Forest Fire Protection

Chapter 4-6

Dr Bekele Mechalu
Ass. Professor of Forest Environmental Sciences

October 2024
Chapter 4

4. Fire behaviour

The Fire Environment

4.1. The fire environment concept
Fire behavior refers to the way a fire burns: how quickly it spreads,
how much heat it gives off and how much vegetation it consumes.
Generally, there are three principal environmental elements
affecting fire behavior:

01 02 03
Fuel Weather Topography
Fuel: refers to the Meteorological conditions Geographiacal features
combustible materials available such as temperature, such as slopes, valleys, and
in an area; including vegetation humidity, precipatation, and elevation that influence
types, moisture content, and wind patterns that affect fire how fire spread through
arrangement which dictate fire behaviour & propagation different terrains
intensity.
 The amount of fuel influences fire behavior, along with
how it is arranged vertically and horizontally, at a location. The more
fuel available to burn the more energy is released as heat.
Fuel types:
 Grass
 Shrub
 Timber litter
 Logging Slash

Most of the flames intensity and rate of spread of a bushfire is driven by fine dead
fuels less than 6mm in diameter (twigs, leaves, grass etc.) and living fuels to 2mm
diameter.
Fuel moisture:
 The amount of water in a fuel expressed as a percentage of the

oven-dry weight of that fuel

 How easily fuels burn depends on the amount of moisture they
contain and the amount of moisture in the soil below the fuels on
the ground.
Fuel categories (size and shape)
 Light fuels:
Grass, Leaves, Shrubs

 Heavy fuels:
Limbs, Logs, Stumps
 The quantity of fuels in an area
Fuel Loading: Generally expressed in Tons per Acre.
 Weather 2. Wind
1. Temperature
 The stronger wind, the faster the spread of the fire
The hotter a day drops  Providing extra oxygen to feed the fire
relative humidity and thus  Carries sparks and embers ahead of the main fire
increases fire intensity  Increases supply of oxygen
 Drives convective heat into adjacent fuels.
 Influences spread direction and spotting.
3. Relative Humidity
As RH increases, fuel moisture  Carries moist air away replacing it with drier air.
increases Fire intensity declines  Dries Fuels.
4. Precipitation
Increases fuel moisture fire  Raises fuel moisture if the air contains moisture
intensity decreases  https://youtu.be/Dg1ZmvSCMvk
 Topography
Slope Elevation
Aspect
Steep Slopes Cause Rapid
Direction a slope faces. Fire Spread
Relates to curing of fuels,
Northern and western Fire moves faster uphill.
precipitation, length of fire
aspects receive more direct Fire near to bottom of the
season, etc
heat from sun and therefore, slope has rapid spread up
the fuels are usually drier  slopes.
more ignition In fact, for every 10 degree
increase in slope a fire will
double in speed. Downhill
fires slow down
The science behind wildfires: How they start and sprea
d | CBC Kids News - YouTube
 4.2. Principle of combustion
Combustion requires the
Definition: Combustion is a fast presence of three elements
and exothermic oxidative reaction
(a) Fuel
that releases heat,
(b)Oxidizing agent (oxygen)
(c) Initial energy (temperature)

This is called the Fire Triangle

 The Fire Triangle

There has to be oxygen content of

at least 15.75 % in the air
A weak energy supply allows the
ignition of grass, whereas the
energy supply has to be much
higher for the ignition of wood.
 To extinguish the fire, remove one of the three legs of the triangle
Basic ways The Fire Triangle
to achieve this:
 Digging a line to separate the fire from the surrounding fuel
 Spraying water to remove the oxygen and heat

Fuel + Oxygen + Heat = FIRE

Remove one or more of these elements and the fire is extinguished

by cutting a line by spraying water by hot spotting

removing the fuel or throwing dirt cooling with = NO FIRE
water or dirt
09-12-S130-EP
 Phases of combustion

A. Pre-ignition:
During this phase, fuels are heated to
the point that water and organic gases
are released.
C. Smoldering: During this phase,
B. Flaming: This, the most dramatic visible smoke is the primary product.
phase of combustion, is characterized by
flames consuming fuels. D. Glowing: Carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide are the primary
Major products during this phase are
products of this phase.
water, carbon dioxide and visible smoke
particulates.
 HEAT TRANSFER AND RELEASE
A fire spreads by transferring head from one piece of fuel to another
Heat transfer Description

The movement of heat through a liquid or gas. The gases rise

Convection & transport the containing heat and increase the temperature
of fuels of crowns–increase ignition  require particles

Radiant heat occurs when a hot object, such as burning fuels,

warms nearby objects, such as surrounding vegetation. The
Radiation heat we feel and absorb from the sun is radiant heat—in
electromagnetic wave does not require particle to transfer
The heat transfer through movement of molecules in solid, liquid and
gaseous objects. Needs direct contact
Conduction Conduction usually takes place in large fuels, such as fallen logs or
within the soil substrate. Because wood is a poor conductor of heat,
this method has the least influence on the rate of spread in most fires
https://youtu.be/OYW7lR-XuJA
 CHAPTER FIVE
5. FOREST FIRES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN ETHIOPIA

Fire Behavior in Different Ecological Zones of Ethiopia

The Coldest Highlands ("Wuurch" or "Kur")

 Areas above 3,300 m with temperatures between 0 and 10 oC and annual
rainfall of 1000-2000 mm.
 Above the upper tree line, with species such as Erica arborea at the lower
reaches and alpine grasses.
 Permanent settlement of humans difficult
 Due to the low temperature, occurrence of snow / ice and relatively low fuel
load, the risk of fire hazard is very low or completely absent.
 The Cool Highlands (Dega)
 Altitudinal range from 2,300 to 3,300 m, temperatures between 10-
15º C, annual rainfall between 1000-2000 mm & strong wind
 The trees commonly found in this zone include, Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus
procera, Prunus africana and Arundinaria alpina (mountain bamboo). Other
features of this zone include accumulation of forest fuel and sloppy terrain.

 Although the high elevation, which is associated with mild temperature

conditions and a more or less even distribution of rainfall, reduces the risk of fire
hazard in this zone, the distribution of fire becomes so rapid in the event of its
outbreak. This can be attributed to the ample fuel accumulation and strong
winds. Once the fire is set, the wind carries it quickly to unburned areas,
 3. The Warm Highlands ("Woina Dega")
 This zone is characterized by altitude ranges from 1,500 to 2,500 m,
temperatures of 15 to 20º C and rainfall ranges between 800 and 2400 mm
 In this zone, two distinct nature of fire are recognized. In the cold dry parts of
the mountain escarpments, where J. procera dominates, fire hazard may be
high owing to dryness of the area, discontinuous canopy that allows the
growth of grasses and other plants as well as strong wind. Strong wind assists
to dry the fuel and spreads fire, the grass and other biomass burns faster.

 The other part of this zone, which is cold, moist and humid, exhibits low risk of
fire ignition due to frequent cloud cover and rain.

 Fire outbreak during dry seasons, associated with high temperature, low
moisture and ample dry fuel, can be devastating in this zone
4. Hot and Relatively Low-Lying Lands ("Kolla")

Two distinct sub-zones have been recognized in this zone, namely the moist and
dry sub-zones.

Both sub-zones are prone to fire every year owing to high temperatures and
evapotranspiration, accumulation of dry fuel and strong wind.

However, the dry sub-zone experiences higher fire occurrence and spread
compared with the moist sub-zone since the later receives more rainfall than
the former.
5. The Hottest Lowlands (“Harrur” or “Bereha”)
As a result of high temperature, little or no moisture and strong wind, this zone
experiences frequent fire outbreaks.
 Causes of Forest Fire in Ethiopia
● It has been long established that fire can be man-made, natural
or both
● In general humans set fire deliberately to clear land for crop
cultivation, encourage new growth of grass for grazing animals,
get rid off insects, pests and wild animals, fumigate traditional
beehives placed on the branches of trees to collect honey and
make charcoal

● Un-extinguished cigarettes left

 Impact of Fire in Ethiopia
Impact of fire can be either positive or negative
Negativ
Positive e

 Fire favors the regeneration of some  The number of occurrences of fire and
species, e.g. species of Acacia, Entada the area of forests burned between
abyssinica, E. africana, Piliostigma 1990 and 2000 ranged from 0-20 and
thonningii etc. in the field. 0-150,000 ha
 Economic damage/
impact
The total economic damage caused by the forest fires in
Bale and Borana zones of Oromia Region in 2000 alone
amounted to approximately US$ 39 million (331,179,405
ETB).
 Environmental damage
/impact
 Release of carbon dioxide and the consumption of atmospheric
oxygen which contributes to Ozone layer depletion
 Disruption of energy flow and nutrient cycling (upsetting the ecosystem

48%
Jupiter is the
functions, biggest one

 Soil physical, biological and chemical properties

34%
 Loss of biodiversity
 Appearance
Mars is aof
cold
invasive species
place
 Ecologically important species disappear
 Pollution of the atmosphere and water bodies (affects health of life on earth)
 5.4. Forest Fire Management in Ethiopia
The major activities involved in forest fire management are either prescribed
burning to improve rangelands or prevention / control of forest fire.
Prescribed Burning Public Awareness Creation Community Participation
 Prescribed burning is an  Education & Sensitization  Effective forces to control
indigenous knowledge  Professionals forest fire
 community-based fire  Mass medias TV, radio..  communities are very
management  Higher learning enthusiastic about
 stimulating growth of institutions involvement in forest fire
grasses as trees and  Posters management
shrubs  Audio-visual documents  Patrols on foot, horse..
 used to control bush  in afforestation
encroachment, ticks,  clearance, pruning
tsetse flies and vectors
 CHAPTER 6: Forest Fire Prevention
● Put an appropriate land-use and forest policy with
functional legislation
● Adequately trained manpower, financial and physical
resources
FIRE PREVENTION ● Involve the local people in the preparation and
implementation of the management plans
● Organize well-trained, well-equipped and financially
backed stand-by Fire Brigades
● Stop migration and settlement of people into forests
● Create awareness about forest fire at all levels
● Undertake research on impacts (positive or negative)
of forest fire and appropriate control measures.
 Fire prevention measures
 Grassroots through schools to policy makers
1. Awareness Creation  Awareness creation is a pre-requisite for
preventing human-made forest fires
 Need of artificial water stores within forest
 It reduces the temperature
2. Water Availability
 Used to extinguish fire
 Decreases the oxygen availability

 Basis for effective fire prevention & suppression,

3. Road Construction
accessible to vehicles to the forest
  Fire breaks are constructed barriers to prevent the
spread of fire to other area

 Cut and clear both aerial and surface fuels with tools
4. Fire and Fuel Breaks such as axe, panga, and chainsaw.
 Eliminate the lower branches, shrubs, small trees
and other light materials.
 Remove Logs, branches, and other materials and
dispose away from the fire line/ fire breaks.
 The width of the area cleaned varies from 50 cm to 1
meter or more depending on the situation. Why?
 Wind velocity, vegetation type & slope determine width
  Controlled burning is a prescribed burning
 is a useful tool in fuel management
Controlled Burning  Used to decrease the fuel and to easily suppress fire hazards

 Used in fuel reduction within the forest or fuel breaks

 For grazing presence of trained guards, exclusion of goats and
Controlled Grazing
avoidance of very steep slopes.

 Proper forest management practices help to prevent occurrence

or hazard of fire
 Planation of inflammable fuel accumulation(Cupressus lustanica
Forest Management  Selection of species with a fast early growth and the ability of
reaching stand closure quickly to suppress grasses and weeds
 Timely clean weeding and pruning operations
 Removal of grasses & shrubs along roads & forest boundaries as
"cut & carry" system
Fire detection
 It is a surveillance or observation of fire incident
Fixed observation
by detection means such as mobile, fixed
observation, terrestrial or areal
 Surveillance by using fire lookout towers by
locating at open high points
Fire lookout towers
Terrestrial mobile  They are patrols on foot, bicycle, horse, or vehicle p
observation articles background in gradient
 This is the fire detection, education of the public, control
of human activities which can increase the fire risk,
enforcement

 Aerial reconnaissance by airplane

Aerial observation  The planes have a water tank and able to intervene
directly on the fire immediately after detection.
 Visible cameras, video sensors, infrared sensors:

Intervention of  The participation of the population in the fire detection

the population  Free phone number is at the disposal to call to the center
The End!

Thank you!