Head to www.savemyexams.

com for more awesome resources

Edexcel IGCSE Physics Your notes

Waves & The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Contents
Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Describing Wave Motion
The Wave Equation
The Doppler Effect
Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
Applications of EM Waves
Dangers of EM Waves

Page 1 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Transverse & Longitudinal Waves

Your notes
Transverse & longitudinal waves
Waves can come in one of two types:
Transverse waves
Longitudinal waves

Transverse waves
Transverse waves are defined as:
Waves that vibrate or oscillate perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer
Transverse waves:
oscillate perpendicularly to the direction of travel
transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
exist as mechanical waves which can travel in solids and on the surfaces of liquids but not through
liquids or gases
exist as electromagnetic waves which can move in solids, liquids, gases and in a vacuum
On a transverse wave:
the highest point above the rest position is called a peak, or crest
the lowest point below the rest position is called a trough

Example of a transverse wave

Page 2 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Transverse waves can be seen in a rope when it is moved quickly up and down
Examples of transverse waves are:
Ripples on the surface of water
Vibrations in a guitar string
S-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)

Longitudinal waves
Longitudinal waves are defined as:
Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer
Longitudinal waves:
Oscillate in the same direction as the direction of wave travel
Transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
Move in solids, liquids and gases
Cannot move in a vacuum (since there are no particles)
The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:

Page 3 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Close together, called compressions

Spaced apart, called rarefactions Your notes
Example of a longitudinal wave

Longitudinal waves can be seen in a slinky spring when it is moved quickly backwards and forwards
Examples of longitudinal waves are:
Sound waves
P-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas

Comparing transverse & longitudinal waves

Wave vibrations can be shown on ropes (transverse) and springs (longitudinal)

A comparison of longitudinal and transverse waves

Page 4 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs

Properties of transverse and longitudinal waves
Property Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

Structure Peaks and troughs Compressions and rarefactions

Page 5 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Vibration Perpendicular to the direction of energy Parallel to the direction of energy transfer
transfer
Your notes
Vacuum Can travel in a vacuum (electromagnetic Cannot travel in a vacuum
waves)

Material Can travel through solids, and on the surface Can travel through solids, liquids and
of liquids gases

Density Constant density Changes in density

Pressure Pressure is constant Changes in pressure

Speed of Dependent on material it is travelling through Dependent on material it is travelling

wave (fastest in a vacuum) through (fastest in a solid)

Worked Example
The diagram below shows a loudspeaker generating sound waves, which travel to the right as
indicated. Sound waves are longitudinal. A dust mote floats in the air just next to the loudspeaker,
labelled D. Draw arrows on the diagram to indicate how the dust mote D would vibrate as sound
waves pass it.

Answer:
Step 1: Recall the definition of longitudinal waves
Points along longitudinal waves vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer
This means the dust mote vibrates in a line parallel to the direction of the sound waves drawn
Step 2: Draw arrows at the point labelled D to show it vibrating in parallel to the direction of the
sound waves

Page 6 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Waves & energy

Waves are disturbances caused by an oscillating source that transfer energy and information without
transferring matter
Waves are described as oscillations or vibrations about a fixed point
For example, ripples cause particles of water to oscillate up and down
Sound waves cause particles of air to vibrate back and forth

Evidence that waves transfer energy and not matter

Waves transfer energy and information, but not matter. This toy duck bobs up and down as water waves
pass underneath
The wave on the surface of a body of water is a transverse wave
The duck moves perpendicular to the direction of the wave
The duck moves up and down but does not travel with the wave

Page 7 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Exam questions may ask you to describe waves and this is most easily done by drawing a diagram of
the wave and then describing the parts of the wave - a good, clearly labelled diagram can earn you
full marks!
You may also be asked to give further examples of transverse or longitudinal waves - so memorise
the lists given here!

Page 8 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Describing Wave Motion

Your notes
Describing wave motion
When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to know, including:
Amplitude (A)
Wavelength (λ)
Frequency (f)
Time Period (T)

Amplitude (A)
Amplitude is defined as:
Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed position
The maximum displacement of a wave is the peak
The minimum displacement of a wave is the trough
Amplitude is measured in metres (m)

Wavelength (λ)
Wavelength is defined as
The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next wave
In a transverse wave:
The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak
In a longitudinal wave:
The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to the centre of the next
Wavelength is measured in metres (m)

Graphical representation of transverse waves

The amplitude and wavelength of a transverse wave can be represented graphically
The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram

A diagram of a transverse wave

Page 9 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a transverse wave

The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m)
The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram

Frequency (f)
Frequency is defined as:
The number of waves passing a point in a second
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz)
The unit hertz is equivalent to 'per second'
5 Hz = 5 waves per second
Waves with a higher frequency transfer a higher amount of energy

Time Period (T)

The time period (or sometimes just 'period') of a wave is defined as:
The time taken for a single wave to pass a point
The period is measured in seconds (s)
The equation linking frequency and time period is explained in Frequency & time period

Page 10 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In your exam, you are expected to be able to define these keywords and identify their values from Your notes
diagrams or scenarios.

The wavelength is often shown graphically between the peaks of two consecutive waves. However,
the wavelength can be shown between two corresponding points on two successive waves - the
distance will be the same!

Page 11 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

The Wave Equation

Your notes
The wave equation
All waves obey the wave speed equation
This is the relationship between the wave speed, frequency and wavelength of a wave

v=f ×λ
Where:
v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
λ = wavelength in metres (m)

Formula triangle for the wave speed equation

A formula triangle can be used to help rearrange the wave speed equation
For more information on how to use a formula triangle refer to the revision note on Speed

Page 12 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Frequency & time period

Frequency and time period are defined in Describing wave motion Your notes

The following equation relates time period and frequency:

1
f =
T
Where:

f is frequency measured in Hertz (Hz)

T is time period, measured in seconds (s)

Worked Example
Visible light has a frequency of about 6 × 1014 Hz.
How long does it take for one complete cycle of visible light to enter our eyes?

Answer:
Step 1: List the known values
Frequency, f = 6 × 1014 Hz
Step 2: State the relationship between frequency and time period
This question involves quantities of time and frequency, so the equation which relates time
period and frequency of a wave is:
1
T=
f
Step 3: Substitute the known values into the equation and calculate the time period

T = 1 ÷ (6 × 1014 ) = 1 . 67 × 10−15 s
Therefore, it takes 1.67 × 10-15 s (to 2 decimal places) for one wave of visible light to pass our
eyes

Calculations in different contexts

Page 13 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

The wave equation can be applied and rearranged to calculate the properties of Transverse and
longitudinal waves
Your notes
The wave equation applies to all types of waves, including Sound waves and Electromagnetic waves

Worked Example
A certain sound wave moves at about 330 m/s and has a time period of 0.0001 seconds.
Calculate:
a) The frequency of the sound wave
b) The wavelength of the sound wave

Answer:
Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Time period, T = 0.0001 s
Step 2: Write out the equation relating time period and frequency

1
T=
f
Step 3: Rearrange for frequency, f, and calculate the answer

1
f =
T
1
f =
0 . 0001
f = 10 000 Hz = 1 × 104 Hz

Part (b)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Wave speed, v = 330 m/s

Page 14 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Frequency, f = 1 × 104 Hz
Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation
Your notes
v=f ×λ
Step 3: Rearrange the equation to calculate the wavelength

v
λ=
f
Step 4: Use the frequency you calculated in part (a) and put the values into the equation

330
λ=
(1 × 104)
λ = 0 . 033 m

Worked Example
A local radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 200 kHz. The wavelength of these radio waves is
1500 m.
Calculate the speed of these radio waves and state an appropriate unit.

Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Frequency, f = 200 kHz = 200 000 Hz
Wavelength, λ = 1500 m
Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation
This question requires wave speed, so state the equation linking wave speed, wavelength and
frequency:
v=f ×λ
Step 3: Substitute the known values to calculate the wave speed

v = 200 000 × 1500

v = 300 000 000 = 3 × 108

Page 15 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Step 4: State the unit with the answer

The units for speed are m/s Your notes
Therefore, the speed of these radio waves is 3 × 108 m/s

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When stating equations make sure you use the right letters:
For example, use λ for wavelength, not L or W
If you can’t remember the correct letters, then state the word equations required
Be careful with units: wavelength is usually measured in metres and speed in m/s, but if the
wavelength is given in cm you might have to give the speed in cm/s
Likewise, watch out for the frequency given in kHz: 1 kHz = 1000 Hz

Page 16 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

The Doppler Effect

Your notes
The Doppler effect
The Doppler effect is defined as:
The apparent change in observed wavelength and frequency of a wave emitted by a moving source
relative to an observer
The Doppler effect can be observed whenever sources of waves move
The frequency of the sound waves emitted by ambulance or police sirens goes from a high pitch
(high frequency) to a low pitch (low frequency) as the vehicle whizzes past
Galaxies in outer space emit light waves which appear redder (longer wavelength) to an observer
on Earth because the stars are moving away from us

Explaining the Doppler effect

Usually, when a stationary object emits waves, the waves spread out symmetrically

A stationary source of sound waves

Page 17 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

This stationary police car emits sound from the siren and the waves spread out symmetrically
To an observer standing in front of an object moving towards them: Your notes
The waves appear to get squashed together because the wavelength appears to get shorter (and
the frequency appears to get higher)
To an observer standing behind an object moving away from them:
The waves appear to get stretched apart because the wavelength appears to get longer (and the
frequency appears to get lower)

The Doppler effect is observed when the source of the sound waves is
moving

To an observer in front of the moving car, the wavelength appears smaller because they squash
together. To an observer behind the moving car, the waves appear to stretch out

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember that the Doppler effect is an apparent change in wavelength and frequency. This only
happens because a wave emitter moves away from or towards an observer. The speed of the waves

Page 18 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

emitted stays constant, so if the wavelength of the wave appears to decrease this must mean the
frequency appears to increase, and vice versa.
Your notes

Page 19 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

Your notes
Properties of EM waves
Light is part of a continuous electromagnetic spectrum that consists of the following types of
radiation:
radio
microwave
infrared
visible
ultraviolet
x-ray
gamma ray
All waves in the electromagnetic spectrum share the following properties:
They are all transverse
They can all travel through free space (a vacuum)
They all travel at the same speed in free space

The EM spectrum
The types of radiation found in the electromagnetic spectrum have a specific order based on their
wavelength (and frequency)
This order listed above has:
Radio waves at the top because they have the longest wavelength (and lowest frequency)
Gamma rays at the bottom because they have the shortest wavelength (and highest frequency)
Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional to each other:
An increase in wavelength is a decrease in frequency (towards the red end of the spectrum)
A decrease in wavelength is an increase in frequency (towards the violet end of the spectrum)
This is explained by the Wave equation

Page 20 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

The types of radiation in the EM spectrum from longest to shortest

wavelength Your notes

Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic spectrum

Visible Spectrum
Visible light is the only part of the EM spectrum detectable by the human eye
However, it is only a very small part of the whole electromagnetic spectrum
In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, can perceive beyond visible
light and use infra-red and UV wavelengths of light to see
Each colour within the visible light spectrum corresponds to a narrow band of wavelength and
frequency

Page 21 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:

Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency) Your notes
Violet has the shortest wavelength (and the highest frequency)
The colours of the visible spectrum

The colours of the visible spectrum: red has the longest wavelength; violet has the shortest

Examiner Tips and Tricks

See if you can make up a mnemonic to help you remember the order of the colours of visible light in
the EM spectrum!.
One possibility is:
Raging Martians Invaded Venus Using X-ray Guns
To remember the colours of the visible spectrum you could remember either:
The name “Roy G. Biv”
Or the saying “Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain”

Page 22 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

You could even combine both to have a mega mnemonic:

Raging Martians Invaded Roy G. Biv Using X-ray Guns!
The electromagnetic spectrum is usually given in order of decreasing wavelength and increasing
frequency i.e. from radio waves to gamma waves
Remember:
Radios are big (long wavelength)
Gamma rays are emitted from atoms which are very small (short wavelength)

Page 23 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Applications of EM Waves
Your notes
Applications of EM waves
Each region of the electromagnetic spectrum has a variety of uses and applications

Uses of EM waves
Wave Type Uses

Radio Broadcasting and communications

Microwaves Cooking and satellite transmissions

Infrared Heaters and night vision equipment

Visible light Optical fibres and photography

Ultraviolet Fluorescent lamps

X-rays Observing the internal structure of objects and materials, including medical applications

Gamma rays Sterilising food and medical equipment

Radio waves & microwaves

Both radio waves and microwaves are used in wireless communication
This includes:
Radios
Air traffic communication
Mobile phone communication
At very high intensities microwaves are used to heat things in a microwave oven

Infrared
Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras (thermal imaging
cameras).
Page 24 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Examples of the uses of infrared are:

Security cameras to see people in the dark Your notes
TV remote controls
Transport signals down fibre optic cables
Visible
Visible light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can see
It is also used in fibre optic communication

Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a sun tan, which is your body’s way of protecting itself against
the ultraviolet
When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it as visible light
(making them glow)
This process is known as fluorescence
Fluorescence can be used to secretly mark things in special ink, such as banknotes

X-rays
The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine
X-rays can pass through most body tissues but are absorbed by the denser parts of the body, such as
bones

Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise equipment by killing off the bacteria

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Common questions in your exam require you to discuss the uses and applications of EM radiation.
Learn the uses listed in the table for each radiation type.

Page 25 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Dangers of EM Waves
Your notes
Dangers of EM waves
Risks of excessive exposure to EM radiation
Excessive exposure of the human body to electromagnetic waves can have detrimental effects
Risks from overexposure to certain wavelengths include:
microwaves can cause heat damage to internal organs due to the internal heating of body tissue
infrared can burn the skin
ultraviolet can damage skin cells causing sunburn and blindness
gamma and X-rays can kill cells causing cancer and cell mutations

Dangers and uses of each part of the EM spectrum

Page 26 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Your notes

Page 27 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Uses and dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum

As discussed in Describing wave motion as the frequency of electromagnetic (EM) waves increases, Your notes
so does the energy
Beyond the visible part of the EM spectrum, the energy becomes large enough to ionise atoms
As a result of this, the danger associated with EM waves increases along with the frequency
The shorter the wavelength, the more ionising the radiation

Protective measures against the risks of over-exposure

Devices using hazardous EM radiation contain safety features that reduce human exposure:
microwaves from microwave ovens are prevented from escaping the oven by the metal walls and
metal grid in the glass door
infrared wearing protective clothing such as gloves can prevent the skin from feeling the hear
ultraviolet ray damage to the eyes is reduced by wearing sunglasses that absorb ultraviolet and
prevent it from reaching the eyes. Sunscreen also absorbs ultraviolet light preventing it from
damaging the skin.
gamma and X-rays damage is reduced through using minimal levels in medicine. Doctors leave
the room during x-rays to avoid unnecessary exposure. Radiographers wear radiation badges to
measure their level of radiation exposure. People working with gamma rays routinely have their
dose levels tested.

Radiation badges

Page 28 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers
 Head to www.savemyexams.com for more awesome resources

Radiation badges are used by people working closely with radiation to monitor exposure
Your notes

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In your exam, you may be asked to explain the hazards of each type of radiation and the safety
precautions used to reduce these hazards.

Page 29 of 29
© 2015-2025 Save My Exams, Ltd. · Revision Notes, Topic Questions, Past Papers