Introduction A biopsychologist will execute a biological approach to psychology in the endeavor to study psychological diseases and disorders, in addition

to in the diagnosis and treatment of individuals anguish from diseases and disorders. The subsequent will consist of the psychoanalysis of the disorder identified as Schizophrenia. As for the areas of brain affected, contributory factors, related symptoms, the neural origin, and suitable drug therapies will be discussed. Additionally, the disorders of Anorexia Nervosa and Generalized Anxiety Disorder will also be examined. Therefore the disorders of Anorexia Nervosa and Generalized Anxiety Disorder will be discussed for their relation to the nature-nurture issue and other appropriate theories of etiology. Possible drug therapies and alternative solutions will also be a focus of discussion.

Part A: Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is indubitably one of the most intricate psychiatric disorders of all time. It is a disorder which name defines the splitting of psychic functions (Pinel, 2007, p.481), Schizophrenia habitually presents itself with a multiplicity of attribute symptoms including hallucinations, possible delusions, disorganized ,grossly disorganized, incoherent speech, or catatonic behavior patterns and negative symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Social and occupational dysfunction often accompany these characteristic symptoms of Schizophrenia and the combination of function impairment and symptoms must persevere in duration for a period of six months to warrant a diagnosis of Schizophrenia (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

The Various Theories and Neural Basis

The assorted theories that contain the causal factors allied to the development of Schizophrenia, is the evidence that the disorder could result from genetic predisposition ensuing from the Schizophrenia diagnosis from a close relative (Pinel, 2007). This predisposition, combined with experiences relating from significant trauma, stress, could trigger the later development of Schizophrenia disorder. Additionally, people with the genetic predisposition for Schizophrenia will frequently demonstrate evidence that could suggest a neurodevelopment hindrances associated to early infection. Such as autoimmune reactions and toxin exposure that could amplify the likelihood of developing the Schizophrenia disorder (Pinel, 2007).

The alternate theory suggests Schizophrenia could have a connection to augment the dopamine levels. That specific attention has been drawn to the D2 receptors. Therefore researchers findings relating phenothiazines, which bind to both D1 and D2 receptors and butyrophenones, that bind to the D2 receptors support that Schizophrenia is probably caused by hyperactivity located at the D2 receptor site, and not the dopamine receptor sites (Pinel, 2007). Even though research related to the D2 receptor is substantive, the neural basis of the disorder could facilitate in additional perceptive on Schizophrenia (Pinel, 2007).

Further recent research has implied that Schizophrenia has a connection with excess of the D2 receptors. Atypical neuroleptic drugs, that are not principal blockers of the D2 receptors, for instance the clozapine demonstrate only a trivial effect on the D2 receptors, except augmented effects on other receptors including the D1 and D4 receptors, in addition to numerous serotonin receptors (Pinel, 2007). Additionally, the detail to facilitate the neuroleptic drug therapy requires numerous weeks to assuage the symptoms of Schizophrenia, by successfully blocking the activity at the D2 receptors in merely hours, but by blocking these receptors is not the etiology of this disorder (Pinel, 2007). In addition, the neuroleptic therapies have failed to help individuals that have been diagnosed with the Schizophrenic disorder. While typically effective in treating the positive symptoms including hallucinations, incoherence, and delusions the neuroleptic drugs are less effective in the treatment of negative

symptoms related to affect, cognitive deficits and speech dysfunction. Therefore, the D2 theory of hyperactivity at the receptor site remains challenged by the fact that if this theory were complete both the positive and negative symptoms of the disorder would be alleviated by the neuroleptic therapies (Pinel, 2007).

Additional consideration revolving Schizophrenia etiology results from brain imaging studies that commonly evidence extensive abnormalities of the brain including small cerebral cortex and the enlarged cerebral ventricles (Pinel, 2007). The outcome of these brain image studies lends further merit to the suggestion of early neural development issues as bearing connection to the development of Schizophrenia. Moreover notable in the Schizophrenia cases is the lack of normal brain laterality, which then the dopamine theory would be unsuccessful to explain (Pinel, 2007).

The Appropriate Drug Therapies

Despite the fact that psychotherapy and a group or family therapy may assist in the achievement of treating the Schizophrenic patient, these treatment options must be used in combination of effective drug therapy, to concentrate on the compound symptoms associated to the individuals disorder (Grohol, 2008). Therefore drug therapy may perhaps necessitate a combination of antidepressant, antipsychotic, also anti anxiety medications to utterly manage and address the patients array of symptoms (Grohol, 2008). Due to the probability of patient discontinuation of medication as a consequence of drug ineffectiveness, or side effects in which the patient finds intolerable, drug therapy should be cautiously considered and monitored during the course of treatment (Grohol, 2008).

Therapy should contain appropriate patient education with regard to having possible medication dosage, side effects, and length of treatment with the emphasis on coping methods associated to side effects. The Patients age, medical history, current illness, compliance abilities target symptoms, and other potential interactions of other drugs must also be assessed previous to developing a treatment plan (Bailey, 1998). Even during treatment the patients advancement should be monitored to address their responsiveness to treatment, dosage adjustments, and patients compliance with treatment and tolerance to side effects (Bailey, 1998).

Therefore, Clozapine should be the medication considered for the Schizophrenic individual, as this pharmaceutical alternative that has been publicized to be further effective than several of the newer antipsychotic medications obtainable (Grohol, 2008). Although, it should be noted that various antipsychotic medications carry the risk of a plethora of problematic side effects which will need to be monitored throughout the duration of their treatment. These side effects can consist of gastrointestinal complaints, visual disturbances, central nervous dysfunction, skin discoloration, sedation, photosensitivity, reduced sweating ability or possible allergic reaction that could vary in duration and in severity (Bailey, 1998).

Part B: The Case Studies on Anorexia Nervosa and Generalized Anxiety Disorder

The essayist has been provided with two case studies for analysis from the biopsychological perspective. In addition, the essayist was asked to relate the case study disorders to the nature-nurture issue as well as to discuss any beneficial drug therapies for each case. Case A involves a young lady living with the diagnosis of Anorexia Nervosa and Case B an individual suffering from anxiety (Axia College, n.d.).

Case A: Anorexia Nervosa (Restricting Type)

Case A familiarizes the author with Beth. Beth became overwhelmed by fear as a teenager with regard to the possibility of gaining weight although she was, in fact, of normal weight for her height and age. Beth began to diet and subsequently lost weight yet her self-image continued to suffer regardless of the amount of weight lost. Currently Beth is described as dangerously thin, she continues to lose weight and is apparently suffering from amenorrhea as a result her weight loss (Axia College, n.d.). The essayist would suggest the complete diagnosis for Beth to be Anorexia Nervosa (Restricting Type) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

The essayist notion is that Beths disorder possibly began with the process of strict dieting, ensuing from the her apprehension of gaining weight, as research suggests adolescent females in response to physical attractiveness, also acceptable weight limits often develop the disorder if they are highly controlled, rigid or obsessive personalities (Pinel, Assanand, & Lehman, 2000). Although, another perspective on Anorexia Nervosa with relation to the positive incentive values of food may provide additional insight on the disorder.

The role of positive incentive and the relation to food in anorexics have been disregarded, because of the confusion surrounding the disorder. The anorexic individual is repeatedly obsessed with food. The individual will spend a significant amount of time preparing the food, conversations about food, or just thinking about food(Pinel, Assanand, & Lehman, 2000). These behaviors have lead many individuals to conclude that there is still some positive incentive value of food to the anorexic. Therefore, we must not become confused because these behaviors differ from the act of eating food. If the patient relates the intake of food to weight gain, instead of for maintaining their health and their energy needs, the food no longer holds or is perceived to have a positive incentive value. As a result the individual will continue to restrict their intake as the food no longer holds this positive incentive value to them (Pinel, 2007).

Anorexia Nervosa is indubitably one of the most devastating of all the eating disorders. Anorexia is highly resistant to treatment and there are no known effective treatment methods for this disease (Pinel, Assanand, & Lehman, 2000). The causal factors vary from one case to another and the naturenurture issue may provide clues to the patients Anorexia etiology. Conceivably Beths genetic make-up predisposes her to specific traits, which are extremely common in those diagnosed with Anorexia Nervosa. Though, nurture is likely the leading factor that played a role in Beths development of Anorexia. The culprit of nurture is frequently originated from their familial environment, or in the society there are more probable problematic psychological issues, then which would necessitate treatment involving more extensive psychotherapy methods, but with less emphasis on pharmacological methods.

The pharmacological methods that have shown diminutive to no effectiveness in treatment of anorexia include tricyclic antidepressants which inhibit norepinephrine, also 5-HT uptake (Barbarich-Marstellar, 2007). Other options would include prescriptions of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, their results of that have been unsatisfactory in treating acute phases of the illness, or in the prevention of having a relapse (Barbarich-Marstellar, 2007). A third option would be use of a classic antipsychotics, that could result in weight gain, which makes treatment of the anorexic patient complicated, the antipsychotic drugs are usually refused by the patient because of this reason (Barbarich-Marstellar, 2007).

Case B: Anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)

Tom is a successful man with three children who are the product of the happy marriage Tom shares with his wife (Axia College, n.d.). Toms life is seemingly stable and satisfying. Tom presents signs and symptoms which lead the essayist to a diagnosis of Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Tom meets the American Psychiatric Associations criteria for diagnosis based upon his excessive worry associated to

perceived health problems, finances, and job responsibilities which has been affecting Tom for more than six months (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Additionally, Tom has intricacy controlling his worry and anxiety, which at times has begun to impinge on his job performance. The physical symptoms of having Generalized Anxiety Disorder, are also present in the form of headaches, muscle tension, nausea, hot flashes, and fatigue. Toms has become disturbed and he often becomes irritable and has difficulty concentrating due to the lack of sleep (Axia College, n.d.). Taking all of these factors in to account the essayist is confident the complete diagnosis is that of Generalized Anxiety Disorder.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder is characterized by a general sentiment of anxiety in the absence of obvious causal factors (Pinel, 2007). This disorder could hold a important genetic component that is involved in the development probability for Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Many theories associated to the anxiety disorders recommend these disorder types to be experienced based, rather than a direct consequence of faulty neural functioning (Pinel, 2007). For this reason the role of nurture seems to play a more prevalent role in the development of such disorders.

The notability is the dissimilarity between anxiety and fear, which research suggests that each to be a distinct diagnosiss, that are guided by separate brain mechanisms (Fear and anxiety: A simultaneous concept analysis, 1999). Therefore emotion of fear is connected to the amygdale, while the hippocampus is associated to feelings of anxiety (Fear and anxiety: A simultaneous concept analysis, 1999).

The treatment of having a anxiety disorders such as diagnosed in Toms case usually involves the prescription of benzodiazepines and serotonin agonist, in an attempt to decrease the associated anxiety symptoms (Pinel, 2007). Benzodiazepines are commonly prescribed in the treatment of having anxiety, but carry a high peril of dependency. Additionally, some of these medications often present bothersome side effects, which can encumber functioning including sedation, tremors, motor activity disruption, or nausea. Withdrawal effects can also be quite severe (Pinel, 2007). The benzodiazepines

would be more beneficial to the patient with a diagnosis related to one of the four other possible anxiety disorders other than Generalized Anxiety Disorder.

The essayist would recommend the prescription of a serotonin agonist, such as Buspirone. The serotonin agonist will effectively reduce anxiety without the side effects that commonly occur with the use of benzodiazepines. Therefore the possible side effects of using the serotonin agonists includes, nausea, headaches, dizziness, or possible sleep disturbances that may fluctuate in severity and could diminish over time (Pinel, 2007). These side effects could be troublesome, Therefore this method of treatment is mostly beneficial for the longer-term treatments of anxiety, as seen in many Generalized Anxiety Disorder cases (Pinel, 2007).

Conclusion

The Psychological disorders and diseases can array from the mild and easily treatable disorders, to having the extreme complexities of Schizophrenia. Whether it is the common disorders of having Generalized Anxiety Disorder, or to the most difficult to comprehend Anorexia Nervosa, and the role of examining the biological factors that may contribute to the course of psychological illness, either way they must not be ignored. Therefore having an understanding of neural functions, and on the various brain structures role in behavior and individuals thought processing allows superior insight into the mind of the psychologically impaired individuals. Individuals, knowledge is a powerful tool and the connection between the biopsychosocial factors affords essential knowledge, which can be used to more effectively to address individuals psychiatric disorders, knowledge is the key.

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