg ⋅ m2 / s2

Kilowatt-hour (kWh)

Kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy.

1kWh = 1kW ⋅ 1h = 1000W ⋅ 1h

Kilovolt-amps (kVA)

Kilovolt-amps is a unit of power.

1kVA = 1kV ⋅ 1A = 1000 ⋅ 1V ⋅ 1A

Hertz (Hz)

Hertz is the unit of frequency. It measures the number of cycles per second.

1 Hz = 1 cycles / s

What is kilowatt (kW)?

Kilowatt (symbol: kW) is a unit of electric power.

• Kilowatt definition

• Kilowatt examples

• kW to mW, W, MW, GW conversion calculator

Kilowatt definition

One kilowatt (kW) is equal to 1000 watts (W):

1kW = 1000W

One kilowatt is defined as energy consumption of 1000 joules for 1 second:

1kW = 1000J / 1s

One kilowatt is equal to 1000000 milliwatts:

1kW = 1000000mW

Kilowatt examples

Example #1

What is the power consumption in kW when energy of 30000 joules was released during 10 seconds?

Solution:

P(kW) = 30000J / 10s / 1000 = 3kW

Example #2

What is the power consumption when consuming 6kWh for 3 hours?

Solution:

P(kW) = 6kWh / 3h = 2kW

Ampere definition

Ampere or amp (symbol: A) is the unit of electrical current.

The Ampere unit is named after Andre-Marie Ampere, from France.

One Ampere is defined as the current that flows with electric charge of one Coulomb per second.

1 A = 1 C/s

Amperemeter
Ampere meter or ammeter is an electrical instrument that is used to measure electrical current in amperes.

When we want to measure the electrical current on the load, the ampere-meter is connected in series to the
load.

The resistance of the ampere-meter is near zero, so it will not affect the measured circuit.
Table of ampere unit prefixes

name symbol conversion example

microampere (microamps) μA 1μA = 10-6A I = 50μA

milliampere (milliamps) mA 1mA = 10-3A I = 3mA

ampere (amps) A - I = 10A

kiloampere (kiloamps) kA 1kA = 103A I = 2kA

How to convert amps to microamps (μA)

The current I in microamperes (μA) is equal to the current I in amperes (A) divided by 1000000:

I(μA) = I(A) / 1000000

How to convert amps to milliamps (mA)

The current I in milliamperes (mA) is equal to the current I in amperes (A) divided by 1000:

I(mA) = I(A) / 1000

How to convert amps to kiloamps (kA)

The current I in kiloamperes (mA) is equal to the current I in amperes (A) times 1000:

I(kA) = I(A) ⋅ 1000

How to convert amps to watts (W)

The power P in watts (W) is equal to the current I in amps (A) times the voltage V in volts (V):

P(W) = I(A) ⋅ V(V)

How to convert amps to volts (V)

The voltage V in volts (V) is equal to the power P in watts (W) divided by the current I in amperes (A):

V(V) = P(W) / I(A)

The voltage V in volts (V) is equal to the current I in amperes (A) times the resistance R in ohms (Ω):

V(V) = I(A) ⋅ R(Ω)

How to convert amps to ohms (Ω)

The resistance R in ohms (Ω) is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) divided by the current I in amperes (A):
R(Ω) = V(V) / I(A)

How to convert amps to kilowatts (kW)

The power P in kilowatts (kW) is equal to the current I in amps (A) times the voltage V in volts (V) divided by
1000:

P(kW) = I(A) ⋅ V(V) / 1000

How to convert amps to kilovolt-ampere (kVA)

The apparent power S in kilovolt-amps (kVA) is equal to RMS current IRMS in amps (A), times the RMS voltage
VRMS in volts (V), divided by 1000:

S(kVA) = IRMS(A) ⋅ VRMS(V) / 1000

How to convert amps to coulombs (C)

The electric charge Q in coulombs (C) is equal to the current I in amps (A), times the time of current flow t in
seconds (s):

Q(C) = I(A) ⋅ t(s)

Electric Current
Electric current definition and calculations.

• Electric current definition

• Electric current calculation

• Current calculation with Ohm's law

• Current in series circuits

• Current in parallel circuits

• Current divider

• Kirchhoff's current law

• Alternating Current (AC)

• Current measurement

Electric current definition

Electrical current is the flow rate of electric charge in electric field, usually in electrical circuit.

Using water pipe analogy, we can visualize the electrical current as water current that flows in a pipe.

The electrical current is measured in ampere (amp) unit.

Electric current calculation

Electrical current is measured by the rate of electric charge flow in an electrical circuit:

i(t) = dQ(t) / dt

The momentary current is given by the derivative of the electric charge by time.

i(t) is the momentary current I at time t in amps (A).

Q(t) is the momentary electric charge in coulombs (C).

t is the time in seconds (s).

When the current is constant:

I = ΔQ / Δt

I is the current in amps (A).

ΔQ is the electric charge in coulombs (C), that flows at time duration of Δt.

Δt is the time duration in seconds (s).

Example

When 5 coulombs flow through a resistor for duration of 10 seconds,

the current will be calculated by:

I = ΔQ / Δt = 5C / 10s = 0.5A

Current calculation with Ohm's law

The current IR in anps (A) is equal to the resistor's voltage VR in volts (V) divided by the resistance R in ohms (Ω).

IR = VR / R

Current direction

current type from to

Positive charges + -

Negative charges - +

Conventional direction + -
Current in series circuits

Current that flows through resistors in series is equal in all resistors - just like water flow through a single pipe.

ITotal = I1 = I2 = I3 =...

ITotal - the equivalent current in amps (A).

I1 - current of load #1 in amps (A).

I2 - current of load #2 in amps (A).

I3 - current of load #3 in amps (A).

Current in parallel circuits

Current that flows through loads in parallel - just like water flow through parallel pipes.

The total current ITotal is the sum of the parallel currents of each load:

ITotal = I1 + I2 + I3 +...

ITotal - the equivalent current in amps (A).

I1 - current of load #1 in amps (A).

I2 - current of load #2 in amps (A).

I3 - current of load #3 in amps (A).

Current divider

The current division of resistors in parallel is

RT = 1 / (1/R2 + 1/R3)

or

I1 = IT × RT / (R1+RT)

Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

The junction of several electrical components is called a node.

The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero.

∑ Ik = 0

Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current is generated by a sinusoidal voltage source.

Ohm's law
IZ = VZ / Z

IZ - current flow through the load measured in amperes (A)

VZ - voltage drop on the load measured in volts (V)

Z - impedance of the load measured in ohms (Ω)

Angular frequency

ω = 2π f

ω - angular velocity measured in radians per second (rad/s)

f - frequency measured in hertz (Hz).

Momentary current

i(t) = Ipeak sin(ωt+θ)

i(t) - momentary current at time t, measured in amps (A).

Ipeak - maximal current (=amplitude of sine), measured in amps (A).

ω - angular frequency measured in radians per second (rad/s).

t - time, measured in seconds (s).

θ - phase of sine wave in radians (rad).

RMS (effective) current

Irms = Ieff = Ipeak / √2 ≈ 0.707 Ipeak

Peak-to-peak current

Ip-p = 2Ipeak

Current measurement

Current measurement is done by connecting the ammeter in series to the measured object, so all the
measured current will flow through the ammeter.

The ammeter has very low resistance, so it almost does not affect the measured circuit.

Ohms Law

Ohm's law shows a linear relationship between the voltage and the current in an electrical circuit.
The resistor's voltage drop and resistance set the DC current flow through the resistor.

With water flow analogy we can imagine the electric current as water current through pipe, the resistor as a thin
pipe that limits the water flow, the voltage as height difference of the water that enables the water flow.

• Ohm's law formula

• Ohm's law for AC circuit

• Ohm's law calculator

Ohm's law formula

The resistor's current I in amps (A) is equal to the resistor's voltage V in volts (V) divided by the resistance R in
ohms (Ω):

V is the voltage drop of the resistor, measured in Volts (V). In some cases Ohm's law uses the letter E to represent
voltage. E denotes electromotive force.

I is the electrical current flowing through the resistor, measured in Amperes (A)

R is the resistance of the resistor, measured in Ohms (Ω)

Voltage calculation

When we know the current and resistance, we can calculate the voltage.

The voltage V in volts (V) is equal to the to the current I in amps (A) times the resistance R in ohms (Ω):

Resistance calculation

When we know the voltage and the current, we can calculate the resistance.

The resistance R in ohms (Ω) is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) divided by the current I in amps (A):
Since the current is set by the values of the voltage and resistance, the Ohm's law formula can show that:

• If we increase the voltage, the current will increase.

• If we increase the resistance, the current will reduce.

Example #1

Find the current of an electrical circuit that has resistance of 50 Ohms and voltage supply of 5 Volts.

Solution:

V = 5V

R = 50Ω

I = V / R = 5V / 50Ω = 0.1A = 100mA

Example #2

Find the resistance of an electrical circuit that has voltage supply of 10 Volts and current of 5mA.

Solution:

V = 10V

I = 5mA = 0.005A

R = V / I = 10V / 0.005A = 2000Ω = 2kΩ

Ohm's Law for AC Circuit

The load's current I in amps (A) is equal to the load's voltage VZ=V in volts (V) divided by the impedance Z in ohms
(Ω):

V is the voltage drop on the load, measured in Volts (V)

I is the electrical current, measured in Amps (A)

Z is the impedance of the load, measured in Ohms (Ω)

Example #3

Find the current of an AC circuit, that has voltage supply of 110V∟70° and load of 0.5kΩ∟20°.

Solution:

V = 110V∟70°
Z = 0.5kΩ∟20° = 500Ω∟20°

I = V / Z = 110V∟70° / 500Ω∟20° = (110V / 500Ω) ∟ (70°-20°) = 0.22A ∟50°

• Ohm's law with examples

• Voltage divider

• Watts to amps

Ohm's law calculation formula

The current I in amps (A) is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) divided by the resistance R in ohms (Ω):

I = VR

Example

I = 20V10Ω

= 2A

The power P in watts (W) is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) times the current I in amps (A):

P=V×I

Example

P = 20V × 2A = 40W

AC Ohm's law calculation formula

The voltage V in volts (V) is eqaul to the current I in amps (A) times the impedance Z in ohms (Ω):

V(V) = I(A) × Z(Ω) = (|I|×|Z|) ∠ (θI + θZ)

The complex power S in volt-amps (VA):

S(VA) = (|V|×|I|) ∠ (θV - θI)

Electrical Voltage

Electrical voltage is defined as electric potential difference between two points of an electric field.

Using water pipe analogy, we can visualize the voltage as height difference that makes the water flow down.

V = φ2 - φ1

V is the voltage between point 2 and 1 in volts (V).

φ2 is the electric potential at point #2 in volts (V).

φ1 is the electric potential at point #1 in volts (V).

In an electrical circuit, the electrical voltage V in volts (V) is equal to the energy consumption E in joules (J)

divided by the electric charge Q in coulombs (C).

V is the voltage measured in volts (V)

E is the energy measured in joules (J)

Q is the electric charge measured in coulombs (C)

Voltage in series

The total voltage of several voltage sources or voltage drops in series is their sum.

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 +...

VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

V1 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

V2 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

V3 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

Voltage in parallel

Voltage sources or voltage drops in parallel have equal voltage.

VT = V1 = V2 = V3 =...

VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

V1 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

V2 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

V3 - voltage source or voltage drop in volts (V).

Voltage divider

For electrical circuit with resistors (or other impedance) in series, the voltage drop V i on resistor Ri is:

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

The sum of voltage drops at a current loop is zero.

∑ Vk = 0

DC circuit

Direct current (DC) is generated by a constant voltage source like a battery or DC voltage source.

The voltage drop on a resistor can be calculated from the resistor's resistance and the resistor's current, using
Ohm's law:

Voltage calculation with Ohm's law

VR = IR × R

VR - voltage drop on the resistor measured in volts (V)

IR - current flow through the resistor measured in amperes (A)

R - resistance of the resistor measured in ohms (Ω)

AC circuit

Alternating current is generated by a sinusoidal voltage source.

Ohm's law

VZ = IZ × Z

VZ - voltage drop on the load measured in volts (V)

IZ - current flow through the load measured in amperes (A)

Z - impedance of the load measured in ohms (Ω)

Momentary voltage

v(t) = Vmax × sin(ωt+θ)

v(t) - voltage at time t, measured in volts (V).

Vmax - maximal voltage (=amplitude of sine), measured in volts (V).

ω - angular frequency measured in radians per second (rad/s).

t - time, measured in seconds (s).

θ - phase of sine wave in radians (rad).

RMS (effective) voltage

Vrms = Veff = Vmax / √2 ≈ 0.707 Vmax

Vrms - RMS voltage, measured in volts (V).

Vmax - maximal voltage (=amplitude of sine), measured in volts (V).

Peak-to-peak voltage

Vp-p = 2Vmax

Voltage drop

Voltage drop is the drop of electrical potential or potential difference on the load in an electrical circuit.

Voltage Measurement

Electrical voltage is measured with Voltmeter. The Voltmeter is connected in parallel to the measured
component or circuit.

The voltmeter has very high resistance, so it almost does not affect the measured circuit.

Voltage by Country

AC voltage supply may vary for each country.

European countries use 230V while north America countries use 120V.

Voltage Frequency
Country
[Volts] [Hertz]

Australia 230V 50Hz

Brazil 110V 60Hz

Canada 120V 60Hz

China 220V 50Hz

France 230V 50Hz

Germany 230V 50Hz

India 230V 50Hz

Ireland 230V 50Hz

Israel 230V 50Hz

Italy 230V 50Hz

Japan 100V 50/60Hz

New Zealand 230V 50Hz

Philippines 220V 60Hz

Russia 220V 50Hz

South Africa 220V 50Hz

Thailand 220V 50Hz

UK 230V 50Hz

USA 120V 60Hz

Voltage Divider
Voltage divider rule finds the voltage over a load in electrical circuit, when the loads are connected in series.

• Voltage divider rule for DC circuit

• Voltage divider rule for AC circuit

• Voltage divider calculator

Voltage divider rule for DC circuit

For a DC circuit with constant voltage source VT and resistors in series, the voltage drop Vi in resistor Ri is given by
the formula:

Vi - voltage drop in resistor Ri in volts [V].

VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts [V].

Ri - resistance of resistor Ri in ohms [Ω].

R1 - resistance of resistor R1 in ohms [Ω].

R2 - resistance of resistor R2 in ohms [Ω].

R3 - resistance of resistor R3 in ohms [Ω].

Example

Voltage source of VT=30V is connected to resistors in series, R1=30Ω, R2=40Ω.

Find the voltage drop on resistor R2.

V2 = VT × R2 / (R1+R2) = 30V × 40Ω / (30Ω+40Ω) = 17.14V

Voltage divider for AC circuit

For an AC circuit with voltage source VT and loads in series, the voltage drop Vi in load Zi is given by the formula:

Vi - voltage drop in load Zi in volts [V].

VT - the equivalent voltage source or voltage drop in volts [V].

Zi - impedance of load Zi in ohms [Ω].

Z1 - impedance of load Z1 in ohms [Ω].

Z2 - impedance of load Z2 in ohms [Ω].

Z3 - impedance of load Z3 in ohms [Ω].

Example

Voltage source of VT=30V∟60° is connected to loads in series, Z1=30Ω∟20°, Z2=40Ω∟-50°.

Find the voltage drop in load Z1.

V2 = VT × Z1 / (Z1+Z2)

= 30V∟60° × 30Ω∟20° / (30Ω∟20°+40Ω∟-50°)

= 30V∟60° × 30Ω∟20° / (30cos(20)+j30sin(20)+40cos(-50)+j40sin(-50))

= 30V∟60° × 30Ω∟20° / (28.19+j10.26+25.71-j30.64)

= 30V∟60° × 30Ω∟20° / (53.9-j20.38)

= 30V∟60° × 30Ω∟20° / 57.62Ω∟-20.71°

= (30V×30Ω/57.62Ω) ∟ (60°+20°+20.71°)

= 15.62V∟100.71°

Kirchhoff's Laws

Kirchhoff's current law and voltage law, defined by Gustav Kirchhoff, describe the relation of values of currents
that flow through a junction point and voltages in a an electrical circuit loop, in an electrical circuit.

• Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

• Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

This is Kirchhoff's first law.

The sum of all currents that enter an electrical circuit junction is 0. The currents enter the junction have positive
sign and the currents that leave the junction have a negative sign:

Another way to look at this law is that the sum of currents that enter a junction is equal to the sum of currents
that leave the junction:
KCL example

I1 and I2 enter the junction

I3 leave the junction

I1=2A, I2=3A, I3=-1A, I4= ?

Solution:

∑Ik = I1+I2+I3+I4 = 0

I4 = -I1 - I2 - I3 = -2A - 3A - (-1A) = -4A

Since I4 is negative, it leaves the junction.

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

This is Kirchhoff's second law.

The sum of all voltages or potential differences in an electrical circuit loop is 0.

KVL example

VS = 12V, VR1 = -4V, VR2 = -3V

VR3 = ?

Solution:

∑Vk = VS + VR1 + VR2 + VR3 = 0

VR3 = -VS - VR1 - VR2 = -12V+4V+3V = -5V

The voltage sign (+/-) is the direction of the potential difference.

Electric Power

Electric power is the rate of energy consumption in an electrical circuit.

The electric power is measured in units of watts.

• Electric power definition

 • Electric power calculation

• Power of AC circuits

• Power factor

• Power calculator

Electric power definition

The electric power P is equal to the energy consumption E divided by the consumption time t:

P is the electric power in watt (W).

E is the energy consumption in joule (J).

t is the time in seconds (s).

Example

Find the electric power of an electrical circuit that consumes 120 joules for 20 seconds.

Solution:

E = 120J

t = 20s

P = E / t = 120J / 20s = 6W

Electric power calculation

P=V⋅I

or

P = I2⋅ R

or

P = V2 / R

P is the electric power in watt (W).

V is the voltage in volts (V).

I is the current in amps (A).

R is the resistance in ohms (Ω).

Power of AC circuits

The formulas are for single phase AC power.

For 3 phase AC power:

When line to line voltage (VL-L) is used in the formula, multiply the single phase power by square root of 3
(√3=1.73).

When line to zero voltage (VL-0) is used in the formula, multiply the single phase power by 3.

Real power

Real or true power is the power that is used to do the work on the load.

P = Vrms Irms cos φ

P is the real power in watts [W]

Vrms is the rms voltage = Vpeak/√2 in Volts [V]

Irms is the rms current = Ipeak/√2 in Amperes [A]

φ is the impedance phase angle = phase difference between voltage and current.

Reactive power

Reactive power is the power that is wasted and not used to do work on the load.

Q = Vrms Irms sin φ

Q is the reactive power in volt-ampere-reactive [VAR]

Vrms is the rms voltage = Vpeak/√2 in Volts [V]

Irms is the rms current = Ipeak/√2 in Amperes [A]

φ is the impedance phase angle = phase difference between voltage and current.

Apparent power

The apparent power is the power that is supplied to the circuit.

S = Vrms Irms
S is the apparent power in Volt-amper [VA]

Vrms is the rms voltage = Vpeak/√2 in Volts [V]

Irms is the rms current = Ipeak/√2 in Amperes [A]

Real / reactive / apparent powers relation

The real power P and reactive power Q give together the apparent power S:

P2 + Q2 = S2

P is the real power in watts [W]

Q is the reactive power in volt-ampere-reactive [VAR]

S is the apparent power in Volt-amper [VA]

Power Factor

In AC circuits, the power factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work and the apparent power that
is supplied to the circuit.

The power factor can get values in the range from 0 to 1.

When all the power is reactive power with no real power (usually inductive load) - the power factor is 0.

When all the power is real power with no reactive power (resistive load) - the power factor is 1.

• Power factor definition

• Power factor calculation

• Power factor correction

• Power factor calculator

Power factor definition

The power factor is equal to the real or true power P in watts (W) divided by the apparent power |S| in volt-
ampere (VA):

PF = P(W) / |S(VA)|

PF - power factor.

P - real power in watts (W).

|S| - apparent power - the magnitude of the complex power in volt⋅amps (VA).

Power factor calculations

For sinusuidal current, the power factor PF is equal to the absolute value of the cosine of the apparent power
phase angle φ (which is also is impedance phase angle):

PF = |cos φ|

PF is the power factor.

φ is the apprent power phase angle.

The real power P in watts (W) is equal to the apparent power |S| in volt-ampere (VA) times the power factor PF:

P(W) = |S(VA)| × PF = |S(VA)| × |cos φ|

When the circuit has a resistive impedance load, the real power P is equal to the apparent power |S| and the
power factor PF is equal to 1:

PF(resistive load) = P / |S| = 1

The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the apparent power |S| in volt-ampere (VA) times
the sine of the phase angle φ:

Q(VAR) = |S(VA)| × |sin φ|

Single phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in kilowatts (kW), voltage V in volts (V) and
current I in amps (A):

PF = |cos φ| = 1000 × P(kW) / (V(V) × I(A))

Three phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in kilowatts (kW), line to line voltage VL-L in volts
(V) and current I in amps (A):

PF = |cos φ| = 1000 × P(kW) / (√3 × VL-L(V) × I(A))

Three phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in kilowatts (kW), line to line neutral VL-N in volts
(V) and current I in amps (A):

PF = |cos φ| = 1000 × P(kW) / (3 × VL-N(V) × I(A))

Power factor correction

Power factor correction is an adjustment of the electrical circuit in order to change the power factor near 1.

Power factor near 1 will reduce the reactive power in the circuit and most of the power in the circuit will be real
power. This will also reduce power lines losses.

The power factor correction is usually done by adding capacitors to the load circuit, when the circuit has
inductive components, like an electric motor.

Power factor correction calculation

The apparent power |S| in volt-amps (VA) is equal to the voltage V in volts (V) times the current I in amps (A):

|S(VA)| = V(V) × I(A)

The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the square root of the square of the apparent power
|S| in volt-ampere (VA) minus the square of the real power P in watts (W) (pythagorean theorem):

Q(VAR) = √(|S(VA)|2 - P(W)2)

Qc (kVAR) = Q(kVAR) - Qcorrected (kVAR)

The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the square of voltage V in volts (V) divided by the
reactance Xc:

Qc (VAR) = V(V)2 / Xc = V(V)2 / (1 / (2πf(Hz)×C(F))) = 2πf(Hz)×C(F)×V(V)2

So the power factor correction capacitor in Farad (F) that should be added to the circuit in parallel is equal to the
reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) divided by 2π times the frequency f in Hertz (Hz) times the squared
voltage V in volts (V):

C(F) = Qc (VAR) / (2πf(Hz)·V(V)2)

Electric Power Efficiency

Power efficiency

Power efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output power divided by the input power:

η = 100% ⋅ Pout / Pin

η is the efficiency in percent (%).

Pin is the input power consumption in watts (W).

Pout is the output power or actual work in watts (W).

Example

Electric motor has input power consumption of 50 watts.

The motor was activated for 60 seconds and produced work of 2970 joules.

Find the efficiency of the motor.

Solution:

Pin = 50W

E = 2970J

t = 60s

Pout = E / t = 2970J / 60s = 49.5W

η = 100% * Pout / Pin = 100 * 49.5W / 50W = 99%

Energy efficiency

Energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output energy divided by the input energy:

η = 100% ⋅ Eout / Ein

η is the efficiency in percent (%).

Ein is the input energy consumed in joule (J).

Eout is the output energy or actual work in joule (J).

Example

Light bulb has input power consumption of 50 watts.

The light bulb was activated for 60 seconds and produced heat of 2400 joules.

Find the efficiency of the light bulb.

Solution:

Pin = 50W

Eheat = 2400J

t = 60s

Ein = Pin * t = 50W * 60s = 3000J

Since the light bulb should produce light and not heat:

Eout = Ein - Eheat = 3000J - 2400J = 600J

η = 100 * Eout / Ein = 100% * 600J / 3000J = 20%

Electric Charge

• What is electric charge?

o Positive charge

o Negative charge

o Electric force direction according to charge type

o Charge of elementary particles

• Coulomb unit

• Electric charge calculation

• Coulomb's law

What is electric charge?

Electric charge generates electric field. The electric charge influence other electric charges with electric force and
influenced by the other charges with the same force in the opposite direction.

There are 2 types of electric charge:

Positive charge (+)

Positive charge has more protons than electrons (Np>Ne).

Positive charge is denoted with plus (+) sign.

The positive charge attracts other negative charges and repels other positive charges.

The positive charge is attracted by other negative charges and repelled by other positive charges.

Negative charge (-)

Negative charge has more electrons than protons (Ne>Np).

Negative charge is denoted with minus (-) sign.

Negative charge attracts other positive charges and repels other negative charges.
The negative charge is attracted by other positive charges and repelled by other negative charges.

Electric force (F) direction according to charge type

q1/q2 Force on Force on

charges q1 charge q2 charge

-/- ←⊝ ⊝→ repletion

+/+ ←⊕ ⊕→ repletion

-/+ ⊝→ ←⊕ attraction

+/- ⊕→ ←⊝ attraction

Charge of elementary particles

Particle Charge (C) Charge (e)

Electron 1.602×10-19 C -e

Proton 1.602×10-19 C +e

Neutron 0C 0

Coulomb unit

The electric charge is measured with the unit of Coulomb [C].

One coulomb has the charge of 6.242×1018 electrons:

1C = 6.242×1018 e

Electric charge calculation

When electric current flows for a specified time, we can calculate the charge:

Constant current

Q=I⋅t

Q is the electric charge, measured in coulombs [C].

I is the current, measured in amperes [A].

t is the time period, measured in seconds [s].

Momentary current
Q is the electric charge, measured in coulombs [C].

i(t) is the momentary current, measured in amperes [A].

t is the time period, measured in seconds [s].

Watt definition

Watt is the unit of power (symbol: W).

The watt unit is named after James Watt, the inventor of the steam engine.

One watt is defined as the energy consumption rate of one joule per second.

1W = 1J / 1s

One watt is also defined as the current flow of one ampere with voltage of one volt.

1W = 1V × 1A

Table of unit prefixes of watt

name symbol conversion example

picowatt pW 1pW = 10-12 W P = 10 pW

nanowatt nW 1nW = 10-9 W P = 10 nW

microwatt μW 1μW = 10-6 W P = 10 μW

milliwatt mW 1mW = 10-3 W P = 10 mW

watt W - P = 10 W

kilowatt kW 1kW = 103 W P = 2 kW

megawatt MW 1MW = 106 W P = 5 MW

gigawatt GW 1GW = 109 W P = 5 GW

How to convert watts to kilowatts

The power P in kilowatts (kW) is equal to the power P in watts (W) divided by 1000:

P(kW) = P(W) / 1000

How to convert watts to milliwatts

The power P in milliwatts (mW) is equal to the power P in watts (W) times 1000:

P(mW) = P(W) ⋅ 1000

How to convert watts to dBm

The power P in decibel-milliwatts (dBm) is equal to 10 times base 10 logarithm of the power P in milliwatts (mW)
divided by 1 milliwatt:

P(dBm) = 10 ⋅ log10( P(mW) / 1mW)

How to convert watts to amps

The current I in ampers (A) is equal to the power P in watts (W) divided by the voltage V in volts (V):

I(A) = P(W) / V(V)

How to convert watts to volts

The voltage V in volts (V) is equal to the power P in watts (W) divided by the current I in ampers (A):

V(V) = P(W) / I(A)

How to convert watts to ohms

R(Ω) = P(W) / I(A)2

R(Ω) = V(V)2/ P(W)

How to convert watts to btu/hr

P(BTU/hr) = 3.412142 ⋅ P(W)

How to convert watts to joules

E(J) = P(W) ⋅ t(s)

How to convert watts to horsepower

P(HP) = P(W) / 746

How to convert watts to kVA

The real power P in watts (W) is equal to 1000 times the apparent power S in kilo-volt-amperes (kVA) times the
power factor (PF) or cosine of the phase angle φ:

P(W) = 1000 ⋅ S(kVA) ⋅ PF = 1000 ⋅ S(kVA) ⋅ cos φ

How to convert watts to VA

The real power P in watts (W) is equal to the apparent power S in volt-amperes (VA) times the power factor (PF)
or cosine of the phase angle φ:

P(W) = S(VA) ⋅ PF = S(VA) ⋅ cos φ

Power consumption of some electrical components

How many watts does a house use? How many watts does a TV use? How many watts does a refrigerator use?

Electric component Typical power consumption in watts

LCD TV 30..300 W

LCD monitor 30..45 W

PC desktop computer 300..400 W

Laptop computer 40..60 W

Refrigerator 150..300 W (when active)

Light bulb 25..100 W

Fluorescent light 15..60 W

Halogen light 30..80 W

Speaker 10..300 W

Microwave 100..1000 W

Air conditioner 1..2 kW

How to convert watts to horsepower

Watts to mechanic / hydraulic horsepower

One mechanic or hydraulic horsepower is equal to 745.699872 watts:

1 hp(I) = 745.699872 W

So the power conversion of watts to horsepower is given by:

P(hp) = P(W) / 745.699872

Example

Convert 10W to mechanic horsepower:

P(hp) = 10W / 745.699872 = 0.01341 hp

Watts to electrical horsepower

One electrical horsepower is equal to 746 watts:

1 hp(E) = 746 W

So the power conversion of watts to horsepower is given by:

P(hp) = P(W) / 746

Example

Convert 10W to electrical horsepower:

P(hp) = 10W / 746 = 0.013405 hp

Watts to metric horsepower

One metric horsepower is equal to 735.49875 watts:

1 hp(M) = 735.49875 W

So the power conversion of watts to horsepower is given by:

P(hp) = P(W) / 735.49875

Example

Convert 10W to metric horsepower:

P(hp) = 10W / 735.49875 = 0.013596 hp

Watts to horsepower conversion table

Watts Mechanic horsepower Electric horsepower Metric horsepower
(W) (hp(I)) (hp(E)) (hp(M))

1W 0.001341 hp 0.001340 hp 0.001360 hp

2W 0.002682 hp 0.002681 hp 0.002719 hp

3W 0.004023 hp 0.004021 hp 0.004079 hp

4W 0.005364 hp 0.005362 hp 0.005438 hp

5W 0.006705 hp 0.006702 hp 0.006798 hp

6W 0.008046 hp 0.008043 hp 0.008158 hp

7W 0.009387 hp 0.009383 hp 0.009517 hp

8W 0.010728 hp 0.010724 hp 0.010877 hp

9W 0.012069 hp 0.012064 hp 0.012237 hp

10 W 0.013410 hp 0.013405 hp 0.013596 hp

20 W 0.026820 hp 0.026810 hp 0.027192 hp

30 W 0.040231 hp 0.040214 hp 0.040789 hp

40 W 0.053641 hp 0.053619 hp 0.054385 hp

50 W 0.067051 hp 0.067024 hp 0.067981 hp

60 W 0.080461 hp 0.080429 hp 0.081577 hp

70 W 0.093871 hp 0.093834 hp 0.095174 hp

80 W 0.107282 hp 0.107239 hp 0.108770 hp

90 W 0.120692 hp 0.120643 hp 0.122366 hp

100 W 0.134022 hp 0.134048 hp 0.135962 hp

200 W 0.268204 hp 0.268097 hp 0.271924 hp

300 W 0.402307 hp 0.402145 hp 0.407886 hp

400 W 0.536409 hp 0.536193 hp 0.543849 hp

500 W 0.670511 hp 0.670241 hp 0.679811 hp

600 W 0.804613 hp 0.804290 hp 0.815773 hp

700 W 0.938715 hp 0.938338 hp 0.951735 hp

800 W 1.072817 hp 1.072386 hp 1.087697 hp

900 W 1.206920 hp 1.206434 hp 1.223659 hp

1000 W 1.341022 hp 1.340483 hp 1.359622 hp

2000 W 2.682044 hp 2.680965 hp 2.719243 hp

3000 W 4.023066 hp 4.021448 hp 4.078865 hp

4000 W 5.364088 hp 5.361930 hp 5.438486 hp

5000 W 6.705110 hp 6.702413 hp 6.798108 hp