Discrete mathematics
- It is a branch of mathematics that deals with objects that can assume only distinct, separated
values.
The Number System
The number system is the tree-diagram showing the classification of numbers.
SET THEORY
SET- a collection of objects called elements.
ELEMENTS – any object that belongs to a set.
SUBSET – if all elements of set A are in set B or if there are elements of set B not belonging to set A,
then A is a subset of B.
EQUAL SET – two sets are equal if they have the same elements.
EQUIVALENT SET – two sets are equal if they have the same number of elements
SPECIAL SETS
N – set of natural numbers {0,1,2,3….}
Z – set of integers {-……,-2,-1,0,1,2……+}
Q – set of rational numbers
R - set of real numbers
C- set of complex numbers
SYMBOLS
• ∅: Empty set, a set with no elements.
• ∈: Element of, used to indicate that an element belongs to a set.
o Example: a∈A means a is an element of set A.
• ∉: Not an element of.
o Example: a∉A means a is not an element of set A.
• ⊆: Subset, used to indicate that all elements of one set are also elements of another set.
o Example: A⊆B means set A is a subset of set B.
• ⊂: Proper subset, used to indicate that all elements of one set are also elements of another
set, but the sets are not equal.
o Example: A⊂B means set A is a proper subset of set B.
• ∪: Union, the set of all elements that are in either set.
o Example: A∪B is the set of all elements in A or B or both.
• ∩: Intersection, the set of all elements that are in both sets.
o Example: A∩B is the set of all elements in both A and B.
• −: Set difference, the set of elements in one set but not the other.
o Example: A−B is the set of elements in A but not in B.
Logic
• ¬: Negation, the opposite of a proposition.
o Example: ¬P means not P.
• ∧: Conjunction, logical AND.
o Example: P∧Q is true if both P and Q are true.
• ∨: Disjunction, logical OR.
o Example: P∨Q is true if at least one of P or Q is true.
• →: Implication, logical IF-THEN.
o Example: P→Q means if P then Q.
• ↔: Biconditional, logical IF AND ONLY IF.
o Example: P↔Q means P if and only if Q.
Functions and Relations
In set theory, a function is a special type of relation that maps elements from one set (called the
domain) to elements of another set (called the codomain) in such a way that each element of the
domain is associated with exactly one element of the codomain.
Key Concepts and Terminology:
1. Function Definition:
o A function fff from a set A to a set B is denoted as f:A→B
o If a∈A, then f(a)∈B
o The set A is called the domain of the function.
o The set B is called the codomain of the function.
o The range of f (or image of A under f) is the set of all images of elements of A under f,
i.e., {f(a)∣a∈A}
2. Notation:
o f(a) denotes the image of a under f.
o If f(a)=b, we say that b is the image of a under f.
3. Types of Functions:
o Injective (One-to-One): A function f is injective if different elements in the domain
map to different elements in the codomain. Formally, f is injective if f(a1)=f(a2)
implies a1=a2 .
o Surjective (Onto): A function f is surjective if every element in the codomain is the
image of at least one element in the domain. Formally, f is surjective if for every b
∈B, there exists an a∈A such that f(a)=b.
o Bijective: A function fff is bijective if it is both injective and surjective. This means
every element in the domain maps to a unique element in the codomain, and every
element in the codomain is the image of exactly one element in the domain.
Important Properties of Functions:
• Domain and Range: The domain of a function is the set of all possible inputs, while the
range is the set of all possible outputs.
• Function Equality: Two functions f and g are equal if they have the same domain,
codomain, and f(a)=g(a) for all a in the domain.
Graph Theory
• G = (V, E): A graph G consisting of vertices V and edges E.
• v ∈ V: Vertex v is an element of the vertex set V.
• e ∈ E: Edge e is an element of the edge set E.
• |V|: Cardinality of the vertex set, the number of vertices.
• |E|: Cardinality of the edge set, the number of edges.
These symbols form the foundational language of discrete mathematics, enabling concise and
precise communication of mathematical ideas and relationships.
Laws of Set Theory
Set theory has several fundamental laws and properties that govern the behavior and operations
of sets. These laws are analogous to familiar algebraic laws and are essential for understanding
how to manipulate and work with sets. Here are the key laws of set theory:
