GEOLOGIC HAZARD

HAZARDS VS RISKSS – WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE

GEOLOGIC HAZARD
There could be two types of geohazard that affect humans.
Hazardous substances related with specific earth minerals. For example, swollen soils and rocks,
toxic minerals (asbestos, acid drainage), and toxic gases are all examples (radon gas).
Hazards related with natural processes (earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, avalanches, rockslides
and falls, soil creep, subsidence, flooding, frost heave, and coastal hazards).
It is primarily due to natural and human-caused occurrences. There is a high risk of endangering
lives, properties, infrastructure, and the communities in which they live. While the risk of some harm
may never be completely eliminated, mitigating its effects can (minimizing impact on individuals and
properties, in addition to the environment).

Basic criteria in characterizing the various hazards:

Magnitude - the amount of energy involved
Frequency of occurrence - information on how often an event of given magnitude occurs in a given
length of time
Duration - the length of time an event last
Areal extent - physical space affected
Speed of onset - the amount of time from the first appearance to maximum intensity of an event
Spatial dispersion - referring to the space likely to be affected by all hazards of a given type
Temporal spacing - given that hazards may occur at regular interval or random intervals
COPING WITH GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

• Avoid the areas where known hazards exist. Such areas can be converted into parks, for
instance.
• Evaluate the potential risk of a hazard, if activated.
• Minimize the effect of the hazards by engineering design and appropriate zoning.
• Develop a network of insurance and contingency plans to cover potential loss or damage
from hazarded).

EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes are a fact of life all around the world, and they often occur without prior notice. The risks
posed by these geohazards have the potential to be quite far-reaching on both humanity and the
surface of the Earth. While plate-boundary earthquakes are far more prevalent, earthquakes that
occur within plates do happen occasionally. The occurrence of earthquakes is very rare, with most
of them taking place within the boundaries of tectonic plates. As plates continue to move and plate
boundaries change over time, boundaries that are no longer able to withstand the strain from
movement become to be part of the interiors of the plates. As the plate tectonic theory predicts,
zones of weakness (either deep beneath the continental crust or around the margins of the plate)
create earthquakes in reaction to forces that originate outside the plate. Earthquakes are sudden
movements in the earth’s crust that occur along faults (planes of weakness), where one rock mass
slides past another one. When movement along faults occurs gradually and relatively smoothly, it is
called creep or seismic slip and may be undetectable to the casual observer. When friction prevents
rocks from slipping easily, stress builds up until it is finally released with a sudden jerk. The point on
a fault at which the first movement occurs during an earthquake is called the epicenter.

There are two types of earthquakes that occur naturally namely,

TECTONIC
Earthquakes produced by sudden movement along faults and plate boundaries.
VOLCANIC
Earthquakes produced by movement of magma beneath volcanoes
HOW ARE EARTHQUAKES MEASURED?
The terrible repercussions of earthquakes can be quantified in a variety of ways, including death
counts and ground shaking force. Two specific measurements are frequently utilized. One is a
qualitative measure of the earthquake's damage, referred to as intensity. The second is a numerical
value indicating the amount of energy released by the earthquake, referred to as the magnitude.
Both measurements yield useful information.
INTENSITY
The PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS) is a seismic scale used and developed by the
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) to measure the intensity of an
earthquake.
MAGNITUDE
Another approach to categorize an earthquake is based on the amount of energy produced during
the occurrence; this is referred to as the earthquake's magnitude. While the Richter scale has been
used to determine magnitude, as the frequency of earthquake readings rose throughout the world, it
became clear that the Richter magnitude scale was not valid for all earthquakes (it is not accurate
for large magnitude earthquakes)
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
The total dissipation of energy generated by earthquakes under the Earth's surface offers minimal
immediate threat to an individual. Human beings are not "shaken to death" as a result of Seismic
activity The primary source of risk is the interaction between ground motion and as a result of
earthquakes and the structures built by humans.
Ground shaking is generally the most severe direct cause of damage. Crowded buildings that cannot
be evacuated quickly may collapse during ground-shaking and result in a major loss of life as well
as property.
Surface rupture is the horizontal or vertical displacement of the ground surface along the narrow fault
zone. While affecting a much smaller area compared to ground shaking, it can severely damage
structures located adjacent to faults.
Ground failure is an indirect cause of damage, but it may be widespread and produce some of the
most devastating loss of life.
Tsunamis are ocean waves produced by earthquakes, which may sweep ashore, causing
MASS MOVEMENTS
LANDSLIDES
Gravity is always pulling downward on all materials on the planet. Erosion can occur on hillsides,
beaches, and even relatively level farm fields. Often, water assists in mobilizing loose debris, and a
storm can result in catastrophic landslides, beach erosion, and gully formation. They can also be
triggered by earthquakes, volcanic activity, changes in groundwater levels, or disturbance or
alteration of a slope caused by human-induced construction operations, or any combination of these
events. Landslides can also be induced by a variety of different natural processes, and they can
induce additional risks, such as tsunamis induced by undersea landslides. A landslide happens when
the downward force (gravity) is greater than the strength of the earth components that comprise the
slope.
Landslides, alternatively referred to as mass wasting or mass movement, occur when large amounts
of material slide down a slope. While slow and subtle landslips are prevalent, rapid and dangerous
rockslides, mudslides, and slumping can occur. When unconsolidated sediments on a hillside
become soaked by a storm or become exposed as a result of logging, road construction, or house
construction, hillsides become particularly prone to unexpected landslides.
Often, residents are ignorant of the dangers associated with living on or underneath unstable
hillsides. Occasionally, people will simply disregard apparent and evident danger. People frequently
build luxurious houses on steep hills and in narrow canyons in Southern California, where land values
are high. While this dry habitat appears quite stable for the most part, the chaparral vegetation burns
frequently and furiously.
COMMON FORMS OF MASS WASTING
ROCK FALL
Rock fragments can easily break off from steep bedrock
slopes, most frequently as a result of frost-wedging in
places with frequent freeze-thaw cycles. If you've ever
trekked a steep mountain trail on a cool morning, you've
probably heard the sound of rock fragments falling into a
talus slope. This occurs because the water between the
cracks freezes and expands overnight, and as the same
water thaws in the morning sun, the fragments pushed past
their limit by the ice fall to the slope below.

ROCKSLIDE

Rockslide occurs when a piece of rockslides down a

sloping surface. The movement is typically parallel to a
fracture, bedding plane, or metamorphic foliation plane
and can range from very slow to somewhat fast.

ROCK AVALANCHE
If a rockslide and then accelerates (meters per second), it is likely to fracture into numerous little
fragments, resulting in a rock avalanche, in which big and small bits of rock move in a fluid manner
supported by an air cushion within and underneath the moving mass
CREEP OR SOLIFLUCTION
Creep is the very gradual movement of soil or other
unconsolidated material on a slope —millimeters to
centimeters each year. Creep, which mainly affects the
top few centimeters of loose material, is a sort of very
slow flow, however sliding may occur in some instances.
The similar effect can be achieved by watering and
drying the soil frequently. Solifluction is a more severe
form of freeze thaw-triggered creep that occurs in cold
conditions.
Creep is most visible on moderate-to-steep slopes where
trees, fence posts, or burial markers continually slant
downward. When trees attempt to remedy their lean by
growing upright, they develop a curved lower trunk called
a "pistol butt.".
SLUMP
Slump is a sort of slide (mass movement) that occurs among
dense unconsolidated deposits (typically thicker than 10
meters). Slumps are defined by their movement along one or
more curved failure surfaces, with downward movement
near the top and outward movement at the bottom.
MUDFLOWS AND DEBRIS FLOWS
When a mass of sediment becomes entirely saturated
with water, it loses strength to the point that the grains
get separated, and it flows, even on a mild slope. This
can occur during a rapid spring snowmelt or during
heavy rains and is also rather common during volcanic
eruptions due to the quick melting of snow and ice. (A
lahar is a mudflow or debris flow that occurs on a
volcano or during a volcanic eruption.) If the majority of
the material is sand-sized or smaller, it is referred to as
a mudflow.

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO MASS WASTING

WATER SATURATION

An increase in water content is the most common mass-wasting trigger. This might occur as a result
of quick melting of snow or ice, heavy rain, or any other event that alters the pattern of surface water
flow. Rapid melting can occur as a result of a significant increase in temperature (for example, in the
spring or early summer) or as a result of a volcanic eruption. Heavy rains are frequently associated
with large storms.
A decrease in water content can also lead to mass wasting. This happen mostly with clean sand
deposits which lose strength when there is no water to hold the grains together. Additionally, freezing
and thawing can cause certain types of mass wasting. More precisely, thawing can free a block of
granite that has been imprisoned on a slope by an ice layer.
SHAKING
Another mechanism that can erode the strength of a rock or sediment body is shaking. While an
earthquake is the most obvious source of shaking, shaking from highway traffic, construction, or
mining will also suffice.
Overloading of slope surfaces by Weight of rain, rock debris, dead trees, garbage dumps, buildings,
houses, stockpiles Presence of relict structure Joints (fractures), bedding planes, faults

VOLCANISM
A volcano is a surface vent through which magma and accompanying gases erupt, as well as the
cone formed by the eruptions. Active volcanoes are those that are currently erupting or exhibiting
signs of unrest (earthquakes, gas emissions). A dormant volcano is one that is not currently active
but has the potential to reactivate. Volcanoes classified as extinct are ones that are unlikely to erupt
again. Gaseous emissions from these sources generated the earth's early oceans and atmosphere
over hundreds of millions of years.
Volcanic eruptions are one of the most violent and spectacular drivers of change on Earth. They
represent major geologic risks because to the fact that their eruptions and accompanying activity
can cover a broad area and last a lengthy length of time. Numerous types of volcanic activity can
imperil human life and property, and their consequences are felt both near and far from the volcano.
Explosive eruptions can transport lava, gas, and other materials across a large region, altering the
terrain dramatically. Slower eruptions or flows can also affect landscapes, while accompanying
earthquakes, atmospheric effects, landslides, and floods can all cause property damage or
destruction and endanger human life.
One of the most famous volcanic eruptions in history occurred on Mount Vesuvius in southern Italy
in A.D. 79, when the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. Prior to the eruption, the
mountain had shown signals of activity, yet many citizens preferred to remain and take a risk on life.
The mountain blanketed the two communities in ash on August 24. Thousands of people died as a
result of the dense, hot, toxic fumes that accompanied the ash falling from the volcano's opening. It
continues to explode on occasion. Nuees ardentes (French for "glowing clouds") are lethal
combinations of hot gases and ash that are denser than air, similar to those that swamped Pompeii
and Herculaneum. These clouds can reach temperatures of over 1,000oC and move at speeds of
more than 100 km/h (60 mph)
EXPLOSIVE VOLCANISM
Explosive eruptions occur where cooler, more viscous
magmas (such as andesite) reach the surface. Dissolved
gases cannot escape as easily, so pressure may build up
until gas explosions blast rock and lava fragments into the
air.

EFFUSIVE VOLCANISM
Effusive eruptions occur when hot, (1200oC) runny basalt
magmas reach the surface. Dissolved gases escape
easily as the magma erupts, forming lava that flows
downhill quite easily. Effusive eruptions build up gently-
sloping Shield Volcanoes like Hawaii.

VOLCANIC HAZARD
Volcanic hazards are classified into two categories: direct and indirect. Direct risks are factors that
kill or hurt humans directly, as well as ruin property or wildlife habitat. Indirect hazards are
environmental changes caused by volcanism that result in hardship, starvation, or habitat damage.
PYROCLASTIC FALL
Vertical fall of tephra in the area surrounding an eruption. Coverage of dense tephra in places near
the eruption (1 km to 10s of kilometers).

LAHAR
Any mudflow or debris flow associated with a
volcano is referred to as a lahar. The majority are
caused by snow and ice melting during an
eruption.

LAVA FLOWS
Lava flows at volcanoes move slowly, and in most
situations, people may avoid being swept away.
Naturally, it is more difficult to relocate
infrastructure, which is why houses and roads are
frequently the primary victims of lava flows.

SECTOR COLLAPSE/ DEBRIS AVALANCHE

The failure of part of a volcano, either due to an eruption or for some other reason, leading to the
failure of a large portion of the volcano. Severe risk of destruction for anything in the path of the
debris avalanche.
PYROCLASTIC DENSITY CURRENT
A very hot (several 100°C) mixture of gases and volcanic fragments (tephra) that flows rapidly (up to
100s of kilometers per hour (km/h)) down the side of a volcano Extreme hazard — destroys anything
in the way.
GAS EMISSIONS
The emission of gases before, during, and after an eruption. Climate cooling leading to crop failure
and famine. In some cases, widespread poisoning.
TEPHRA EMISSIONS
Small particles of volcanic rock emitted into the atmosphere. Respiration problems for some
individuals. Significant climate cooling leading to crop failure and famine. Can damage aircraft

FLUVIAL HAZARDS
UPSTREAM FLOODING AND FLASH FLOODS
When huge amounts of rain fall within a small area in a short period of time, streams in the immediate
vicinity may flood, with little or no influence on locations downstream. Upstream floods are a term
that refers to these types of floods. In such floods, water rises rapidly and swiftly drains away once
the storm passes. The lag time is expressed in days.
Flash floods occur when the rate of infiltration is low and there is a brief period of intense rain. They
are floods that occur upstream with very little lag time (lag times may be only a few hours). Flash
floods are the deadliest type of flooding because they occur without notice.
DOWNSTREAM FLOODING
If a considerable amount of rain falls over an extended period of time across a vast region,
downstream flooding (also known as regional flooding) may occur. Lag durations are typically longer
when tributary streams continue to increase the amount of water discharged into larger streams.
These floods last for an extended length of time and damage both main and tributary streams.
RIVERBANK EROSION
Occurs commonly in rivers and upper reaches of estuaries. Bank erosion is often associated with
the evolution of meanders, as one bank is silting, and the opposite bank is eroding. There are no
reliable formulae to estimate the stability of banks.

SCOURING OR RIVERBED/CHANNEL EROSION

Removal of riverbed substrate around bridge piers and
abutments, also known as scour.
CHANNEL MIGRATION
The term "channel migration" refers to the natural process
through which a stream or river channel flows over time. Channel
migration can occur gradually, for example, when a stream
erodes one bank and dumps material on the other. It can also
occur extremely rapidly during floods or other periods of high
water.
RILL EROSION
Rill erosion is the process by which soil is removed by
concentrated water flow. It happens when water makes narrow
channels in the soil as it flows away from the location.
GULLY EROSION
Gully erosion is the removal of soil along drainage lines by surface water runoff. Unless steps are
taken to stabilize the disturbance, gullies will continue to move by headward erosion or by slumping
of the side walls.
SEDIMENTATION
The deposition of eroded material in waterways.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT FLOODING
Flooding is mostly caused by heavy rainfall, rapid or excessive snow melt, and dam failure. When
rain falls on the Earth's surface, some of the water evaporates and returns to the atmosphere, while
part infiltrates the soil and travels downward into the groundwater system. What remains on the
Earth's surface and eventually drains into streams is referred to as runoff? Thus, in general:
Runoff is equal to the sum of precipitation, infiltration, interception, and evaporation. Evaporation is
typically the smallest of these quantities, especially over short time periods, and so precipitation,
infiltration, and interception are the primary variables determining runoff and eventual discharge into
streams.
RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION

If rainfall is heavier than normal in a particular area and infiltration, interception, and evaporation are
low then runoff can be high and the likelihood of flooding will increase.
INFILTRATION
Infiltration is controlled by how readily the water can seep into the soil, be absorbed by
the soil, and work its way down to the water table
INTERCEPTION
Interception involves anything that captures rainwater and prevents it from contributing to runoff. This
includes water that is held on leaves and branches of trees until it evaporates and water that is gets
kept in ponds or lakes. Thus, destruction of vegetation diminishes interception and resulting in
increased runoff. Increasing vegetation or development of retention ponds, enhances interception
and resulting in less runoff.
COASTAL HAZARDS

A coastal zone is the area where land meets water. These zones are critical since they are home to
the bulk of the world's population. Coastal zones are always changing as a result of the ocean's
dynamic interaction with the land. Along the coast, waves and winds continuously erode rock and
deposit silt, and the rates of erosion and deposition vary significantly from day to day. During storms,
the energy hitting the shoreline can become very high, and such high energies render coastal zones
more vulnerable to natural dangers. Thus, a grasp of the ocean-land interaction is critical for
comprehending the hazards connected with coastal zones.
TIDAL FLOODING
Climate-related Sea level rise, land subsidence, and the loss of natural barriers, flooding now
happens with high tides in numerous regions.
COASTAL EROSION
Coastal erosion causes the movement of sediments away from a coastline as a result, landward
retreat of the coastline.
COASTAL AGGRADATION
Elevation occurs in several sections of the shoreline. It is constructed as a result of the deposition of
material carried by either through water or through wind. sediment accumulation the coast line's
seaward progression.
STORM SURGE
A storm surge is an elevation of the sea level
caused by tropical cyclones, powerful storms
also known as typhoons or hurricanes. Storms
generate high winds that push the ocean closer
to the coast, which can result in flooding. As a
result, storm surges are extremely perilous for
coastal communities.

COASTAL SUBSIDENCE

SEA LEVEL RISE

Sea level rise is defined as an increase in the sea level (eustatic or relative) produced by a variety
of processes including isostatic rebound, global temperature increase, ocean thermal expansion,
and subsiding land masses. Sea level variations are continually monitored throughout the world in a
variety of methods
SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES
Undersea landslide refers to the process and phenomenon by which the rock or soil that makes up
the submarine slope slides down the continuous failure face as a result of natural or human activity
or other abrupt circumstances. Submarine landslides cause earthquakes volcanic eruptions and
turbidity in currents.