Forest Fire Management Information System

1 – 5 November 2021, Virtual Training by AFoCO Regional Education and Training Center

Forest Fire Ecology

Veerachai Tanpipat
Upper ASEAN Wildland Fire Special Research Unit, Forestry Research Center, Faculty of Forestry,
Kasetsart University
fforvrc@ku.ac.th & iamtanpipat@hotmail.com; 6681-620-4953
 Contents
1. Introduction
2. Forest Fire Ecology
3. Fire Behavior and Weather
4. Conclusions
 “Every command officer should possess the ability to
accurately forecast fire behavior”.
Source: Wildland Urban Interface Operating Principles, California Department of Forestry and Fire protection, 2014

“The most essential element of successful wildland

firefighting is competent and confident leadership.
Leadership means providing purpose, direction, and
motivation for wildland firefighters working to accomplish
difficult tasks under dangerous, stressful circumstances”.
Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials
Forest fire ecology
Fire ecology is the study of the interaction between ecosystems
and the wildfires that occur naturally within them. Wildfires are
common in various ecosystems and can be necessary for plant
developmental processes. Fire ecology also studies the effect of
anthropogenic change and management on the incidence and
effects of wildfires.

Source: https://www.nature.com/subjects/fire-ecology
Fire History
Fire historian Stephen Pyne defined Three Fires to describe the
progression of fire on Earth:
First Fire—natural burning which shaped today’s geographical distribution
of species and ecosystems.
Second Fire—anthropogenic fire - cultural fires
Third Fire—industrialised fire - fossil fuels which leads to Climate Change
with precipitation patterns and temperature changes.

Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021, Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems

Source: Ryan, K. C. & C. Koerner, Chapter 2 : Fire Behavior and Effects : Principles for
Archaeologists, USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. 2012
 Anthropogenic fires
“In indigenous agroforestry practices worldwide: deliberate, low-intensity
fires remain components of tropical home garden tradition sand
Australian Aboriginal culture today (Nigh 2008).”
“In the tropics, swidden agriculture—or, colloquially, “slashandburn”—
relied on fire to clear early-succession vegetation and restore soil fertility
after deliberate fallow periods.”
“In Europe, fire was similarly used to clear land and manage field stubble.”
In North America, fire was use by American Indian to manage the land.

Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021, Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems

 Fire Science
“Wildland fire science, management,
and policy require a breadth of
knowledge and versatile skills. The work
of physicists and chemists in the lab
inform incident commanders in the field,
and the ecologist must understand each
of them while being themselves
understood by the public and policy-
makers.”
Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021,
Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems Fire Lab, Seoul 2015
ELEMENTS OF THE FIRE TRIANGLE
Three elements must be present and combined
before combustion can occurand continue.
There must be:
• Fuel to burn
• Air to supply oxygen for the flame
• Heat to start and continue the
combustion process Source: https://www.firerescue1.com/fire-products/apparatus-
accessories/articles/what-is-a-fire-triangle-4HSY7X5xagWZR5KQ/

These three elements or sides compose what we call the “fire triangle.”
Remove any single one, and there can be no fire.
Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials
Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021, Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems
• The three components of the Fire Fundamentals Triangle in recognition
of the fact that if just one component is removed, there can be no fire.
• The adage “fight fire with fire” is based on the idea that fuel that has
already been burned up will prevent subsequent fire.
• Water on the camp fire smothers the flames but big log shold their
heat—once water evaporates from the hot log, oxygen returns to the
fuel and flames reappear.
• In a compartment fire, water does target the heat component not by
cooling fuel, but by drawing energy out via steam. Hence structural
firefighters often cut a hole in a roof or break windows and constantly
apply water. Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021, Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems
There are three basic fire types with two sub-types and a new one

1. Ground Fire
i. Semi-Ground Fire (in transition zone)
2. Surface Fire
3. Crown Fire
i. Semi Crown Fire (in transition zone)
4. A holdover or Zombie Fire in Russia and Canada
Source: EuroFire 2008
Source: EuroFire 2008
Source: EuroFire 2008
Source: EuroFire 2008
 Source: https://www.climate.axa/articles/why-are-
the-zombie-fires-in-siberia-a-ticking-climate-bomb

Source: https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/zombie-fires-in-arctic-region-a-worry-why-
is-arctic-on-fire-what-is-zombie-fire-impact-on-global-climate-1601544082-1
2019 2020

Source: https://www.climate.axa/articles/why-are-
the-zombie-fires-in-siberia-a-ticking-climate-bomb
Source: https://scitechdaily.com/zombie-fires-in-peatlands-which-release-devastating-amounts-of-carbon-could-be-dampened-by-new-findings/
 A holdover or "zombie fire" from December, 2020 near Fort Smith, Northwest Territories in Canada

Source: https://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/canada-may-see-more-
zombie-fires-as-climate-warms-and-winters-shorten-experts-1.5457687
Heat transfer in the wildland fire environment open system has three
standard physica lprocesses.
Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact, where energy
is transferred by the activity of individual molecules within an object (Sulli-
van2017a). Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021, Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems

Source: EuroFire 2008

Convection is the transfer of heat through air flow. Two types of convection
in the wildland fire environment include free or natural convection, in
which heated air rises because it expands and becomes buoyant relative to
the surrounding air, and forced convection, in which the flow of heated air is
driven by an outside force, such as wind.
Both types of convection are
important in determining
how fast fire spreads in
a given direction. Source: EuroFire 2008
Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021,
Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems
Radiation is the transfer of energy via electromagnetic waves. Uniquely,
radiative heat transfer requires no medium; while convection and conduction
require contact between molecules, electromagnetic radiation can move
through avacuum. Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021, Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems

Source: EuroFire 2008

Burning embers, or firebrands, can be carried by wind and deposited far
from the original fire. But ignition is never acertain outcome of solid fuel
transport. Subsequent ignition requires the transported particle to
encounter suitable fuels, and
still have enough heat to
transfer to those fuels once
it reaches them. Fires started
by solid fuel transport away
from the fire of their origin Source:
are known as “spot fires.” https://www.dpaw.wa.gov.
au/images/conservation-
Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021, management/fire/fire-
Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems dynamics-lge.jpg
 Illustration showing the parts of a wildfire

Source: https://www.ukfrs.com/modal/general-cm/14303/245994/document/nojs
 Illustration showing
the angle of the flame
and demonstrating
the difference
between the flame
length and height

Source: https://www.ukfrs.com/modal/general-cm/14303/245994/document/nojs
Fuel
Fuel, like weather, is an ever-changing variable in the fire environment and
must be addressed in any fire behavior forecast. Fuel type, loading,
availability, horizontal continuity, vertical arrangement, size and shape,
moisture content, chemical content, fuel bed depth and live fuel to
dead fuel ratio, have a profound effect on fire behavior. Fire fighters
should be cognizant of the fuel characteristics influencing current fire
behavior. Additionally, fuel characteristics ahead of the fire front and in the
direction of spread, must be known in order to make viable fire behavior
forecasts.
Source: Wildland Urban Interface Operating Principles, California Department of Forestry and Fire protection, 2014
Weather
Weather is the state of the atmosphere surrounding the earth. Weather,
in particular wind, temperature, relative humidity, and atmospheric
stability, exerts the greatest influence on fire behavior; primarily the rate
and direction of fire spread. Before an alarm ever sounds, firefighters
should ask themselves, “How will today’s weather conditions affect
today’s fire behavior?”
All firefighters have to know what weather conditions will prevail for
the next 48 to 72 hours in their initial attack area and how those
conditions will affect fire behavior.
Source: Wildland Urban Interface Operating Principles, California Department of Forestry and Fire protection, 2014
Of the three fire environment components, weather is the most variable
over time, and at times, difficult to predict. Firefighters conducting fire
suppression must monitor the weather at all times to make safe and
effective firefighting decisions. The importance of monitoring weather
and predicting the resultant fire behavior cannot be overstressed. It is
one of the 10 Fire Orders and three of 18 Watchout Situations that
all firefighters must obey. The risk involved in fire suppression can be
reduced if firefighters and fire managers pay attention and understand
weather conditions that impact fire behavior.

Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials

Wind
Wind has a profound impact on fire behavior influencing both the rate and
direction of spread. Wind aids in the creation of spot fires by depositing
embers, sometimes great distances, in front of the main fire. Wind has a
tendency to bend flames closer to the ground, preheating the unburned
fuels in front of the fire. Of all the elements that make up the fire
environment, wind is the most variable and unpredictable. Failure to
anticipate and prepare for shifting winds has resulted in injuries,
burnovers, and fatalities. Winds are strongly influenced by topographical
features and the local heating and cooling of the earth’s surface.
Source: Wildland Urban Interface Operating Principles, California Department of Forestry and Fire protection, 2014
Characteristics of Wind and its Effect on Wildland Fire Wind
impacts the fire environment by:
1. Increasing the supply of oxygen to the fire.
2. Determining the direction of fire spread.
3. Increasing the drying of the fuels.
4. Carrying sparks/firebrands ahead of the main fire causing new spot fires.
5. Bending flames results in the preheating of fuels ahead of the fire.
6. Influencing the amount of fuel consumed by affecting the residence
time of the flaming front of the fire. The stronger the wind, the shorter
the residence time and the less fuel is consumed
Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials
Temperature affects not only fire behavior but also personnel
behavior and capabilities. Excessive temperatures preheat fuels
making them more receptive to ember cast or direct flame
impingement ignition thus increasing the rate of spread. Likewise, high
temperatures will have a harmful effect
on incident personnel. As temperatures rise, production slows and
personnel are more prone to heat-related injuries. The influence of
solar heating brings wildland fuels closer to their ignition temperature.

Source: Wildland Urban Interface Operating Principles, California Department of Forestry and Fire protection, 2014
Relative Humidity is the ratio of the amount of moisture in a volume of air
to the total amount of moisture that volume of air can hold at a given
temperature and atmospheric pressure. It is expressed as a percentage. Along
with wind, relative
Source: https://www.ukfrs.com/modal/general-
humidity has a cm/14303/245994/document/nojs

pronounced affect on
fire behavior by
affecting fuel moisture
in dead fuels.
Source: Wildland Urban Interface Operating Principles,
California Department of Forestry and Fire protection, 2014
Topography is the lay of the land, the slope, aspect, and undulations
that give terrain its character. Fire spreads significantly faster up a slope
than on level ground. It can travel even faster up canyons and drainages,
where wind direction is aligned with, and funneled into, these terrain
features. Flame lengths extend up slopes allowing more fuel preheating
and direct flame impingement ignition ahead of the fire front. When wind
aligns with drainages, chimneys, and steep slopes, the resulting extreme
rates of spread may become death traps for any resource caught in the
path of the fire front. ICs should include this knowledge in the planning
and briefing process.
Source: Wildland Urban Interface Operating Principles, California Department of Forestry and Fire protection, 2014
Aspect is the direction a slope is facing (its exposure in relation of the sun).
The aspect of a slope generally determines the amount of heating it gets
from the sun; therefore, determines the amount, condition, and type of
fuels present.
In northern hemisphere (opposite in the sourthern hemisphere),
South and southwest slopes are normally more exposed to sunlight and
generally have:
• lighter and sparser fuels, higher temperatures, lower humidity, so lower
fuel moisture
They are the most critical in terms of start and spread of wildland fires.
Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials
 Source: https://avalanche.org/avalanche-encyclopedia/aspect/
North facing slopes have more shade which causes:
• heavier fuels
• lower temperatures
• higher humidity
• higher fuel moistures
A north facing aspect will have less fire activity than a south facing slope.
Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials
Source: https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Aspect_(geography)
Slope is the amount or degree of incline of a hillside (a steep slope).
Fires burn more rapidly uphill than downhill. The steeper the slope,
the faster the fire burns. This is because the fuels above the fire are
brought into closer contact with the upward moving flames. Convection and
radiant heat help the fuel catch fire more easily.
The position of the fire in relation to the topography is a major factor in
the resulting fire behavior.
Another concern about steep slopes is the possibility of burning material
rolling down the hill and igniting fuel below the main fire.

Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials

Source: https://www.dpaw.wa.gov.au/images/conservation-management/fire/fire-up-hil-lge.jpg
Shape of the Country – Terrain
Certain topographic features can influence the wind speed and direction
for small areas, independent of general weather conditions for an area.
The shape of the country can also influence the direction of fire spread,
rate of spread, and the intensity.
Box and Narrow Canyons
Fires starting near the base of both canyons may react similar to a fire in a
wood burning stove or fireplace. Air will be drawn in from the canyon
bottom creating very strong upslope drafts. These upslope drafts create
rapid fire spread up the canyon, also referred to as the chimney affect. This
affect can result in extreme fire behavior and can be very dangerous.
Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials
Ridges: Fire burning along lateral ridges may change direction when they
reach a point where the ridge drops off into a canyon. This change of
direction is caused by the flow of air in the canyon.

Saddle:
Wind blowing through
Source: http://www.outdoorsfather.com/2015/01/map-reading-common-terrain-features/
a saddle or pass in a mountain range can increase in speed as it passes
through the constricted area and spreads out on the downwind side with
possible eddy action.
Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials
Very Dangerous
Situation!!!

Source: EuroFire 2008

Elevation
The height of the terrain above mean sea level, usually expressed in
feet (ASL - Above Sea Level). Elevation plays a large role in
determining the conditions and amount of fuel. Because of
higher temperatures, fuels at lower elevations dry out earlier in
the year than those at higher elevations. In extremely high
elevations there may be no fuel. Elevation affects fire behavior in
several other ways like the amount of precipitation received, wind
exposure, and its relationship to the surrounding terrain.
Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials
Fuel, Weather, and Topography Aligned:
Fire intensity is maximized when these forces are in alignment and reduced
when they are not in alignment. Each area of a fire has a different
alignment and intensity. Each alignment produces a signature, which is the
observed fire behavior within the current alignment of forces.

Firefighters need to use extreme caution when these conditions occur;

ensuring firefighter safety is the priority.

Source: Wildland Urban Interface Operating Principles, California Department of Forestry and Fire protection, 2014
Fires Cause two things to forest
1. Deforestation
2. Degradation

Smoke and particles from fires affect health of living things,

economy and increase Earth’s temperature accelerate
troubles and issues under Climate Change such as extreme
events.
Thus, the colour of smoke can indicate the
intensity of the combustion that produced it:
white smoke is generally comprised of
water vapour, suggesting complete
combustion, especially offine fuels;
darker smoke indicates heavier
fuels and high rates of
energy release.
Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021,
Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems

Source: EuroFire 2008

Ward & Hardy (1991) describe smoke composition from woody debris.
Take-away points include:
• Of released carbon, nearly 90% is in the form of CO2, followed by CO,
particulate matter (PM) and CH4 (Methane).
• PM2.5 ratios increase as fire intensity increases.
• Flaming and smouldering combustion differ in smoke composition.
• PM2.5 and CO amounts decline with combustion efficiency.

Source: McGranahan and Wonkka 2021, Ecology of Fire-Dependent Ecosystems

 https://www.nwcg.gov/public
ations/training-courses

Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials

 Conclusions
The fire ecology is relationship of fire with its surroundings both living and non-living
things. Fire environment are the conditions, influences, and modifying forces that
control fire behavior. They been described with a triangle showing weather, fuels,
and topography (terrain). There are eight factors within that fireline personnel
must understand and monitor: 1. Fuel Characteristics 2. Fuel Moisture
3. Air Temperature 4. Topography (Terrain) 5. Wind
6. Atmospheric Stability 7. Relative humidity 8. Fire Behavior
These eight factors and their corresponding indicators help provide clues when
monitoring the fire and anticipating what might happen, make fire control and
management more efficient and successful. The most important thing is to save lives.
Source: NWCG Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior S-190; https://www.nwcg.gov/publications/training-courses/s-190/test/course-materials
COP stands for “Conference of the Parties.” Established by the UN, COP1
took place in 1995 Where? Glasgow, UK When? from 31 October to 12
November 2021 Goals? 1. Secure global net zero by mid-century and keep
1.5 degrees within reach, 2. Adapt to protect communities and natural
habitats, 3. Mobilise finance and 4. Work together to deliver

Source: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-56901261 and https://ukcop26.org/cop26-goals/

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