Forest Fires: control and Management

3.1 Introduction
As per Wikipedia:
 A wildfire, forest fire, or a bushfire is an unplanned, uncontrolled and
unpredictable fire in an area of combustible vegetation. Depending on the type of
vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a bushfire (in
Australia), desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, prairie fire, vegetation fire,
or veld fire.
As per Brianica:
 A forest fire is unenclosed and freely spreading combustion that consumes the natural
fuels of a forest—i.e., duff, grass, weeds, brush, and trees.
 Also called bush or vegetation fire or wildfire, it can be described as any
uncontrolled and non-prescribed combustion or burning of plants in a natural setting
such as a forest, grassland, brushland or tundra, which consumes the natural fuels and
spreads based on environmental conditions (e.g., wind, topography).
A wildfire requires three essential elements to sustain combustion like Fuel, Oxygen, and
a Heat source. All these three elements are in some proportion to start and spread fire.

The three-sided fire triangle below shows that oxygen, heat and fuel in the proper
proportions are necessary to create a fire. If any one of these three elements is removed, a
fire cannot exist.
 Air supporting a fire must be at least 16% oxygen. The air that surrounds us
contains about 21% oxygen.
 Heat and temperature are closely related. Heat is a type of energy in disorder,
whereas temperature is a measure of the degree of that disorder.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
 The final component of the fire triangle is fuel. Fuel is considered any material
capable of burning. This would include living vegetation, branches, needles,
standing dead snags, leaves, human-built wooden structures, etc.

Fuel

 A fuel's composition, including moisture level, chemical makeup and

density, determines its degree of flammability.
 Moisture level is the most important consideration. Live trees usually contain a
great deal of moisture while dead logs contain very little. The moisture content
and distribution of these fuels define how quickly a fire can spread and how
intense or hot a fire may become. High moisture content will slow the burning
process since heat from the fire must first eliminate moisture.

 In addition to moisture, a fuel's chemical makeup determines how readily it will

burn. Some plants, shrubs and trees contain oils or resins that promote
combustion, causing them to burn more easily, quickly or intensely than those
without such oils for example in Himalayas pine trees have resin canals, which
makes the forest highly vulnerable to fire.

 Finally, density of a fuel influences its flammability if fuel particles are close
together, they will ignite each other, causing the fuel to burn readily. But, if fuel
particles are so close that air cannot circulate easily, the fuel will not burn
freely.

 Soil types also must be considered because fire affects the environment above
and below the surface. Soil moisture content, the amount of organic matter
present and the duration of the fire determine to what extent soil will be affected
by fire.

Weather

 Weather conditions such as wind, temperature and humidity also

contribute to fire behaviour.
 Wind is one of the most important factors because it can bring a fresh
supply of oxygen to the fire as well as push the fire toward a
new fuel source.
 Temperature of fuels is determined by the ambient temperature since
fuels attain their heat by absorbing surrounding solar radiation. The
temperature of a fuel influences its susceptibility to ignition. In general,
fuels will ignite more readily at high temperatures than at low
temperatures.
 Forest Fires: control and Management

Humidity, the amount of

water vapour in the air,
affects the moisture level
of a fuel. At low
humidity levels, fuels
become dry and,
therefore, catch fire
more easily and burn
more quickly than when
humidity levels are high.

Forest fires are also

result from a
combination of natural
and social factors. The
forest fire triangle
illustrates how these
factors are interrelated. As
shown by the triangle,
topography, weather,
and fuel-the corners of
the triangle- influence the potential for intensive fire behaviour and spread.
At the centre of the triangle are people.

As in other parts of the world people are the main driver of fires in India.
Population pressures, current and historic land management practices,
demand for forest resources, the use of fire as a tool, negligence, and
anthropogenic climate change all influence the other elements in the triangle
and shape the forest fire regime today.

Another cause of forest fires was burning to deter wildlife. To keep away
wild boars, birds, and leopards, people burn pine needles, cones, weeds, and so
on during the dry season. Households grazing their livestock in the forests may
also burn away undergrowth and forest litter to remove cover for wild animals
that might threaten their herds.

Some invasive species in India's forests are fire-assisted. Forest

fragmentation, coupled with intensified anthropogenic disturbances-especially
fires-have resulted in degradation of ecosystems, making them more
vulnerable to invasion by alien species; some invasive species (e.g., lantana), in
turn, fuel further fires.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
In North-Eastern India, the shortening of fire-associated jhum cycles has also
had a detrimental effect on soil fertility. Shorter jhum cycles reduce fallow
biomass available for burning and gives soil fertility less time to recover,
resulting in lower economic yields and efficiency.
Fire season
 The time of year influences the effects of fire. The normal fire season in India is
from the month of February to mid-June.
 In the plains of northern and central India, most of the forest fires occur between
February and June.
 In the hills of northern India fire season starts later and most of the fires are reported
between April and June.
 In the southern part of the country, fire season extends from January to May.
 In the Himalayan region, fires are common in May and June. During some seasons,
more moisture is present than in other seasons, thus reducing fire threat, this varies by
geographic region.
Forest fires are a regular phenomenon in our country often observed during
summers. A number of 52,785 forest fires were detected using
MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer) sensor
and 3,45,989 forest fires were detected using SNPP-VIIRS (Suomi-National
Polar-orbiting Partnership - Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) in
forest fire season from Nov 2020 to June 2021.
Severe fires occur in many forest types particularly dry deciduous forest,
while evergreen, semi-evergreen and montane temperate forests are
comparatively less prone (ISFR 2015).
More than 36% of the country’s forest cover has been estimated to be
prone to frequent forest fires.
Nearly 4 % of the country’s forest cover is extremely prone to fire,
whereas 6% of forest cover is found to be very highly fire prone (ISFR
2019).
Every year large areas of forests are affected by fires of varying intensity and extent. Based
on the forest inventory records, 54.40% of forests in India are exposed to occasional fires,
7.49% to moderately frequent fires and 2.40% to high incidence levels while 35.71% of
India’s forests have not yet been exposed to fires of any real significance. Precious forest
resources including carbon locked in the biomass is lost due to forest fires every year,
which adversely impact the flow of goods and services from forests. Satellite based
remote sensing technology and GIS tools have been effective in better prevention and
management of fires through creation of early warning for fire prone areas, monitoring
fires on real time basis and estimation of burnt scars.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
Satellite based remote sensing technology and GIS tools have been effective in
better prevention and management of fires through creation of Forest Fire Danger
Rating System based on Fire Weather Index (FWI) of Canadian Forest Fire Danger
Rating System (CFFDRS), Monitoring Forest Fire detections and Large Forest Fire on
real time basis and estimation of fire affected areas.

3.2 Causes of Forest Fires: -

Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as Man - made causes
 Natural causes- Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which
set trees on fire, However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing much damage.
High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favourable
circumstance for a fire to start.
 Man made causes- Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette
or bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with
inflammable material.
 Traditionally Indian forests have been affected by fires. The menace has been
aggravated with rising human and cattle population and the consequent increase in
demand for Forest products by individuals and communities.
 Causes of forest fires can be divided into two broad categories: environmental
(which are beyond control) and human related (which are controllable).
 Fire is influenced by many factors, like geography, climate, weather, and
topography.
 Forest Fires: control and Management

 Human Carelessness:
o A majority of forest fires are caused by human activities such as discarded
cigarettes, campfires, burning of debris, and other similar processes.
o With increasing urbanisation and human presence in forested areas, the risk of
accidental fires also increases.
 Usually, poachers and illegal smugglers set fires either to divert the
attention of forest officials or to eliminate evidence of their crimes.
 Weather Conditions:
o The exceptionally hot and dry weather conditions experienced in southern
India, particularly during the early phase of the summer season, have created a
conducive environment for the spread of forest fires.
o High temperatures, low humidity, and calm winds increase the likelihood of
fires igniting and spreading rapidly.
 Aridity:
o Southern India has experienced above-normal temperatures, clear sky
conditions, and a lack of rainfall, leading to increased aridity.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
o This dries out vegetation, making it more susceptible to ignition and facilitating
the rapid spread of fires.
 Early Availability of Dry Biomass:
o The above-normal temperatures experienced in the months leading up to the
summer season have resulted in an early availability of dry biomass in forests.
o This dry vegetation, including the leaves of chir forests, is particularly prone to
igniting and spreading fires.
 The high flammability of chir forest leaves raises the chances of forest
fires and adds to their intensity and rapid spread.

 The causes of the forest fires are natural as well as man-made.

 Forest Fires: control and Management
 The natural causes normally start forest fire by lightning. These fires are normally
rare. Even in the country the natural causes are reported to be less than 5% of the
total number of fires caused in a year.
 The most common cause of forest fire is man-made which can be either because of
carelessness or deliberate and intentional.
 Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire. Wildfires are different
from controlled or prescribed burning, which are carried out to provide a benefit for
people. Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire
risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into
wildfires by mistake.
 There has been a constant rise in forest fires in 2021 in some of the world’s coldest
regions. This is an impact of climatic change and global warming.
 Climate change in India and across the world has been a major cause of concern for
environmentalists and conservationists.
 Forest fires are wildfires that spread uncontrollably, burning plants, animals,
grasslands and brushlands that fall in their path. The wind spreads the fire
rapidly, causing significant air pollution.
Generally, fires that continue for longer period and are highly inflammable are caused by
climatic changes. Forest fires have become a global concern as many countries face
significant life and property losses.
Major Forest Fires in 2021
 Wildfires in Siberia affected the western region around Tyumen and Omsk in early
2021. As per the Moscow Times, nearly 40 million acres of land have burned down in
Siberia. The eastern part of the region, like the Sakha Republic in the northeast,
suffered major damage.
 North America saw extreme temperature and heat waves in July and August. Lytton
city in Canada recorded a temperature of 49.6 degrees Celsius, causing a series of
wildfires.
 The Mediterranean region suffered major wildfires leading to an increase in PM levels
up to 2.5. Turkey, Tunisia and Italy suffered the worst wildfires.
 According to a report from Down to Earth, wildfires have emitted around 1.76 billion
tonnes of carbon dioxide in November 2021. The carbon dioxide released into the
air due to forest fires causes lung and skin infections in humans.
Instances in India:
According to the biennial India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2019 published by the
Forest Survey of India (FSI), more than 36% of India’s forest cover was prone to
frequent fires.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
o About 4% of the forest cover was ‘extremely prone’ to fire, and another 6%
was ‘very highly’ fire prone.
According to satellite detections of forest fires by the Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectrometer (MODIS), from 2003 to 2016 as few as 380 and as many as 445 of the
country's 647 districts experienced fires each year (that is at least in 59%, but as many
as 69% of districts). The following Forest Fire Statistics in India (2001-2016) has been
generated from MODIS data.
During March 2024, the highest number of forest fires were reported from Mizoram (3,738),
Manipur (1,702), Assam (1,652), Meghalaya (1,252), and Maharashtra (1,215), as per
FSI data.
 Forest Fire Season:
In India, forest fires generally occur during March and April when the ground is filled
with dry logs, hay, weeds, woods and leaves. In some instances, the friction from rubbing
branches leads to forest fires, when the temperature is high or extremely dry.
o Severe fires break out in dry deciduous forests, while evergreen, semi-
evergreen, and montane temperate forests are comparatively less prone
to fires.
o The forests of Northeast India, Odisha, Maharashtra, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, and Uttarakhand are the most vulnerable to fires during the
November to June period.
o The biennial India State of Forest Report (ISFR) published by the Forest
Survey of India (FSI) in its 2021 report, shows that the total Fire-prone
forest area is 35.47% of the forest cover.
 Regions:
The eleven main states with frequent occurrence of forest fires in recent times are:
 Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Telangana Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
 Uttarakhand witnessed nearly 1,000 forest fires over the last six months, up to April
2021.
 Extreme soil moisture deficiency increases wildfire risk. Indian states like
Uttarakhand are prone to such forest fires.
 The Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland-Manipur border saw prolonged fires in January.
 There was a major wildfire between February and March in the Simlipal National Park
in Odisha.
 Southern Chhattisgarh, Central Odisha, Western Maharashtra, and areas of Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana are highly prone to forest fires.
 Bandhavgarh Forest Reserve in Madhya Pradesh and sanctuaries in Gujarat also
witnessed forest fires.
 Forest Fires: control and Management


Forest Fires: control and Management
 Forest Fires: control and Management
Effects of Forest Fire
 Forest fires can impact the economy as many families and communities depend on the
forest for food, fodder and fuel.
 It burns down the small shrubs and grasses, leading to landslides and soil erosion.
 Burning of forests causes smoke and poisonous gas emissions that result in significant
health issues in humans.
 Loss of trees can disrupt the climatic conditions and break down the carbon chain.
 Wildfires damage the habitat of animals, causing them to wander in cities. Many die in
the fires, unable to escape.
 These fires destroy the vegetation, soil quality and overall flora and fauna.
 Microclimate change: The changed microclimate caused by removal of litter and
duff, opening of the canopy by killing over storey shrubs and trees and darkening of
the soil surface by residual soot and charcoal can increase insulation causing
temperature increase. As a result the changed area becomes unhealthy for living of
both wild habitats and local people.
Classification of Forest-Fires:
 Forest fires can be classified in two ways:-
On the basis of its causes:
On the basis of their causes forest fires can be
1. Accidental
The fires that are caused un-intentionally are termed as accidental fires.
These accidental fires are direct result of the carelessness of the man
through :
i. leaving the fire burnt by the people moving through the forests for either
warming or preparing the meals for themselves.
ii. throwing the burning match sticks or cigarettes in the forest while moving
through them or grazing their animals.
iii. burning of fields or grass lands in the villages adjacent to nearest forests
and leaving such fires un-attended.
2. Deliberate or intentional
The forest fires are also caused because of deliberate and intentional actions
at times. These can be :-
i. burning the undergrowth and grass to collect minor forest produce.
ii. inducing fresh blades of grass in summer by burning the dry grass
iii. scaring away wild animals from nearby villages
iv. destroying or at least charring the stumps of illicitly felled trees in a
forest
 Forest Fires: control and Management
On the basis of their action
Surface Fire: A forest fire may burn
primarily as a surface fire, spreading
along the ground as the surface litter
(senescent leaves and twigs and dry
grasses etc) on the forest floor and is
engulfed by the spreading flames.
It is the forest fire which burns not
only the ground cover but also the
dense and tall shrubs. In a ground fire
the burn stays down near the ground, burning underbrush and smaller trees. It
leaves the soil in good condition.
1. Underground Fire/Zombie Fire: The fires of low intensity, consuming the
organic matter beneath and the surface litter of the forest floor are sub-
grouped as underground fires. In most of the dense forests, a thick mantle of
organic matter is found on top of the mineral soil.
 These fires usually spread entirely underground and burn for some
meters below the surface.
 This fire spreads very slowly and in most cases it becomes very hard
to detect and control such types of fires.
 They may continue to burn for months and destroy the vegetative
cover of the soil.
3. Canopy or Crown Fires: These occur when fire spreads through the
upper canopy of trees, often fueled by high winds and dry conditions. They
can be particularly intense and difficult to control.
 It is a forest fire which spreads through the crowns of the trees and
consumes all or part of the upper branches and foliage.
 Canopy fires burn the entire forest including the tops of big trees. They
burn so hot that they sterilize everything both above the ground and
down perhaps a foot into the soil.
 Canopy fires
also send out
balls of
superheated
gases that can
jump half a
mile as a
cloud of
smoke and
then burst
 Forest Fires: control and Management
into flame when they get to oxygen. These fireballs ignite new patches
of forest.
 They can trap fire fighters between two walls of flame. When the fuel
load is high and the weather is supporting it, nothing in the path of a
canopy fire can be saved except by running away or a change in the
weather.
4. Controlled Deliberate Fires: In some cases, controlled deliberate fires, also
known as prescribed burns or bushfires, are intentionally set by forest
management agencies to reduce fuel loads, mitigate the risk of
uncontrolled wildfires, and promote ecosystem health.
 These controlled burns are carefully planned and executed under
specific conditions to minimize risks and maximize benefits to the
forest ecosystem.

5. Firestorms: Among the forest fires, the fire spreading most rapidly is the
firestorm, which is an intense fire over a large area. As the fire burns, heat
rises and air rushes in, causing the fire to grow. More air makes the fire
spin violently like a storm. Flames fly out from the base and burning ember
spew out the top of the fiery twister, starting smaller fires around it.
Temperatures inside these storms can reach around 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Forest Fires: control and Management

All these fires are not independent of each other. Once a fire of particular class starts it
doesn’t remain confine to that class and may develop into some other class or the
combination of the two classes depending on the prevailing circumstances.

DAMAGES & BENEFITS OF FOREST FIRES:

 Forest Fires: control and Management

Damages
 Forest fire destroys all life forms at different levels of organization for examples
ground fire destroys the organic matter which is needed to maintain an optimum level
of humus in the soil, saplings and seedlings gets completely destroys hence impacting
regeneration process and severe fire sometimes destroys ladder fuel as well as crown
of fully grown tree species.
 Several million hectares of forest land are burnt worldwide annually which is having
varied impact on countries economics, environment, safety, human health and wildlife.
 It has also become a common feature in the Indian forest every year, causing
immeasurable damage to the forest wealth and ecosystem.
 The major change in the microclimate of the region in term of soil moisture balance
and increased evaporation is also attributed to the fire.
 It ordinarily upset natural cycles, destroyed native plant communities, and encouraged
the growth of fire intolerant vegetation and non-native weeds. It generates ash, destroy
available organic nutrients, and cause an increase in water run-off, eroding other
nutrients.

1. Damages to the Tree

 Damage caused to the trees varies with species, age of trees, their condition and
season.

 Species, which have thick corky bark, are comparatively less affected by forest
fires than the species with thin bark.

 The board-leaved trees are less affected by forest fires than the conifers, though
Chir on account of its thick bark is comparatively hardy.

 The age of the trees also affects the damage due to fire. Pole crops get damaged
because of fire but the bigger diameter trees are relatively less affected.

 If the tree is very old dry and hollow, then it becomes more susceptible to fire,
because once it catches fire, it burns very fast and for long.

 If the tree is very green it is less susceptible to fire than the dry tree.

 Season also affects the damage by fire. Fires generally do not occur during rainy
season. During the cold season fire does not occur in snow-covered areas.

 Resin tapping procedures affect the occurrence of fire. Chir forests become more
prone to fire in resin tapping season.
 Forest Fires: control and Management

 Fires in summers are common as well as destructive because of high temperature,

strong wind, dry undergrowth and ground cover and thick layer of dry fallen
leaves.

2. Damage to Regeneration

 Fire damages the regeneration completely, even in ordinary ground or surface

fire.

 If the species possesses coppicing power, regeneration in the form of seedling

coppice may appear again but even then, loss of growth does take place.

 In repeated fires regeneration may be lost completely.

 Fire in artificial regeneration areas or plantations, not only destroys the

plantations but also results in wastage of resources used in raising them.

3. Damage to Soil

Forest fires leave the soils bare to the action of natural elements i.e. sun, wind and
rain; consequently, soil erosion starts, resulting in loss of top fertile soil.
Destruction of soil organic matter affects the soil structure adversely. Nitrogen
reserves of the soil are depleted.
Fire also destroys humus and soil micro-flora, which in turn affects the forest growth.
o In North-Eastern India, the shortening of fire-associated jhum cycles has also
had a detrimental effect on soil fertility.
o Shorter jhum cycles reduce fallow biomass available for burning and
gives soil fertility less time to recover, resulting in lower economic yields
and efficiency.
o Jhum Cultivation is a traditional agricultural practice whereby land is
cleared by burning the vegetation, is cultivated for several years, and then is
abandoned in favour of another site when the productivity of the soil declines.

4. Damage to the Productive power of the Forests

Repeated fires degenerate a valuable evergreen forest into an inferior deciduous forest
or even grassland.

Valuable species disappear and their place is taken by other fire hardy species.

5. Damage to the protective power of the Forest.

 Forest Fires: control and Management
Even ordinary fire burns down the ground cover and undergrowth completely and
therefore affect the protective power of the forest.

Fire increases the flood havoc as it destroys the protective cover of the forest. Heavy
rains on newly denuded slopes results into devastating floods.

6. Damage to Wild animals

Forest fire results into enormous loss to wildlife and birds.

Not only eggs and young ones, but sometimes bigger animals are also burnt to death.

Forest fires cause loss of habitat for the wild fauna making them susceptible to death
due to poaching, adverse weather conditions or killing by predator species.
As destruction of wild animals destroys a valuable component of environment, natural
equilibrium is seriously affected with consequent adverse effect on vegetation itself.

7. Damage to the recreational and scenic value of forests

Fires can obliterate the scenic beauty of a forest, turning lush, green landscapes into
charred, barren areas. This immediate transformation can be distressing to those who
value the natural aesthetics.
Loss of Recreational Areas: Popular trails, picnic spots, and camping grounds can be
destroyed or rendered unsafe. This not only affects current recreational use but may
also take time to repair and rehabilitate.
8. Growth in IAS: Some invasive alien species (IAS) in India’s forests are
fire-assisted. Forest fragmentation, coupled with fires-have resulted
in degradation of ecosystems, making them more vulnerable to
invasion by alien species. Ex- Lantana camara fuels further fires.
9. Air Pollution: Forest fires emit heat-trapping gases such as N₂O and
other aerosols that influence the regional and global climate.

Benefits
Forest fires are as old the forests themselves and are mostly good for the ecology as well as
for regeneration. They are a driving factor in shaping forest vegetation and landscape in
many parts of India. Fire has been a part of India's landscape since time immemorial and can
play a vital role in healthy forests. Many of India's forests have evolved with fire and rely on
fire to regenerate. Occasional fires can also keep down fuel loads that feed larger, more
destructive conflagrations.
Forest fires, often, helping the forests to get rid of its natural wastes like dry grass, tree
needles, and thick bushes. Today, however, large areas of degraded forest are subject to
burning on an annual or even semi-annual basis.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
Among the other benefits of prescribed burning are:

1. Insect pest control.

2. Removal of exotic, or non-native, species that compete with native species for
nutrients and other needs.
3. Addition of nutrients for trees and other vegetation provided by ashes that remain after
a fire.
4. Removal of undergrowth, thereby allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor to
encourage growth of native species.
5. Encourage the growth of fire-dependent species. For instance, grass-layer beetle
species in Australia's savannahs show remarkable resilience to fire.
EFFECTS OF SUPPRESSION OF THE NATURAL FIRE REGIME

Temperate forests in the United States and Australia in which fire was deliberately
suppressed are now experiencing devastating wildfires because of an unnatural accumulation
of fuel. Deliberate human suppression of fire can also have direct negative impacts on
species. In forests where fire is a natural part of the system, plant and animal species are
adapted to a natural fire regime and benefit from the aftermath of a fire.

In North America, fire suppression in some areas has contributed to decline in the numbers
of grizzly bear, Ursus arctos horribilis (Contreras and Evans, 1986). Fires promote and
maintain many important berry-producing shrubs, which are an important food source for
bears, as well as providing habitat for insects and in some cases carrion. The 1998 fires in
Yellowstone National Park increased availability of some food items for grizzly bears,
especially carcasses of elk (Blanchard and Knight, 1990).

Fire behaviour and dynamics

 A common man usually takes the forest fires as normal fires taking place in
habitations and expect a quick action and resultant control by the Forest
Department.

 The study of behaviour and dynamics of forest fires shows how difficult and
cumbersome is the control and extinguishing of forest fires that too in a
mountainous topography.

 The fire usually starts naturally or because of intention of the human beings at a
particular spot in the forest area and then under the influence of winds,
inflammable material and topographic factors spreads fast in one direction and
slowly in others.

 From the place ignition, the direction of spread, speed, extent and shape of fire
depends on wind, inflammable material and topography.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
i. Direction of spread

 In case there is no wind blowing in the area at the time of start of the fire
it spreads in all directions slowly and thus assumes a circular shape.
 On the other hand, if the wind is blowing in a particular direction then the
fire spreads in that direction fast and in other directions slowly.
 If inflammable material is available only on a particular side, fire spreads
in that particular direction fast and slowly in other directions.
 The spread of fire in a hilly terrain is further affected by topographic
factors, particularly the slope. Fire spreads fast uphill and slowly
downhill.
 The fire normally spreads in a single plane along the ground with its
height usually remaining between one to three meters but presence of dry
climbers of trees, lichens on deodar trees induce it to spread at places
vertical to normal plane burning the crowns of the trees and changes into
crown fire at times.

ii. Speed of Fire

The speed at which the fire spreads is greatly influenced by wind. The
stronger is the wind the faster will be the spread.
The presence of dry inflammable material also determines the speed of
the spread of fire.
The topography has an effect on the speed of spread of fire if rising slope
comes in front of moving fire it moves fast uphill. On the other hand, on
the downhill slopes fire moves very slowly.
But in such places the half burnt cones, round wood sometimes rolls
down and starts the fire uphill from those places.
iii. Extent
The extent of the fire usually depends on wind, presence or absence of
inflammable material and topography. However, it is also affected by the
promptness with which the forest staff tries to extinguish it. The greater
the delay in detecting the start of forest fire and in starting control
operations, the greater is the area affected by it and the greater is the labour
and money required in controlling it.
On the basis of simple calculations, it emerges that area of the fire varies
from that in the first hour as the square of number of hours that lapse
between the start of fire and start of fire-fighting operations.
To make explicitly clear the area of fire in two hours will be 4 times
larger than in the first hour, in the three hours it will be 9 times larger
the area of first hour and in four hours it will be 16 times larger than
that of the first hour.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
Thus real time monitoring and immediate mobility of staff to start
firefighting operations can restrict the area of damage.
iv. Shape of the affected area
The area engulfed by a fire cannot be a regular geometrical figure. Under the
influence of wind, inflammable material and the topography its shape is
likely to be very irregular.
Forest Fire Control and Management:
 Fire prevention, detection and suppression activities are state subjects. The
Central Government has been formulating policy, planning and financing the states
from time to time.
 Forest Protection Division of Ministry of Forests headed by DIG of Forests is
responsible for the forest fire management at the central level.
 In India, Joint Forest Management (IFM) Committees have been established at the
village level to involve local people in forest protection and conservation.
 The Government of India has issued national forest fire prevention and control
guidelines. It includes
1. identification of vulnerable areas on maps,
2. creation of a data bank on forest fires,
3. fire forecasting system,
4. provisions for a crisis management group,
5. involvement of JFM committees, and
6. efficient enforcement of legal provisions.
National Plan for Forest Fire Management

 Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India has

made essential provisions in National Forest Policy. The modified National Forest
Policy has addressed a systematic plan for Forest Fire Management, according to
which special precautions need to be taken during the fire season in addition to
improved and modern management practices to deal with forest fires.

 Number of initiatives have been undertaken in the plan to strengthen the forest fire
management system in the country. A strong central component for the development of
an Early Warning Fire Forecasting System using satellite data and Fire Danger
Rating System for early detection of forest fire has been introduced.

 Forest Survey of India (FSI) is working in collaboration with the National Centre
for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF) for this project.
 National working plan code has been prepared by FRI.
 Each district should prepare a comprehensive Forest Fire Management Plan, which
inter alia comprises:
i) Details of Different Type of Forest Areas,
ii) Strategy for Fire Management,
 Forest Fires: control and Management
ii) Resources Available,
iv) Logistics
v) Establishment of Master Control Room & Crew Stations,
vi) Communication System,
vii) Details of Fire Sensitive Areas,
viii) Formation of Committees,
ix) Assignment of Roles and Responsibilities at Different Levels,
x) Requirement of Financial Resources etc.
xi) The Plan should be discussed and approved by a multi- departmental Committee,
headed by District Magistrate.
xii) On the basis of all district plans, a state level Crisis Management Plan should be
prepared and to be approved by Govt. of India for implementation.

The aim of effective prevention is not to entirely exclude fires from forest, but
rather to avoid damaging and unwanted fires, thus maximizing the
environmental benefits of fire while minimizing the adverse impacts.
The most common methods of prevention employed by forest departments in India
include the clearance of fire lines and conducting controlled burning to limit fuel
loads.
Other methods may include silvicultural practices such as selective thinning and
planting fire-adapted tree species in fire-prone areas. Early warning and fire
danger rating systems are also part of the prevention process, and allow fire
managers to put in place on appropriate state of readiness when hazardous conditions
develop that could lead to more severe fire behavior. Forest- using communities play a
pivotal role in fire prevention in India.

Organizations working on Fire Emergency Response

a. Fire Hotspot Monitoring
A variety of space-borne sensors are used to map fires on a global scale. Fire hotspots
can be detected by using several remote sensing data, i.e., NOAA-AVHRR, European
Space Agency (ESA), Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR) and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) MODIS.

Fire detection from satellite-based

sensors is determined by sensor
characteristics such as spectral bands,
data processing chains, detection
algorithms and revisit frequency. Fire
 Forest Fires: control and Management
detection also depends on fire regimes as these results in different spatial and temporal
patterns of burning (Stolle et al. 2004)
 The Forest Survey of India developed in 2016, an indigenous “Early Warning Alert
System for Forest Fire”. The alerts to State Forest departments are based on
parameters like Forest Cover, Forest Type, and Climatic Variables (Temperature and
Rainfall). Drought is an important factor in forest fires FSI has attempted to use
Keetch–Byram Drought Index (KDBI) which is being tested in 25x25 sq. km grid in
Dehradun, Uttarakhand. The KBDI can be used to forecast fire danger ten to twelve
weeks in advance.
b.Forest Survey of India

Forest Survey of India (FSI) working under Ministry of Environment, Forests and
Climate Change, is involved in forest fire studies involving real time monitoring of
forest fires, burnt area assessment and related studies. FSI has been carrying out forest
fire monitoring at national level since 2004 using Remote Sensing and GIS technology
with the objective of detection of active forest fires at nascent stage and to inform
State Forest Departments about the forest fire incidences on near real time basis.
From year 2012, the time duration between satellite pass and the time of dissemination
of forest fire signals by FSI has been reduced to nearly 2 hours, thus making the
mechanism of signal reception, processing and dissemination on a real time mode.
This has considerably minimized the reaction time towards remedial and preventive
measures on ground by the state forest departments.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)

The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a specialized force constituted "for
the purpose of specialist response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster"
under the Disaster Management Act, 2005.

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a force of 12 battalions, organised

on para-military lines, and manned by persons on deputation from the para-military
forces of India and the total strength of each battalion is approximately 1,149.

Preventive measures of forest fire

Measures, which prevent the occurrence or minimize the chances of occurrence of

fire.

Indirect preventive measures

Restriction of entry into the forest

 Entry of common public in the forest restricted during fire season.

 Strict vigil on poachers and suspicious looking people in the forests.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
 Public awareness/public opinion
While the goodwill of the local people will prevent deliberate fires, it cannot put to an
end to accidental fire.
Creating public awareness through press, radio, television, posters and films shows
about the causes of fire and their effect will go a long way in preventing the fire.

Forbidding collection of certain items of forest produce during summer

 Collection of honey, seeds etc. should be restricted during the summer to reduce the
chances of accidental fire.
 Denial of benefits, which accrue from forest fire
 Denial of benefits of grazing in fire burnt areas by invoking section 26(3) and 33(2) of
the Indian Forest Act 1972 for people, who set fire to burn the dry grass to get an early
new flush of green grass.
 India has a strong legal and institutional arrangement for forest fire prevention and
management. The national laws strictly forbid setting fire in forests. As per,
sections 26 and 33 of the Indian Forest Act of 1927 it is a criminal offense to burn
or to allow a fire to remain burning in reserved and protected forests. Section 30
of the Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972 further prohibits setting fire in wildlife
sanctuaries.
 Recently, the National Action Plan on Forest Fires (NAPFF), has been formulated
to minimize forest fires from taking place by informing, enabling, and
empowering forest fringe communities and maybe incentivizing them to work in
tandem with the forest departments.

Putting up notices prohibiting kindling and carrying of fire

 Before the fire season begins, poster about fire hazards, prohibition of kindling and
carrying of fire through the forest can be put up in prominent places to remind people
about fire risk and preventing chances of fire.

Direct preventive measures

 Clearing camping sites and areas along paths and roads

A large number of accidental fires start from camping sites where people stay for short
periods of time. Inflammable material around such sites should be cleared before the
onset of dry season.

 Fires starting from Bidi or Cigarette slumps thrown carelessly by the roadside can be
prevented by controlled burning all grass and leaves.
 Forest Fires: control and Management

Early burning

 Early burning is done to burn down inflammable material such as grass, fallen leaves
and broken branches before the commencement of hot weather to prevent the
occurrence of fire and even when it does occur it can be easily controlled.
 When early burning is done carefully, forest floor is carpeted with new green grass.
 Fires are harmful to the forests and early burning is no exception, but extreme care
should be taken during the process.
 Various factors should be taken into consideration, such as, uncertainly of weather,
unsuitability of certain forests to burning, slash disposal and controlled burning in
resin taping areas and clearance of fire lines.

Prevention of Man Caused Fires

Two basic steps to prevent fire:

i) Reduce risk through awareness

 Signs, posters, advertisement, exhibits etc.

 Radio, still pictures, motion pictures and television etc.
 Personal contacts with individuals and groups.
 Law enforcement.
 Prevention through education to children.

ii) Hazard reduction

 Stop or help stop a fire from reaching a particular area or property.
 Prevent a fire from spreading to a known or suspected ignition source.
 Breakup forest area into units to help in general strategy of fire control.
 Reduce fuel hazard in an area like slash disposal.
 2 Fire Breaks - Impose some obstacle to the spread of fires.
 Act as a barrier to prevent the spread of fire to a particular area.
 Prevent the spread of fire from a fire source to other areas.
 Break up large fuel areas into smaller one

Major Issues and Gaps in Forest Fire Management in India

 Lack of appropriate policy and planning to tackle forest fire.
 Lack of proper institutional mechanism.
 Lack of scientific approach to collect fire data and document it for forest fire
management.
 Forest Fires: control and Management
 Lack of information related to area burnt, damage to forest crop, environment and
wildlife along with indirect loss to soil and water resources. This information is
possible only through research and investigation.
 Lack of fire vulnerability map based on forest vegetation and past history.
 Lack of funding and mismatch between the time of budget allocation and budget
required.
 Not many initiatives have been done to involve local community except few states.
 Poor early warning system.
 Lack of preventive and preparedness measures to ensure better response: like clearing
fire lines, removing the fuel, recruiting forest fire watchers, making the equipment
ready to use, rehearsal and drill practices, reuniting fire protection committees etc.
 Lack of coordination.

References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfire
2. https://www.britannica.com/science/forestry/Insect-and-disease-control
3. https://byjus.com/current-affairs/forest-fires/#:~:text=Forest%20fires%20are
%20wildfires%20that,are%20caused%20by%20climatic%20changes.
4. https://fsi.nic.in/forest-fire-activities.
5. https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/forest-fires-9
6. https://kashmirdivision.nic.in/PdfDocs/ForestFireManagementPlan.pdf
7. https://icfre.gov.in/UserFiles/File/Books/FRI-Forest-Fire-in-India_26July19.pdf
8. https://ndma.gov.in/sites/default/files/PDF/Reports/BestPracticesForestFire_final.pdf
Additional information
7. silvicultural practices is selective thinning and planting
fire-adapted tree species in fire-prone areas
 Forest Fires: control and Management

 Government Initiatives:
o National Action Plan for Forest Fires (NAPFF) , was started in 2018 with the
goal of reducing forest fires by informing, enabling, and empowering forest
fringe communities and incentivizing them to collaborate with state forest
departments.
o The Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme (FPM) is the only
government-sponsored programme dedicated to assisting states in dealing with
forest fires.
Way Forward to reduce Forest Fires
a. Capacity Development- Capacity development of forest departments’ officials at
different levels (national, regional, local) to reduce the vulnerability of Indian forests fire.
b. Forest Control Manuals- Creation of forests fire control manuals for field staff helps in
early detection, reporting and controlling the fires.
c. Comprehensive forest fire policy- A cohesive policy or action plan should be formulated
to set forth the guiding principles and framework for wildfire Management. The policy
should also incorporate the dimension of climate change.
d. Indigenous knowledge- Using indigenous knowledge and techniques of local and tribal
people in comprehensive wildfire management.
e. Infrastructure creation- Improving the Staffing and capacity of firefighters in the
country. For ex- Construction of watchtowers and crew stations, hiring seasonal fire
watchers to spot fires etc.
f. Development of Technology- Modern firefighting techniques such as the radio-acoustic
sound system for early fire detection and Doppler radar should be adopted. We must also aim
 Forest Fires: control and Management
at developing a National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting
System for faster detection and control of fire.
The Bambi Bucket, also called a helicopter bucket or a helibucket, is a specialised container
that is suspended by cable under a chopper, and which can be filled by lowering into a river
or pond before being flown above a fire and discharged aerially by opening a valve at the
bottom of the bucket.
 The Bambi Bucket is especially helpful in fighting wildfires that are difficult or
impossible to reach from the ground. Around the world, helicopters are frequently
commissioned to fight forest fires.