Chemistry 11 atomic structure notes

Summary of Key Points:

. Early Atomic Theory:
4
○ Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus (440 B.C) proposed
the concept of atoms as indivisible particles, laying the foundation for
atomic theory.
○ Most philosophers favored Aristotle's theory, which stated that matter
is composed of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire.
○ John Dalton (1803) introduced the modern atomic theory, marking a
significant shift in atomic understanding.
. Electrons:
○ Discovery: J.J. Thomson (1897) discovered the electron during
3
experiments with cathode rays.
○ Properties: Electrons have a negative charge, and their mass is about
1/1836th of a proton or neutron.
○ Location: Electrons revolve in orbits around the nucleus and occupy a
much larger volume than the nucleus but contribute less than 1% of
the atom's mass.
○ Role: Electrons determine atomic stability and chemical bonding, and
their arrangement in shells affects properties like boiling and melting
points.
. Protons:
○ Discovery: Discovered by Goldstein (1886) through experiments with
2
cathode rays.
○ Properties: Protons are positively charged and located in the nucleus.
They have the same magnitude of charge as electrons but a
significantly larger mass.
○ Role: The number of protons defines the atomic number of an
element, and protons and neutrons together make up the atomic
mass.
. Neutrons:
1
○ Discovery: James Chadwick (1932) discovered neutrons in an
 ○
experiment involving alpha particles and beryllium.
○ Properties: Neutrons are neutral particles (no charge), slightly heavier
than protons, and are found in the nucleus alongside protons.
○ Role: Neutrons contribute to the atom's mass but do not affect its
charge. They play a role in the stability of the nucleus and isotopes,
which have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
. Properties of Subatomic Particles:
○ Electrons: Mass = 0.00055 amu, Charge = -1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ Coulombs.
○ Protons: Mass = 1.0073 amu, Charge = +1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ Coulombs.
○ Neutrons: Mass = 1.0086 amu, Charge = 0 (neutral), slightly heavier
than protons.

Self-Assessment Answers:
. Zn (Zinc):
○ Atomic number of Zn = 30 (so, it has 30 protons and 30 electrons).
○ The mass number of Zn is typically 65 (most abundant isotope).
○ Number of neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number = 65 - 30 = 35
neutrons.
. Mass Comparison (Electron vs Proton/Neutron):
○ The mass of an electron is approximately 1/1836th the mass of both a
proton and a neutron. Therefore, the mass of an electron is about
1836 times less than the mass of a proton or neutron.

Summary of Bohr's Atomic Theory:

. Bohr's Postulates:
○ Postulate 1: Electrons revolve in circular orbits at fixed distances from
the nucleus with a definite energy.
○ Postulate 2: An electron does not lose or gain energy as long as it
remains in the same orbit.
○ Postulate 3: When an electron jumps to a higher orbit (excitation), it
absorbs energy, and when it jumps to a lower orbit, it emits energy
 (quantized).
○ Postulate 4: The angular momentum of the electron is quantized and
is an integral multiple of h/2pi here h is planks constant
1. Radius of n-th Orbit
Formula:
r = (a₀ × n²) / Z
where a₀ = 0.529 × 10⁻⁸ cm
Questions & Solutions:
. Find the radius of the second orbit (n=2) of a hydrogen atom (Z=1).
Solution:
r = (0.529 × 10⁻⁸ * 2²) / 1
r = (0.529 × 4) × 10⁻⁸
r = 2.116 × 10⁻⁸ cm
 . What is the radius of the third orbit of a singly ionized helium atom (He⁺)
(Z=2)?
Solution:
r = (0.529 × 10⁻⁸ * 3²) / 2
r = (0.529 × 9) / 2 × 10⁻⁸
r = 2.38 × 10⁻⁸ cm
. If the radius of the first orbit of a hydrogen-like ion is 0.2645 × 10⁻⁸ cm, what
is its atomic number Z?
Solution:
0.2645 × 10⁻⁸ = (0.529 × 10⁻⁸ * 1²) / Z
Z = 0.529 / 0.2645
Z = 2 (Helium ion He⁺)
. Find the radius of the fourth orbit (n=4) of a Li²⁺ ion (Z=3).
Solution:
r = (0.529 × 10⁻⁸ * 4²) / 3
r = (0.529 × 16) / 3 × 10⁻⁸
r = 2.82 × 10⁻⁸ cm

2. Energy of Electron in n-th Orbit

Formula:
Eₙ = - K / n²
where K = 2.18 × 10⁻¹⁸ J/atom
Questions & Solutions:
. Calculate the energy of an electron in the first orbit (n=1) of a hydrogen
atom.
Solution:
E₁ = - (2.18 × 10⁻¹⁸) / 1²
E₁ = -2.18 × 10⁻¹⁸ J
. Find the energy of an electron in the third orbit (n=3) of a hydrogen atom.
Solution:
E₃ = - (2.18 × 10⁻¹⁸) / 3²
E₃ = -2.42 × 10⁻¹⁹ J
. An electron in a hydrogen-like ion has an energy of -5.45 × 10⁻¹⁹ J in its
 .
second orbit. Identify the atomic number Z.
Solution:
Eₙ = - (K × Z²) / n²
-5.45 × 10⁻¹⁹ = - (2.18 × 10⁻¹⁸ * Z²) / 2²
Z² = (5.45 × 10⁻¹⁹ * 4) / 2.18 × 10⁻¹⁸
Z² = 4
Z = 2 (Helium ion He⁺)
. What is the energy of an electron in the fourth orbit of a hydrogen atom?
Solution:
E₄ = - (2.18 × 10⁻¹⁸) / 4²
E₄ = -1.36 × 10⁻¹⁹ J

3. Energy Difference Between Orbits

Formula:
ΔE = E₁ - E₂
Questions & Solutions:
. Find the energy difference when an electron jumps from n=3 to n=2 in
hydrogen.
Solution:
E₃ = -2.42 × 10⁻¹⁹ J
E₂ = -5.45 × 10⁻¹⁹ J
ΔE = (-5.45 + 2.42) × 10⁻¹⁹
ΔE = 3.03 × 10⁻¹⁹ J
. An electron moves from n=4 to n=2 in a hydrogen atom. Find the energy
difference.
Solution:
E₄ = -1.36 × 10⁻¹⁹ J
E₂ = -5.45 × 10⁻¹⁹ J
ΔE = (-5.45 + 1.36) × 10⁻¹⁹
ΔE = 4.09 × 10⁻¹⁹ J
. If an electron in a He⁺ ion jumps from n=3 to n=2, find the energy difference.
Solution:
For He⁺, Z=2, so K' = 4K.
 ΔE = 1.21 × 10⁻¹⁸ J
. Find the energy difference when an electron moves from n=5 to n=3 in
hydrogen.
Solution:
ΔE = 1.55 × 10⁻¹⁹ J

4. Frequency of Photon Emitted

Formula:
ν = ΔE / h
where h = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s
Questions & Solutions:
. Find the frequency of a photon emitted when an electron jumps from n=3 to
n=2 in hydrogen.
Solution:
ν = (3.03 × 10⁻¹⁹) / (6.626 × 10⁻³⁴)
ν = 4.57 × 10¹⁴ Hz
. What is the frequency of a photon for a transition from n=4 to n=2 in
hydrogen?
Solution:
ν = 6.17 × 10¹⁴ Hz
. Find the frequency of a photon emitted when an electron in He⁺ jumps from
n=3 to n=2.
Solution:
ν = 1.83 × 10¹⁵ Hz
. Calculate the frequency for a hydrogen electron transitioning from n=5 to
n=3.
Solution:
ν = 2.34 × 10¹⁴ Hz
Now I am solving these questions with tricks here are the tricks

1. Radius of n-th Orbit

Formula Trick:
r ∝ n² / Z
Shortcut: If you know the radius for one orbit, use:
r₂ = r₁ × (n₂² / n₁²) × (Z₁ / Z₂)
Solved Examples:
. Find the radius of the second orbit (n=2) of hydrogen (Z=1).
Trick: Multiply by (2²/1²).
r₂ = 0.529 × 4 = 2.116 × 10⁻⁸ cm
. Find the radius of the third orbit (n=3) of He⁺ (Z=2).
Trick: Use r₃ = r₁ × (3²/1²) × (1/2).
r₃ = (0.529 × 9) / 2 = 2.38 × 10⁻⁸ cm
. If r₁ = 0.2645 × 10⁻⁸ cm, find Z.
0.2645 = (0.529 × 1²) / Z
Z = 2 (Helium ion He⁺)
. Find the radius of the fourth orbit (n=4) of Li²⁺ (Z=3).
r₄ = (0.529 × 16) / 3 = 2.82 × 10⁻⁸ cm

2. Energy of Electron in n-th Orbit

Formula Trick:
Eₙ ∝ -Z² / n²
Shortcut: If you know energy for one level:
E₂ = E₁ × (n₁² / n₂²) × (Z₂² / Z₁²)
Solved Examples:
. Find the energy of the third orbit (n=3) of hydrogen.
Trick: E₁ = -13.6 eV.
E₃ = -13.6 / 3² = -1.51 eV
. Find energy of the second orbit (n=2) of He⁺ (Z=2).
Trick: Multiply by Z².
E₂ = -13.6 × 2² / 2² = -13.6 eV
. Energy of an electron in n=2 of a hydrogen-like ion is -5.45 eV. Find Z.
Trick: Use Eₙ = -13.6 × Z² / n²
-5.45 = -13.6 × Z² / 2²
Z² = 4 → Z = 2 (He⁺)
 . Find energy in the fourth orbit (n=4) of hydrogen.
E₄ = -13.6 / 4² = -0.85 eV

3. Energy Difference (Photon Emitted)

Formula Trick:
ΔE = E₁ - E₂
Shortcut: Use Rydberg’s Formula:
ΔE = 13.6 × Z² × (1/n₁² - 1/n₂²)
Solved Examples:
. Find energy difference for transition from n=3 to n=2 in hydrogen.
Trick: Use ΔE = 13.6 × (1/2² - 1/3²).
ΔE = 13.6 × (1/4 - 1/9) = 1.89 eV
. Find energy difference for transition from n=4 to n=2 in hydrogen.
ΔE = 13.6 × (1/2² - 1/4²)
ΔE = 13.6 × (3/16) = 2.55 eV
. Find ΔE for an electron jumping from n=3 to n=2 in He⁺.
Trick: Multiply by Z².
ΔE = 13.6 × 4 × (5/36) = 3.78 eV
. Find energy difference for n=5 to n=3 in hydrogen.
ΔE = 13.6 × (1/3² - 1/5²)
ΔE = 1.55 eV

4. Frequency of Photon Emitted

Formula Trick:
ν = ΔE / h
h = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s
Shortcut: Use:
ν = (3.29 × 10¹⁵ × Z²) × (1/n₁² - 1/n₂²)
Solved Examples:
. Find the frequency for transition from n=3 to n=2 in hydrogen.
Trick: Use ν = (3.29 × 10¹⁵) × (5/36).
ν = 4.57 × 10¹⁴ Hz
 . Find frequency for transition from n=4 to n=2 in hydrogen.
ν = (3.29 × 10¹⁵) × (3/16)
ν = 6.17 × 10¹⁴ Hz
. Find frequency when an electron in He⁺ jumps from n=3 to n=2.
Trick: Multiply by Z².
ν = (3.29 × 10¹⁵ × 4) × (5/36)
ν = 1.83 × 10¹⁵ Hz
. Find frequency for transition from n=5 to n=3 in hydrogen.
ν = (3.29 × 10¹⁵) × (1/3² - 1/5²)
ν = 2.34 × 10¹⁴ Hz

Final Tricks for Quick Solving:

. Radius (r) → r ∝ n² / Z → Use ratios instead of full formula.
. Energy (E) → E ∝ -Z² / n² → Multiply known values by fractions.
. Energy Difference (ΔE) → Use Rydberg formula:
ΔE = 13.6 × Z² × (1/n₁² - 1/n₂²)
. Frequency (ν) → Use shortcut:
ν = (3.29 × 10¹⁵ × Z²) × (1/n₁² - 1/n₂²)

Bohr’s Atomic Model: Defects & Limitations

● Limited Applicability: Works only for hydrogen and single-electron species
(He⁺, Li²⁺, Be³⁺).
● Incorrect Orbital Shape: Assumes circular orbits, whereas electrons move
in 3D space.
● Violation of Uncertainty Principle: States electrons have a definite position
and velocity, contradicting Heisenberg's principle.
● No Wave Nature: Only explains the particle nature of electrons, ignoring
wave-like properties (de Broglie’s hypothesis).

Spectrum & Hydrogen Spectrum

Spectrum
● Monochromatic Light: Single wavelength (e.g., laser).
 ● Polychromatic Light: Multiple wavelengths (e.g., sunlight).
Types of Spectra
. Continuous Spectrum: Smooth transition of colors (e.g., rainbow).
. Line Spectrum: Distinct lines with dark spaces (fingerprint of elements).
Types of Line Spectrum
● Absorption Line Spectrum: Dark lines on bright background (light
absorbed).
● Emission Line Spectrum: Bright lines on dark background (light emitted).
Hydrogen Spectrum
● Electron absorbs energy → Moves to a higher energy level → Returns to a
lower level, emitting light.
● Series of Spectral Lines
○ Lyman (UV region): n₂ → n₁ (1st level).
○ Balmer (Visible region): n₂ → n₁ (2nd level).
○ Paschen (Near-IR region): n₂ → n₁ (3rd level).
○ Bracket (Mid-IR region): n₂ → n₁ (4th level).
○ Pfund (Far-IR region): n₂ → n₁ (5th level).

Planck’s Quantum Theory

● Energy is not emitted/absorbed continuously but in small packets called
quanta (photons).
 ● Higher frequency = Higher energy.

X-Rays
Discovery
● Discovered by W. Roentgen (1895) while working with cathode rays.
● High-energy electromagnetic waves that penetrate matter.
Types of X-Rays
● K-Series: Short wavelength, high energy (produced by heavy elements).
● L-Series: Long wavelength, low energy (produced by lighter elements).
Production
● Fast-moving electrons hit a metal anode → X-ray photons are emitted.
Properties
● Short wavelength (0.1–10 Å).
● Travel at the speed of light.
● High penetration power.
● Ionize gases and damage living cells.
Uses
● Medical imaging (fractures, dental issues).
● Cancer treatment.
● Baggage scanning at airports.
● Crystallography for structure determination.

Moseley’s Law & Atomic Number

● Moseley (1913) found that X-ray frequencies depend on the number of
protons in the nucleus.
 ● Moseley’s Law:

● Helped redefine the periodic table based on atomic number instead of

atomic mass.

Radioactivity
Discovery
● Henri Becquerel (1896) observed uranium emitting invisible radiation.
● Marie & Pierre Curie isolated radioactive elements Polonium & Radium.
Natural Radioactivity
Unstable nuclei spontaneously emit radiation until a stable element (Lead, Pb-82)
is formed.

Artificial Radioactivity
● Stable elements can be made radioactive by bombarding them with nuclear
particles.
Radiocarbon Dating
● Uses radioactive carbon-14 to determine the age of ancient objects
containing organic material.
Types of Radiation:
Rutherford’s Experiment:
● Alpha (α) rays: Deflected towards the south pole in the magnetic field,
composed of two protons and two neutrons, and have +2 charge. They have
the highest ionization power but the lowest penetration power. Their speed
is 1/10 to 1/20th of the speed of light.
● Beta (β) rays: Deflected towards the north pole in the magnetic field,
composed of electrons, with -1 charge. They have moderate ionization and
penetration power. Their speed is 9/10th of the speed of light.
● Gamma (γ) rays: No deflection in the electric or magnetic field, are
electromagnetic waves, and have the highest penetration power with zero
charge. They travel at the speed of light.
Comparison Table:

Property Alpha Rays Beta Rays Gamma Rays

Mass 4 amu 1/1836 amu Zero
Composition Helium Electron Electromag-
nucleus netic waves
Charge +2 -1 Neutral
Ionization High (100x β, Moderate Low
Power 10,000x γ)
Penetration Low Moderate High
Power
Speed 1/10 to 1/20 of 9/10 of light Speed of light
light speed speed
Uses of Nuclear Radiation:
 . Medical Field:
○ Diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment of diseases (e.g., radiotherapy
for cancer).
○ Study of bone formation in mammals and nuclear medicine using
radioisotopes.
. Agriculture:
○ Treating seeds and producing new crop varieties using radioisotopes.
. Energy Production:
○ Nuclear power plants (e.g., Karachi Nuclear Power Plant) generate
electrical energy.
. Industries:
○ Quality control, density measurement of metals, and thickness
measurement of plastics.
. Geology:
○ Studying rocks and geological formations.
. Archaeology:
○ Carbon-14 isotope used for dating fossils and artifacts.

Quantum Numbers & Orbitals:

Quantum Numbers: These are integers that describe the energy levels, shapes,
and orientations of orbitals in atoms. There are four quantum numbers:
4:Spin Quantum Number (s):
○ Describes the spin of an electron.
○ Possible values: +1/2 (clockwise spin) or -1/2 (counter-clockwise
spin).
○ In the same orbital, two electrons cannot have the same spin quantum
number.
Summary of Quantum Numbers:

Energy Level Sub-level (l) Orientation Max

(n) (m) Electrons
1 0 1 2
2 0 1 2
2 1 -1, 0, +1 6
3 0 1 2
3 1 -1, 0, +1 6
 3 2 -2, -1, 0, +1, 10
+2
4 0, 1, 2, 3 Various 14
Shapes of Orbitals:
. s-orbital:
○ Spherical shape, uniform probability of finding the electron.
○ One possible orientation in space.
○ No nodal planes.
○ Size increases with the increase in n.
. p-orbital:
○ Dumb-bell shape, oriented along the three axes (x, y, z).
○ Three degenerate p-orbitals (px, py, pz).
○ Each orbital has a nodal plane where the probability of finding the
electron is zero.
. d-orbital:
○ Five possible orientations in space (dxy, dyz, dxz, dx^2-y^2, dz²).
○ Complex

Electronic Configurations
The distribution of electrons in the available sub-shells (s, p, d, f) is called
electronic configuration.
● Superscripts: Indicate the number of electrons in the sub-shell.
● Coefficients: Indicate the shell number to which the sub-shell belongs.
Example: O = 1s² 2s² 2p⁴
● Electron Spin: Represented by an arrow.
○ Upward arrow (↑): Clockwise spin.
○ Downward arrow (↓): Anti-clockwise spin.

Rules for Electronic Configuration

1. Pauli's Exclusion Principle
● No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
 ●
numbers.
● The four quantum numbers are:
○ Principal quantum number (n)
○ Azimuthal quantum number (l)
○ Magnetic quantum number (m)
○ Spin quantum number (s)
● In a given orbital, two electrons must have opposite spins.
Example: In He (1s²), the first electron has clockwise spin (↑), the second
has anti-clockwise spin (↓).
2. Aufbau Principle
● Electrons fill orbitals in order of increasing energy, starting with the lowest
energy orbital (1s).
● Aufbau means "building-up," referring to how electrons progressively fill
sub-shells.
● Order of sub-shells in increasing energy:
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f
3. (n + l) Rule (Wiswesser Rule)
● Electrons fill orbitals in order of increasing (n + l) value.
○ If two orbitals have the same (n + l) value, the orbital with the lower n
is filled first.
● Example: 3d (n=3, l=2, n+l=5) vs. 4s (n=4, l=0, n+l=4) → 4s fills first
because it has a lower (n + l) value.

Isoelectronic Species
● Atoms or ions with the same number of electrons and the same electronic
configuration.
Example:
○ Ne (Z=10), Na⁺ (Z=10), and F⁻ (Z=10) all have the configuration 1s²
2s² 2p⁶.

Electronic Configurations of Elements

Example Configurations:
 . S (Z = 16)
○ 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁴
. Na⁺ (Z = 11)
○ 1s² 2s² 2p⁶
○ Note: Na⁺ has lost one electron, so it is isoelectronic with Ne.
. Cl (Z = 17)
○ 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶
○ Note: Cl has gained one electron, so it is isoelectronic with Ar.

Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

● In degenerate orbitals (orbitals with the same energy), electrons will be
placed in separate orbitals to maximize the number of unpaired electrons.
● Example: In filling p orbitals, 2px¹ 2py¹ 2pz¹ is preferred over 2px² 2py¹ 2pz⁰.
● More unpaired electrons = More stability.

Key Points for Filling Orbitals

. Energy Order:
○ Orbitals fill in the order of increasing energy: 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p <
4s < 3d < 4p
○ The (n + l) rule helps determine this filling order.
. Electron Spin:
○ Electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins, as per Pauli's
Exclusion Principle.
. Orbital Energy:
○ For same (n + l) value, lower n fills first.

Self-Assessment: Identify Higher Energy Orbitals

Identify which orbital has higher energy in each pair:
. 4s vs. 3d → 3d
. 4f vs. 6p → 6p
. 5p vs. 6s → 5p
. 4s vs. 3d → 3d
Summary of Quantum Numbers:
● n (Principal Quantum Number): Defines the energy level.
● l (Azimuthal Quantum Number): Defines the sub-shell (s, p, d, f).
● m (Magnetic Quantum Number): Defines the orbital orientation.
● s (Spin Quantum Number): Defines the spin direction (↑ or ↓).

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