SYLLABUS

Detailed syllabus :
UNIT - III CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

(a) Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life; Structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell;

Plant cell and animal cell; Cell envelope, cell membrane, cell wall; Cell organelles

structure and function; Endomembrane system- endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies,

lysosomes, vacuoles; mitochondria, ribosomes, plastids, microbodies; Cytoskeleton, cilia,

flagella, centrioles (ultra structure and function); nucleus, nuclear membrane, chromatin,

nucleolus.
 CELL STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
CELL AS BASIC UNIT OF LIFE :
 Study of structure of cells and their functioning is called Cytology.
 All living organisms are composed of a few elements which are repeated in each of them.
These repeated units are now accepted as basic unit of life i.e. cell.
 This is because, the cell is a physical entity and have ability to multiply, mutate and respond
to stimulus etc. is not found in smaller units of matter.
 The cell can be broken into their sub cellular fragments (cell organelles). But the separated
organelle alone is no longer capable of continuing the entire life activity. Therefore the cell
with its organelles form a unit that sustains life.
DISCOVERY OF CELL:
 Zacharias Jansen (1590) first and invented the compound microscope.
 Robert Hooke improved that instrument and was the first person to see the cell.
 He saw the cell wall on the thin slice of cork in the year 1665 and for the first time used
the term cellulae (l.: small room). He mentioned in his book “Micrographia”.
 Prior to Robert Hooke cell was also observed by Malpighi (1661) who called them
‘saccules’
 Leeuwenhoek discovered free cells, in 1673 he observed bacteria, protozoa,
spermatozoa, red blood cells etc. He was the first person to see a living cell.
 Dutrochet (1824) had stated that all organic tissues are really globular cells of an
extreme smallness which are united by cohesion.
 Dujardin discovered the living semi fluid substance of cells and named sacrode.
 Max schultze proposed the protoplasma theory. (cell is an accumulation of living
substances which is limited by an outer membrane & possess a nucleus).
Discovery By Schleiden And Schwann:
 In 1838 Matthais Schleiden, a German botanist, reported his observations that all
plant tissues consist of organized masses of cells. In the following year (1839), a
German Zoologist Thoeodor Schwann extended schleiden’s observation to animal
tissues. He too, proposed a cellular basis for all life.
CELL THEORY:
 ‘Cell theory’ was jointly put forward by Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839) in their classic
research paper.
Important Feature of Cell Theory:
i. All the living organisms are made up of cells i.e. cells are morphological and structural
units of living organism.
ii. The cells contain hereditary material i.e. they are responsible for transmission of
characters.
iii. Cells are responsible for all the metabolic activities within the living organism i.e. they
are physiological unit of all living organism.
iv. Cells are basic and smallest units of life.
v. Each cell is capable of maintaining its vitality independent.

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 In 1858, the pathologist Rudolf Virchow generalized that cells can arise only from pre-
existing cells: Omnis Cellula e cellula (theory of cell lineage). The finding gave cells theory its
final shape.
 In view of such facts about cell, the cell theory has been suitable modified. This modified cell
theory is, now known as cell principle or cell doctrine. Availability of highly improved
microscopes has made it possible Details of this modern cell theory are as follows:
 Cells are the basis of life, and all living organisms are composed of cells and their products.
 Cell is also structural unit of all living organisms.
 Every living cell contains protoplasm. Protoplasm contains a nucleus (discovered by
Robert Brown in 1831), a number of membrane bound organelles and bounded by
plasma membrane.
 Cells is also a unit of function, reproduction, inheritance (i.e. transfer of traits from parent
cell to its daughter cells) and disease.
 Cell always arises from the pre-existing living cells by division. The new cells are like the
parent cell in all respect.
 A cell can survive independently, but its organelles cannot do so.
 The cells belonging to diverse organism and different parts of the same organism have
fundamental similarity in their structure, chemical composition and metabolic activities.
 The activities of an organism are the sum total of the activities of its cells.
 Depending upon specific requirement, a cell gets modified accordingly. For example,
highly elongated in muscle and never cells, loss of nucleus in RBCs or even cytoplasm in
skin cells.
 Each cell maintains its individuality. It has a specific internal environment and
homeostasis.
 Growth of an organism involves growth and multiplication of its cells.
 Genetic information in the form of DNA is stored and expressed inside cells.
 Life passes from one generation to the next in the form of living cell. All new cells posses
the same genetic material and information as was present in the parent cell.
 Cells sometimes assume forms, which no longer have all the characteristics of cells.
 Cells may die and still remain functional such as horny cells in animals and xylem vessels
in plants.
Merits of cell principle
 The cell principle or cell doctrine is better than cell theory in following respects :
 It applies, almost, to all kinds of living organisms plants, animals and microorganisms.
 It includes all the findings till date about cell.
Exceptions and shortcomings of cell theory:
 The shortcomings of cell theory are that is not universally applicable. It has many exceptions
such as follows:
 Viruses do not have cellular machinery, in a strict biological sense, they are not
considered as organism and hence they are exception to cell theory.
 Bacteria and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) do not possess an organized nucleus. Their
genetic material (DNA) lies uncovered in the cytoplasm. They also lack membrane bound
organells.
 Protozoans do not have cellular body. They are acellular.

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 Certain fungi such as Rhizopus, have multinucleate cytoplasm without division into cells.
 Some tissue, such as connective tissues, has non living material called matrix in which
living cells remain embedded. Cell theory does not cover such cases.
 RBCs and sieve tube cells live without nucleus and other cell organells.
 Protoplasm is replaced by non-living materials in the surface cells of skin and cork.

Cells As self-contained (Autonomous) unit:

 All the cells in an organism are self contained or autonomous. The following characteristics of cells
prove that they are autonomous.
1. Each cell obtains or synthesizes food material and converts it into living matter.
2. Each cell respires, drawing oxygen from its surroundings and oxidizes food material.
3. Each cell synthesizes macromolecules from micro molecules using energy from ATP molecules.
4. The macromolecules thus synthesized by a cell are utilized to build new cell components for
growth and to replace the old and dead tissues / parts.
5. With the help of its lysosomes, each cell discards its worn out components.
6. Metabolic wastes are discarded by each through its own mechanism.
7. Each cell may undergo division, producing identical daughter cells.
8. Each cell regulates its own activities by maintaining its internal physico-chemical environment.
9. Cells regulate their activity through (i) flow of energy and (i) flow of information.
10. Each cell has its own life span. A cell may grow, divided and die while its surroundings cells may
be in a different state.
UNITY AND DIVERSITY OF CELLS:
Unicellular Vs Multi cellular organisms:
In A Unicellular Organism
i. The single cell of unicellular organism has absolute independent existence.
ii. It doesn’t depend upon any other cell for any function material or information except for
sexual reproduction.
iii. Division of labour at cellular level is missing.
iv. Unicellular organisms are less efficient as these organisms die even if injured slightly.
In Multicellular Organism:
i. Here all cells work cooperately.
ii. Different cells are modified to perform different functions.
iii. In higher plants root for fixation and absorption stem for conduction, leaf for photosynthesis.
iv. A clearcut division of labour is seen.
v. Multicellular organisms are more efficient than the unicellular organisms.
vi. A multicellular organism is composed of numbrous cells. The cells are of three main types –
undifferentiated (stem cells), differentiated (post-mitotic cells) and dedifferentiated.
 All the cells of Multicellular organisms are derived from the zygote.
 Thus, all the cells are genetically similar and are expected to behave similarly.
 However, they show different functions because they are get modified for a specific function
according to their position in the body or required activity.
 The modification is brought about by temporary suspension of one or the other function of a cell or it
may be irreversibly lost.

Unicellular Organism Multicellular Organism

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 1. Its body is composed of a single cell. Its body possesses a large number of cells.
2. A single cell perform all the functions Here the cells perform dual functions one for
under- taken by the organism. the individuals cell and other for the whole
organism.
3. There exists no division of labour. Its cells show ‘division of labour’ leading to
several type of functions performed by
different cells.
4. It is less efficient in functioning. They are very efficient in functioning
5. A single cell represents the whole Here a cell represents only an extremely
organism small fraction of the organism.
6. Being unicellular, size of the individual is The size of multi-cellular organism varies
usually very small. from 0.1 mm to several meters.
7. Injury or death of the cell brings about Injury or death of one or few cells generally
the death of the individual. has no significant effect on the activity of the
organism.
8. Here, a dead cell performs no function Here, the dead cells may perform several
Important functions such as protection,
mechanical support, and transport of sap in
plants.
9. Distinct reproductive organs are absent. Distinct reproductive organs are present.

10. The organism reproduces only once. It can reproduce several times.
11. The organism vanishes after The organism does not vanish after
reproduction. reproduction.

Cellular Totipotency:
i. It is defined as the ability of somatic cell of a plant to produce a new complete plant.
ii. Somatic cells under suitable condition have the potential to differentiate into a whole plant.
iii. The differentiated mature cells always maintain their totipotency where as in animals the
cellular differentiation is an irreversible phenomenon.
iv. German Botanist Haberlandt suggested phenomenon of totipotency in all living plant cells.
v. Steward showed the phenomenon of cellular totipotency in carrot root culture.

DEFINITION OF CELL:

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 A cell is a unit of biological activity delimited by a semi permeable membrane and capable of
self reproduction in a medium free of other living systems.(A. G. Loewy and P. Siekevitz-
1963)
TYPES OF CELL:
 On the basis of presence or absence of organized nucleus, there are two types of cells.
(i) Prokaryotic cell: (Gr. Pro-Primitive, Karyon-nucleus)
 The cells those lacks a well organized nucleus are known a prokaryotic cell.
 Organism composed of prokaryotic cells are known as prokaryotes.
 Prokaryotic are considered to be primitive organisms.
(ii)Eukaryotic cells: (Eu-True, Karyon-nucleus)
 The cells having a well organized nucleus are known as Eukaryotic cells.
 Organisms made of eukaryotic cells are known as eukaryotes.
 Eukaryotes are phylogenetically advanced.

I. PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 They are represented by bacteria, blue green algae, mycoplasma and PPLO.

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 They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells.
 They vary greatly in shape and size.
 They have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane.
 The fluid matrix filling the cell is the cytoplasm.
 There is no well-defined nucleus.
 The genetic material is naked not enveloped by nuclear membrane and known as
genomic DNA, which is circular DNA known as nucleoid or genophor. e.g., bacteria,
chromosome
 Many bacteria have small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA known as plasmids. The
plasmids provide phenotypic characters to such bacteria. e.g. resistance to antibiotics.
 They also have ribosomes and inclusion bodies.
 A specialized differentiated form of cell membrane called mesosomes which are the
infoldings of cell membrane is a characteristic feature of prokaryotic cell.
CELL ENVELOPE AND ITS MODIFICATION :
 It consists of a tightly bound three layered structure i.e. the outermost glycocalyx
(capsule) followed by the cell wall and then the plasma membrane.
 Although each layer of the envelope performs distinct function, they act together as a
single protective unit.
 Glycocalyx differ in composition and thickness among different bacteria.
 It could be a loose sheath called the slime layer in some, while in others it may be
thick and tough called the capsule.
 Cell wall determines the shape of the cell and provides a strong structural support to
prevent the bacterium from bursting and collapsing.
 The plasma membrane in semi permeable in nature and interacts with the outside
world.
 A special membranous structure is the mesosome which is formed by the extensions
of plasma membrane into the cell. These extensions are in the form of vesicles,
tubules and lamella. They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution
to daughter cells; they help in respiration, secretion process and increases the surface
area of the plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
 In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, there are other membranous extensions into
the cytoplasm called chromatophore which contains pigments.
RIBOSOMES :
 The ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the cell.
 They are about 15 nm by 20 nm in size.
 They are of 70S type made up of 50S and 30S subunits.
 Ribosomes are of the site of protein synthesis.
 Several ribosomes are attached to a single mRNA and form a chain called
polyribosome or polysome.
INCLUSION BODIES :
 Reserve material are stored in the cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies.
 These are not bounded by any membrane system and lie free in the cytoplasm. e.g.,
phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules.

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  Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS :
 Eukaryotic cell show more complex internal organization than prokaryotic cells. All these
cells are a double membrane system. The genetic material (DNA) is enclosed by two
membranes to form a prominent structure called nucleus. The eukaryotic cells occur in
protists, fungi, plants and animals.
PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL
1. Organised nucleus is absent Organized nucleus is present.
2. It is a single membrane system. It is a double membrane system.
3. Plasmalemma possesses respiratory Plasmalemma does not carry respiratory
enzymes enzymes.
4. Cytoplasm does not contain endoplasmic Cytoplasm contains several membrane bound
reticulum and other membrane bound organelles, eg: endoplasmic reticulum
organelles except ribosomes. mitochondria, Golgi Body, centrosome,
microfilaments microtubules, inter mediate fibres,
microbodies), besides ribosomes.
5 Cell membrane may infold to form Messomes are absent in these cells. Thylakoids, if
mesosomes or photo- synthesis present occur in chloroplasts.
lamellae(thylakoids) Thylakoids lie free in
the cytoplasm.
6. Ribosomes are of 70 S size, they are Ribosomes are of80s size, in plants they
made up of 50s and 30s subunits. dissociate into60S and 40S subunits.
7. Genetic material (DNA) lies naked in the Genetic material(DNA) is enclosed by a nuclear
. cyto- plasm. It is called nucleoid envelope to from a nucleus.
8. The nucleoid possesses a single Nuclear DNA is linear and associated with
prochromosome made up of circular histones Extranclear DNA (Present in
molecule of DNA with which various mitochondria and chloroplasts) is circular and
proteins are loosely associated. Histone protein free.
protein absent. Posses very small amount Posses large amount of DNA
of DNA.
9. Cytoplasm does not have any Cytoplasm has a system of micro- tubules
Mictrotubule. (which may provide stability to the cytoplasmic
structure.
10 Flagella, if present, are simple, and are Flagella, if present are complex, have 9+2 pattern
. formed of a protein flagellin, are 20nm of micro- tubules formed of a protein tubulin,
diameter and are not enclosed in cell are200 nm in diameter and enclosed in cell
membrane.
11 Plasmids and pili present in many pro There are no plasmids and pili in eukaryotic cells.
. karyotic cells.
12 Cells are haploid (n) Body cells (somatic cells) are diploid (2n).
.
13 Mostly nonsexual organisms Mostly sexual organisms.
14 These cells are smaller (0.5-10µm) Relatively larger cells (5 to 100 µm)

15 Present in bacteria and cyanobacteria Present in algae, Fungi, plants and animals.
. (BGA) and Mycoplasma.
Additional points:

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

1 In most cases a cell wall surrounds the Cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane in

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 plasma membrane. It is made Up of protists, most fungi and all plants. It is made up
peptidoglycans and the strengthening of polysaccharides.chitin in most fungi and
material murein peptidoglycans are cellulose in other Cell wall is absent in Animals
polysaccharides linked to amino acids. cells
2. Mitochondria are absent (oxidative Cells contains mitochondira (which are the
phosphorylation is associated with sites of oxidative phosphory- lation.)
Plasmalemma)
3. Chloroplasts are not found (blue- All green plants have typical chloro-plasts
green)algae have lamellar photosynthetic (which have typical grana.)
structure but they do not have grana.
4. Cytoplasm does not have anyCytoplasm has a system of micro-tubules
Mictrotubule. (which may provide stability to the
cytoplasmic structure.
5. Sap vacuoles are not present. May have Sap vacuoles are mostly present.
gas vacuoles.
6. Endocytosis (pinocytosis and Endocytosis and exocytosis occur in many
phagocytosis) and exocytosis do not protists and animals.
occur.
7. Cell cycle is short; takes about 20-60 Cell cycle is of longer duration taking about 12
minutes to complete. to 24 hours to complete
9. During cell division spindle apparatus is During cell division spindle apparatus is
not formed. organized.
10 Chromosomes are attached to plasma Chromosomes ends attached to the nuclear
. lemma. membrane.

11 Meiosis (reduction division does not take Meiosis, gamete formation and true
. place. There is no gamete formation or fertilization take place.
true fertilization.
12 All ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm. Most of the ribosomes are attached to
. endoplasmic reticulum, and some ribosomes
are free in the cytoplasm.
13 Transcription and translation occur in Transcription and translation occur in Nucleus
. cytoplasm. and cyto- Plasm respectively.

14 The mRNA does not need processing. The mRNA needs processing.
.
15 Protein synthesis takes place in cytoplasm Protein synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm,
. only. mitochondria and plastids.
16 DNA occurs in cytoplasm only. DNA occurs in the nucleus as well as in
. mitochondria and chloroplasts.
17 Replication of DNA takes place DNA replication takes place during Sphase of
. continuously throughout the cell cycle. cell cycle only.

Table showing Difference between animal and plant cells :

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 ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL
1. Cell enclosed by a plasma Cell enclosed by a thick, nonflexible and
membrane, Which is thin and flexible. cell wall. It is followed by plasma
membrane.
2. Vacuoles, if present are small and A large and permanent central vacuole
many. Not,permanent. filled with a sap is present.
3. The nucleus is mostly located in the The nucleus is pushed to one side of the
centre of the cell. cell by central vacuole.
4. Plastids (such as chloroplast, Plastids are mostly present.
leucoplast) absent.
5. Numerous mitochondria Present in Only few mitochondria present in each
each cell. cell.
6. Stores carbohydrates as Glycogen. Carbohydrates are Stored as starch.

7 Generally smaller, not Exceeding Generally larger, exceeding 100 μ m.

100 μ m.

Table showing Difference between animal and plant cells: (Additional Points)

ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

1 Plate-like cristae present present Tubular cristae In mitochondria.
in
mitochondria.
2 Cytoskeleton possess Intermediate Intermediate fibres absent in the
fibres. Cytoskeleton.
3 Crystals mostly lacking. Crystals mostly present.
4 Contractile vacuole present. Contractile vacuole absent.
5 May change form and move about Does not change form and location.
6 Incapable of synthesizing all amino Can synthesize all amino acids,
acids, Coenzymes and vitamins. Coenzymes and Vitamins.
7 Glyoxysomes not present. May be present.
8 Metaphase spindle has an aster at Metaphase spindle Does not have aster at
each pole the poles.
9 Cytokinesis takes place by Cytokinesis takes Place by cell plate
furrowing. method
10 Due to absence of cell Wall, cell Does not burst if placed in a Hypotonic
. bursts if placed In a hypotonic solution.
solution.

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FILL IN THE BLANKS:
1. _______ discovered cork cells.
2. Bacteria which lack cell wall are known as ___.
3. Cell theory was propounded by ________.
4. Physical basis of life is _________.
5. Cell wall is found in plant cells and _____ cells.
6. ______ proposed that cells are totipotent.
7. Cellular totipotency was experimentally demonstrated by ______.
8. Cells originate from ________.
9. The branch of biology that deals with the study of cells is known as ______.
10. Centrosome is present in ________ cells.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

1. Who has expressed origin of cell in the form of famous aphorism “Omnis cellula e cellula”?
(a) Virchow (b) Aristotle (c) Schleiden (d) Schwann
2. Incipient nucleus is seen in the cell of:
(a) bacteria (b) Virus (c) Mucor (d) Chlorella
3. Nucleoid is present in:
(a) Plant cell (b) Animal cell (c) Green algal cell (d) Bacterial cell
4. Cell wall is present in:
(a) Plant cell (b) Prokaryotic cell (c) Algal cell (d) All the above
5. The physical basis of life is:
(a) Cytoplasm (b) Protoplasm (c) Nucleoplasm (d) Endoplasm
6. The cell theory states that:
(a) All cell have nuclei
(b) All cells are living
(c) Cells reproduce by mitosis
(d) Cells are the functional and structural units of plants and animals.
7. Plant cells differ from animal cells in one of the following important ways:
(a) All plant cells possess chrophyll (b) Plant cells are bigger
(c) Plant cell have a rigid cell wall (d) Plant cells are not so specialized

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8. The first person to see a cell under the microscopic was
(a) M.J.Schleiden (b) Theodor Schwann
(c) A.V.Leeuwenhoek (d) Robert Hooke
9. The cell organelles can be isolated by:
(a) X-ray diffraction (b) Differential centrifugation
(c) Autoradiography (d) Chemical analysis
10. Genophore is the characterstic of
(a) Prokaryotic cell (b) Mesokaryotic cell
(c) Eukaryotic cell (d) None of the above
11. A multinucleate is the characteristic of:
(a) Coenobium (b) Thallus (c) Synchytium (d) Conenocyte
12. Which of the following is an exception to the cell theory
(a) Fungi (b) Viruses (c) Bacteria (d) Lichens
13. Which of the following is the smallest cell
(a) PPLO (b) Parenchyma (c) Bacteria (d) Virus
14. Which of the following is not true:
(a) Animal cells do not possess plastid
(b) Plant cells have large vacuole
(c) Plant cells have cellulose walls
(d) Plant cells have plasmalemma unlike animal cell

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. What does the cell theory state?
2. How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic resemble?
3. Justify the statement ‘Cell is the basic unit of life.?
4. Bring out the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotes?
5. Compare a plant cell to that of an animal cell?

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CELL WALL
 It is present in plant cell and prokaryotic cell and absent in animal cell.
 It is a non living mechanical layer.
 Plant cell consist of cellulose cell wall (except gametas & zoospores)
 In the cells of fungi it consists of chitin.
 In prokaryotic cell it consists of peptidogycan.
 It consists of three layers.

1. Middle lamella:

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  It is common layer between the adjacent cells.
 It acts as a cementing layer and helps in attachment of adjacent cells.
 It consists of calcium and magnesium pectate.
 It is formed during cytokinesis in plant cell. (pectin is mixture of galacturans, galacturonic
acid and neutral sugars)
2. Primary cell wall:
 It is first formed outer layer of cell.
 It is an elastic layer capable of extension.
 It consists of cellulose, hemicullulose, pection and minerals.
 It grows by intusussception i.e. addition of new substances within the existing
substances.
 It is 0.1 to 3.0 µm in thickness.
3. Secondary cell wall:
 It is the second layer inner to primary wall.
 It is an inelastic layer.
 It is consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, suberin and minerals.
 It grows by accretion i.e. formation of new layer over the existing layer (external growth),
 It is 3.0 to 10.0µm in thickness.
 It provides rigidity to the plant cell.
 Secondary cell wall consist of several layer like s1, s2, s3 and s4.
 S2 is the thickest layer.
4. Tertiary cell wall:
 It is rarely present.
 It is present inner to secondary cell wall.
 In is made up of cellulose and xylan.
 It is considered to be the dried residue of the protoplasm.
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF CELL WALL:
 The cell wall consists of bundles of cellulose fibres.
 The smallest bundle of cellulose fibre is called elementary fibril.
 The elementary fibril consists of about hundred cellulose molecules and hence the cross
section area of 3000 Å.
 About 20 elementary fibrils or micelli together constitute the microfibril.
 The microfibril has the cross-section area of 62, 500 Å.
 About 250 micro fibrils together constitute the largest bundle called fibril.
 The fibril has the cross-section area of 0.256.
 The fibrils are present in the form of network like structure in the cell wall.
Pits:
 The unthickned places on the cell wall during the
formation of the secondary wall layer is call pit.

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 Pits are present in primary cell wall where secondary cell wall is not laid down.
 Sometimes pits are formed in the areas where there is no primary pit field.
 Pit consist of pore, pit chamber and pit membrane.
 Pit membrane consists of middle lamella and primary cell wall.
 The pit having uniform diameter is called simple pit.
 The pit having narrow diameter or flask like are called bordered pit.
 Pits are helpful in transport of substances between the cells.
Plasmodesmata:
 There are cytoplasmic strands act as intercellular junctions.
 These are extension of plasma membrane through pores of cell wall (Pits).
 Plasmodesmata maintain the protoplasmic continuity between the cells. It is called symplast.
 The term plasmodesmata was given by Strasburger (1901)
Cell wall deposition:
(i) Lignin: (formed by polymerization and dehydrogenation of aldehydes and alcohols)
 These are complex chemical substances found in secondary cell wall of woody hard tissue.
 Deposition of lignin on the cell wall is called lignifications.
 It makes the cell impervious to water.
(ii)Suberin:
 It is a fatty substance deposited on the cell wall of cork layer.
 It makes the cork impervious to water.
(iii) Cutin:
 It is a waxy layer form thick cuticle on epidermis.
 Cuticle layer reduces the transpiration loss of water.
(iv) Mucilage:
 This is a slimy substance absorbs water and stores it.
 It becomes hard when they dry and viscous when moist.
Function:
i. It provides mechanical support to the cell.
ii. It provides a definite shape and size to the cell.
iii. Pits, plasmodesmata are helpful in the transport of various substances between the cell.
iv. Cell wall is porous, and continuity of all cell walls in a plant body act as a pathway for
movement of water.
v. Cell wall prevents the cell from desiccation.
vi. Cell wall determines the fate of cells during development. This means, cell wall decides
whether a cell will be root hair, rhizoid, leaf or flower bud, etc.
vii. Act as a structural barrier to pathogen invasion. Ingredients of plant cell wall are also used
for various purposes by human beings.
viii. Commercially used in the form of paper, textiles, fibers, charcoal and other wood products.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY WALL
Primary wall Secondary wall
i. It lies internal to the middle It lies internal to the primary wall.
lamella.
ii. It is 0.1 – 3 μ m in thick It is 3 – 10 μ m in thick
iii. It grows in thickness by It grows in thickness by accretion.
intussusceptions.
iv. It is elastic and capable of It is rigid and incapable of expansion.

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 expansion in growing cells.
v. It lacks pits It has pits at certain places.
Cell Membrane
 Cell membrane is the thin covering of the cell present in prokaryotic as well as eukaryotic
cells.
 The term cell membrane is originally used by C. Nageli and C. Cramer.
 The plasma membrane and subcellular membranes are known as biomembranes or
biological membrane.
Models regarding structure of cell membrane:
(i) Lamellar model or (sandwich models)
Daneilli and Davson model (Trilamellar structure)
 According to this model cell membrane is made of
double layer of phosphdipid molecule at the
middle.
 Phosphosipid bilayer is surrounded by single
layer of protein on each side.
 Two protein monolayer sandwich the
phospholipids bilayer.
 Protein molecules are globular.
 Each phospholipid molecule has its hydrophilic
end close to protein layer and hydrophobic end is
away from it.
Robertson model: (unit membrane)
 It was proposed by J.David Robertson (1959).
 Not only the cell membrane but most of the
membranes of cellular organelle are trilaminar or 3
layered.
 Thus all the membranes are now called unit
membrane.
 Protein molecules are extended and not globular.
 Each phospholipid molecule with a hydrophilic
head of glycerol and hydrophobic tail of two fatty
acid chains.
 It has a thickness of 75Å.
 Middle phospholipids bilayer is about 35Å and its
peripheral protein layers are about 20Å each.
Draw Back:
 This model doesn’t explain passage of water and water soluble material through
phospholipids.
 Active transport of materials cannot be explained.
Fluid mosaic model:
 It was given by J.Singer and
G.Nicolson (1972).

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  It differs from Robertson’s model in arrangement of protein. Here proteins are like
icebergs in a sea of lipid.
 Proteins are globular and are of two types.
 Extrinsic or peripheral protein which lie on the surface and are loosely attached.
 Intrinsic or intergral protein which are partially or completely embedded in the lipid
layer.
 Lipid molecule having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions so it is called
amphipathic.
 Carbohydrate is bound to protein rarely to lipid in the form of glycoprotein and
glycolipid.
 Membrane is quasi-fluid.
Transport through Cell membrane
 One of the most important functions of the plasma membrane is the transport of the
molecules across it.
 The membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules present on either side of it.
 Many molecules can move briefly across the membrane without any requirement of
energy and this is called the passive transport.
 Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by the process of simple diffusion along
the concentration gradient, i.e., from higher concentration to the lower.
 Water may also move across this membrane from higher to lower concentration.
Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis.
 As the polar molecules cannot pass through the nonpolar lipid bilayer, they require a
carrier protein of the membrane to facilitate their transport across the membrane.
 A few Ions or molecules are transported across the membrane against their
concentration gradient, i.e., from lower to the higher concentration.
 Such a transport is an energy dependent process, In which ATP is utilised and is called
active transport, e.g., Na+/K+ Pump.
Functions of cell membrane:
 It is selectively permeable, it allows movement of ions and molecules in and out of cells.
 It provides cellular compartmentalization cell organelles are formed.
 It helps in cell recognition and adhesion.
 Macromolecules are thrown out of the cell through exocytosis and ingested through
endocytosis.
 It participates in transmission of impulse in nerve cells.
 In bacteria cell membrane it possess enzyme for ATP synthesis.
 It protects the cell and provides shape to the cell.
 In amoeba, fibroblast it helps on movement.

PROTOPLASM:

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  Protoplasm was discovered and named by J.E.Purkinjee and Hugo Von mohl
 The name ‘Sarcode’ to protoplasm was given by Dujardin.
 The name protoplasm given by Purkinjee.
 Protoplasm is the living contents of cell present within the cell the membrane.
 J. Huxley – Protoplasm “physical basis of life”
 Max. Schultze – Protoplasm theory.
Terms related to protoplasm:
 Cytoplasm – It is the protoplasm of extra nuclear part. It is also called the ‘cytosol’.
 Nucleopalsm – It is the protoplasm of the nucleus.
 Ectoplasm – It is the thick transparent and outermost part of the cytoplasm. (Plasmagel)
 Endoplasm – It is the thin innermost part of the cytoplasm. (Plasmasol)
Components of protoplasm:
 It is a collidal substance which consists of the following components.
 Hyaloplasm – It is the living fluid component of protoplasm.
 Ergastoplasm – It is the non living components of the protoplasm.
 Cell organelles – These are the membrane bound sub-cellular components having a
definite shape and function.
Characters :
 Viscosity, Brownian movement, tyndal effect, elasticity, cohesiveness,
Chemical Composition of Protoplasm
Per cent of total cell weight
COMPONENT E.coli Mammalian
(Bacterium) cell
1. Water 70 70
2. Proteins 15 18
3. Inorganic ions (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-, etc) 1 1
4. Phospholipids 2 3
5. Other lipids - 2
6. Polysaccharides 2 2
7. RNA 6 1.1
8. DNA 1 0.25
9. Miscellaneous small metabolites 3 3
Function of protoplasm:
 Protoplasm is the living substance of the cell.
 It is the physical basis of life. (Huxley).
 All the biochemical metabolism takes place within the protoplasm.
 The protoplasm can grow and self perpetuate during cell division.

Cell organelle

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 Cell organelles are the sub-cellular structure with characteristic forms distinctive chemical
constitution and definite functions.
 A eukaryotic cell consists of different cell organelles like membrane bound organelles such as
nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts and non-membraneous like ribosomes, centrioles
etc.
 The membrane bound organelles compartmentalize the eukaryotic cells so that each
compartment carries out a specific function. This compartmentalization is absent in
prokaryotes.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM :
 While each of the membranous organelles is distinct In terms of its structure and function,
many of these are considered together as an endomembrane system because their functions
are coordinated.
 The endomembrane system include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex, lysosomes
and vacuoles.
 Since the functions of the mitochondria, chioroplast and peroxisomes are not coordinated
with the above compohents, these are not considered as part of the endomembrane system.
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 It is discovered by Porter and Thompson (1945) and it is also named by porter (1953).
 ER is network of intracellular membranes.
 ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments. i.e. luminal (inside ER)
and extra luminal (Cytoplasm) compartments.
 The ER is called the mother of all membranes
 It is formed of three types of elements cisternae, tubules and vesicles.

Cisternae:
 These are flattened unbranched sac like elements 40 to 50nm in diameter.
 These lie in stacks and interconncected.
 Ribosomes are present on the surface.
 It contains a glycoprotein ribophorin that binds ribosomes.

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Tubules:
 These are irregular branching elements, form a network with other elements (50-100nm in
diameter).
 Mostly ribosome is not present.
Vesicle:
 These are oval or rounded in shape (25-500nm in diameter).
 These lie isolated in the cytoplasm and are free from ribosome.

 ER contains a fluid in the lumen called endoplasmic matrix.

 It is continuous with the cell membrane, golgi membrane, outer membrane of nuclear
envelope.
 ER passes from one cell to another through plasmodesmata in the form of desmotubules.
 ER is of two types smooth ER and rough ER.
RER SER
1 It bears ribosomes on its surface. It is free of ribosome

2 It contains ribophorin protein for It is absent.

binding of ribosomes.
3 It is mainly formed of cisternae. It is mainly formed of tubules and vesicles

4 Mainly found in protein forming cells. Mainly found in lipid forming cell.

5 It gives rise to SER. It gives rise to lysosomes and vacuoles.

Smooth ER (SER):
 It consists of mainly of tubules and vesicles.
 It is free of ribosome.
 It usually lies near the cell membrane well developed in muscle cells. Glycogen storing liver
cells, spermatocytes, and cells synthesizing steroids.
Rough ER (RER):
 It is mainly consist of cisternae.
 It has ribosomes attached on its cytoplasmic surface.
 These synthesize and secret proteins.

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 ER appears to arise from the outer membrane of the nuclear envelop or from plasma
membrane.
 Preexisting ER, SER from RER by detachment of ribosome.
Function:
 ER helps in transport of materials from one part of the cell to another part.(intracellular)
 It keeps the cell organelles in definite position.
 It provides space for temporary storage of some products.
 It forms desmotubules by making ER continuous two adjacent cells.
 It gives rise to vacuoles.
 ER membrane contains various enzymes for different metabolic activities. (eg: ATP ase,
reductases, dehydrogenases, phosphatases)
Function of smooth ER:
 It provides surface for synthesis of lipid, steroid hormones.
 The SER in hepatocytes (liver cells) carry out detoxification.
 It produces golgi apparatus, lysosome and vacuole.
Function of Rough ER:
 It provides the surface area to ribosome for protein synthesis.
 It gives rise to SER by loss of ribosome.
 It synthesizes membrane protein.
Golgi complex:
 Golgi body was discovered by Camilo golgi.
 It is also known as golgi substance, golgi complex, golgi apparatus and dictyosome. (in
plants).
 It is absent in prokaryotic cells.
 The shape and size of golgi complex is not fixed it depends upon the functional state of the
cell so it is called pleomorphic cell organell.
Structure:
 Golgi body consist of cisternae, tubule, visicles
(i) Cisternae:
 These are flattened disc shaped membrane
bound structures.
 Each membrane is 60-70 Å thickness.
 Number of cisternae in plant cell is usually
10-20 and 3-7 in animal cell.
 Cisternae are usually curved to give a
definite polarity.
 One face is convex called cis face or forming
face.
 Other face is concave called trans face or maturation face.
 Cis face is near ER and receives materials from SER in the form of secretory vesicles.
 The processed material from golgi body arises in the form of secretory vesicles.
Tubules:
 These are network of channels arising from the periphery of cisternae.
Vesicles:

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 These are small sacs produced from margin of cisternae and tubules they contain
substances secreted from golgi body.
Function:
 It is the cell organelle for cellular Manufacture, Modification, Secretion, Packaging.
 It synthesizes some simple carbohydrates.
 It transforms the proteins to glycoprotein and lipoprotein.
 Secretion of hormones.
 It synthesizes cell wall in plant cell.
 It gives rise to primary lysosome.
 It produces yolk in egg.
 It forms acrosome in an animal sperm.
 The formation of root hair from their mother cells is believed to take place through the
agency of Golgi apparatus.
Lysosome:
 Lysosome was discovered by Christian de Duve (1955)
 The name lysosome was given by Novikoff (1956).
 It is present in animal cells and absent in plant cells (present in fungi and certain plants).
Shape and size:
 It is generally rounded or irregular in shape.
 It’s diameter is due to 0.2 – 0.8 µm.
 It is a single membrane bound cell organell.
 It contains different hydrolytic enzymes.
 Some important enzymes are proteases, nucleases, lipase, phosphatase, glycosidase, acid
phosphatases, sulphatases. etc. (acid hydrolases)
Formation:
 Lysosome is formed by the joint activity of E.R. and G.B (golgi body)
 It is directly formed from golgi body and indirectly from E.R.
Polymorphism of lysosome:
 Lysosome is found in 4 different stages in the cell. This phenomenon is called polymorphin.
(i) Primary lysosome:
 It directly formed from the golgibody. It contains inactive enzymes.

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(ii) Secondary lysosome (Heterophagosome) or digestive vacule :
 The primary lysosme fused with the phagosome (phagocytic vesicle) to form
secondary lyososome. It contains active enzymes.
(iii) Residual body or tertiary lysosome:
 The secondary lysosome forms the residual body. It contains the cellular waste
products. It is released by a exocytosis.
(iv) Autophagosome or Autophasic vacuole or autolysosome:
 It is formed by the fusion of primary lysosome with a non functional cell organell. the
cell organell is digested or destroyed so the auto phagosome is changed to residual
body.
Function:
 Lysosome is called suicide sac of the cell because it sometime destroys the cell during the
pathological condition, this process is called autolysis.
 It helps in intracellular digestion of substances obtained through the phagosome.
 Lysosome releases the enzymes to the outside of the cell and helps in extracellular digestion.
 It destroys the inactive or non functional cellular structures.
 During metamorphosis of tadpole larva of frog lysosome destroys the tail of the larva.
 They cause breakdown of ageing and dead cells.
Sperm Penetration:
 Human sperms are capped by acrosome, a Golgi derived vesicle.
 These lysosomal vesicles contain hyaluronidase and proteases, and help penetration of
sperm into ovum.
 Sperms on approaching the oocytes (eggs )carry out an acrosome reaction, i.e.rupture and
release of hydrolytic enzymes on the oocytes.
 They digest zona pellucida, puncture it thereby enabling entry of sperm nucleus into egg.
VACUOLE
 Vacuole are the non cytoplasmic area present inside the cytoplasm.

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 Vacuole are of 4 types
i. Gas vacuole:
 It is present in prokaryotic cell. It has no membrane (only protein membrane). It
filled with gas like CO2, CH4.
 It helps in floating of amoeba (it gives buoyancy), mechanical support, protects
from harmful radiation.
ii. Contractile vacuole:
 This vacuole is present in protista, amoeba. algal cells. appeared and disappear at
regular interval. It helps in osmorgulation and excretion.
 It collects excess water from the cytoplasm, releases to outside through plasma
membrane.
iii. Food vacuole:
 It is present in the body of amoeba. It is formed by fusion of phagosomes (contains
food) and lysososmes it helps in digestion of food.
iv. Sap vacuole:
 It is found in plant cell.
 In young plants vacuole is small and numerous.
 In matured plants it is large and single.
 It has the membrane, this membrane is called vacuole membrane tonoplast.
 The content of vacuole is known as cell sap.
 The cell sap contains waste products, sugar, amino acids, minerals, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, soluble pigments and organic acids. It is hypertonic to surrounding
medium.
 The pigment like anthocyanin and anthoxanthin are present vacuole.
Function:
 They maintain turgor.
 They play a role in growth by absorbing water causing elongation of cells with minimum
investment.
 They provide environment for the accumulation and storage of water soluble compounds.
 Serve as waste deposit bin.
 Impart colour, may act at lysosome and may serve as food reserve.
 Plants also store large amount of proteins in their vacuoles, especially in seeds. The
compounds responsible for flavour of fruits and vegetables are also stored in vacuoles
 In plant cells the role of vacuoles is homeostasis, i.e maintaining pH of the cytosol constant.
Mitochondria:
 Mitochondria was discovered by Altman and Kolliker (1880).
 The name mitochondria was given by C. Benda (1897).
 The number of mitochondria depends on the cellular activities.
 Mitochondria is absent in prokaryotic cells.
Shape and size:
 The shape of mitochondria is cylindrical or tubular.
 The length is 5-10 µm and diameters 0.5 µm.
Structure

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 Mitochondria consists of two membranes, each
of them is 60-75 Å in thickness.
 The outer membrane is smooth. That is not folded.
 The inner membrane shows a number of in
folding or cristae.
 The space between two membranes is called
perimitochondrial space or outer chamber.
 It extends into the space of the cristae.
 The outer chamber is filled with a fluid
containing a few enzymes. (Bio-catalyst)
 The space within the innermembrane is called
matrix.
 The matrix consist of protein, enzyme, 70s
ribosomes, RNA and circular DNA.
 The inner membrane consists of small tennis
racket like particles called respiratoryparticles / elementary particles / oxysome / F 1 – Fo
particle.
 The oxysome consists of base (Fo) stalk head (F1).
 Oxysome contains the enzymes for ATP synthesis during oxidativephophorylation.

Functions:
 Mitochondria shows cellular respiration and ATP synthesis.
 It is called the power house of the cell. Kreb’s cycle takes place in the matrix of
mitochondria.
 ETS (Elertron Transport System) takes place in the inner membrane of mitochondria.
 Mitochondria forms the middle piece of sperm.
 An organism usually received mitochondria from its mother. So it takes part in cytoplasmic
inheritance.
 It shows apoptosis, i.e., programmed cell death.
 It also shows different cellular metabolisms.

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 Mitochondria regulates calcium ion in the cell.
 In animal cells, mitochondria carry out β-oxidation of fatty acids into acetyl COA.
AUTONOMY:
 Mitochondria are semi autonomous.
 They are capable of self duplication.
 For duplication they have :
 Genetic information
 Self transcribed RNA
 Protein making machinery
 Energy producing mechanism
 Capable of synthesizing membrane material and also structural
protein and enzyme.
 But they can manufacture only some of their protein (30%). They get other proteins from
cytoplasm formed under the direction of nuclear DNA.
RIBOSOME
 The term ribosome was given by Palade.
 It is the smallest cell organelle.
 It is separated at the last by ultra centrifugation.
 It is the only cell organelle present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
 It is membrane less cell organelle.
 In prokaryotic cell ribosomes are found freely in the cytoplasm.
 In case of eukaryotic cell ribosomes are found attached to the ER and also found freely in
cytoplasm.
 It is also found in mitochondria, chloroplast and nucleolus. These are called organelle
ribosomes.
Types:
 On the basis of sedimentation co-efficient (i.e., the speed of sedimentation in the
ultracentrifugation) ribosome’s are of two types.
 70s and 80s s stands for Svedberg unit.
 70s ribosome of 50s and 30s subunits and found in prokaryotes and in cell organells of
eukaryotic cell.
 80s ribosome consist of 60s and 40s sub units and found in eukaryotes.
Structure:
 Both ribosomes are similar in structure.
 Each ribosome consist of two subunits one
larger and the other smaller, and join to
form ribosomes at the time of protein
synthesis.
 Sometime many ribosomes join an mRNA
chain to form several copies of protein, it
is called polyribosome or polysome.
 In higher concentration of Mg++ ion two
ribosomes are associated by their smaller
subunits side. It is called dimmer.

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Chemical composition:
 Each subunits of ribosome composed of rRNA and basic proteins. So it is called
ribonucleoprotein particle or RNA particle.

Function:
(a) Protein Factories: Ribosomes are sites for polypeptide or protein synthesis.
(b) Free and Attached Ribosomes: Free ribosomes synthesise structural and enzymatic
proteins for use inside the cell. The attached ribosomes synthesise proteins for transport.
(c) Enzymes and Factors: Ribosomes provide enzymes (e.g. peptidyl transferase) and factors
for condensation of amino acids to form polypeptide.
(d) rRNA: Ribosome contains rRNAs for providing attaching points to mRNA and tRNA.
(e) mRNA: Ribosome has a tunnel for mRNA so that it can be translated properly.
(f) Protection. Newly synthesized polypeptide is provided protection from cytoplasmic
enzymes by enclosing it in the groove of larger subunit of ribosome till it attains secondary
structure.
70s ribosome 80s ribosome
1 It is smaller in size and prokaryotic. It is larger in size and eukryotic.
.
2 It consist of 50s and30s subunits. It consist of 60s and 40s subunits.
.
3 These are synthesized in These are synthesized in nucleolus.
. cytoplasm.
4 The rRNA of 70s are 23s, 5s, 16s. The rRNA of 80s ribosome are 28s,
. 5.8s, 5s and 18s.
Plastids
 Plastids are the cell organelles which synthesize and stores different kinds of organic
component.
 The term plastid was given by E.Haeckel (1866).
 They are of three main types leucoplast and chromoplast, chloroplast (Schimper discovered
these three types)
Leucoplast:
 These are colourless plastids and have no pigment.
 These are found in the cells not exposed to sunlight. Eg: Root, tuber, rhizome, seeds etc.

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 These are of three types.
i. Amyloplast: It stores starch, found in grains of wheat, rice potato tuber.
ii. Aleuronoplast or proteinoplast or proteoplast: It stores protein found in cells of
maize grain.
iii. Elaioplast (Lipidoplast) : It stores lipids (oil) found in seeds of castor, mustard,
sunflower.
Chromoplast:
 These are coloured plastids.
 These are found in the cells exposed to sunlight.
i. Phaeoplast: These are found in brown algae contain brown pigment fucoxanthin.
ii. Rhodoplast : These are found in redalgae contain red pigment phycoerythrin.
Chloroplast:
 Chloroplast was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek.
 The term chloroplast was given by Schimper (1883).
 These are present in all
eukaryotic photosynthetic cells.
Shape and size:
 In higher plants it is oval or
rounded or elliptical.
 In lower plants it may be cup
shaped in Chalmydomonas, spiral
in Spirogyra star shaped in
Zygnema.
 Its length varies from 4 - 10 μ m
and 2-4 μ m in breadth.
Structure:
 Chloroplast consist of two limit
membranes.
 Each membrane is 90 – 100 Å in
thickness.
 The space between two
membrane is called periplastidial
space.
Matrix:
 The ground substance is known as stroma. It is semi solid.
 The stroma contains proteins, lipids, enzymes, 70 ribosome, DNA, RNA.
 Inner membrane infolds becomes free and lie as lamellae.
 The lamellae take the form of closed ovoid sacs called thylakoids.
 The thylakoid memberanes are lipo-protein bilayers. These membranes contain the
photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids), CF0 – CF1 ATP synthesis particles,
and other proteins necessary for light reactions. The space enclosed by the thylakoids is
called lumen, where photolysis of water and O2 evolution take place.

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 The stroma contain stack of thylakoids called grana.
 Grana are interconnected by frets or stroma lamellae.
 The thylakoid membrane contains photosynthetic pigments chlorophylla, chlorophyll b,
carotene.
 A group of chlorophyll molecule (230 molecule of chlorophyll) which absorbs one photon of
light is called quantasome or photosystems.
Autonomy:
 Like mitochondrial the chloroplast are partly independent.
 They can manufacture some of their protein because is has its own DNA, RNA enzyme and
ribosome.
 Chloroplast can divide and multiply their number.
 It is similar to prokaryotic cell.
Function:
 Chloroplast trap solar energy and synthesizes organic food this process is called
photosynthesis.
 Dark reaction takes place in stroma and light reaction in grana.
 Chloroplast provides oxygen for respiration.
 Chloroplast changes to chromoplast in flowers and fruits to attract insects for pollination.
 Reduction of nitrite (NO2-) and sulphate (SO4-) takes place in plastids due to generation of
reducing power (NADPH) in these organelles.
 Fatty acid biosynthesis in plants takes pace with in plastids, the process being very similar
to bacterial lipid synthesis.
 Synthesis of proteins: Due to the presence of plastome (plastid genome, i.e. double stranded
circular DNA), 70S ribosome’s, and rRNA in chloroplasts they synthesis some proteins.
Some of the proteins required by chloroplasts are synthesized in the stroma, e.g. the large
subunit of rubisco.
 They also store starch, either temporarily in chloroplasts or permanently in amyloplasts.
Therefore, it is justified to designate chloroplasts or plastids as multifunctional organelles.
MICROBODIES:
SPHAEROSOME OR OLEOSOME :
 It was discovered by Perner (1953).
 It is rounded in shape and 0.5 – 10µm in diameter.
 It is a single membrane bound cell organelle.
 It is found only in plant cell.
 Spherosome of some tissue contain hydrolytic enzymes.
 Some time it shows autolysis like lysosome.
 It is called plant lysosome.
Function :
 It stores and synthesizes fat.
PEROXYSOME:

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 It was discovered by De duve (1965).
 It develops from ER.
Shape and size:
 It is normally rounded in shape. It has the diameter of 0.5 – 1.0µm.
Structure:
 Perxoysome consist of a single unit membrane.
 The ground substance is differentiated into outer thin matrix and central thick crystalline,
fibrous core called nucleoid.
 Peroxysome contains enzymes like oxidase, peroxidase, catalase etc.
Function:
 Photorespiration in plants and lipid metabolism animals cells. (In the leaves of C 3 (plants
those fix CO2 through Calvin cycle and phosphoglycerate, a C3 compound as the first stable
product of photosynthesis) they play a key role in photorespiration.
 They are microbodies, which contain the enzyme for peroxide biosynthesis.
 It detoxifies alcohol and other harmful compounds in liver and kidney. Almost half of the
ethanol we drink is oxidized to acetaldehyde in this way. Excess of H 2O2 is broken down
immediately to harmless compounds such as water and oxygen.
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
 Urate produced during catabolism of nucleic acid and some proteins is changed into
allontoin inside peroxisomes.
 In root nodules, they convert fixed nitrogen in ureids for transport (Atkins, 1991)
GLYOXISOME:
 It was discovered by Briedenbach (1967).
 It is a small rounded cell organell of 0.5 – 1.0 μ m in diameter.
 It consists of a single unit membrane.
 It is commonly found in fat rich plant cell. (only in plants).
 It also shows lipid metabolism.
Function :
 It is the cell organell which contains the enzyme for glyoxylate cycle i.e. synthesis of
carbohydrate from fat. (gluconeogenesis)
CYTOSKELETON
 When cell size increases a framework of fibrous protein elements is necessary to support,
these elements collectively forms cytoskeleton.
 The cytoskeleton is a dynamic network of protein filaments present in all eukaryotic cells.
 The cytoskeleton structures are microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filament.
 Cytoskeleton helps in cell division, growth, maintenance of cell shape, differentiation, and
movement of organelles.
MICROFILAMENTS:
 It was discovered by Paleviz. It is the ultra microscope narrow solid protein chain.
 It consists of actin protein.
 It is solid and about 6-8 nm in dia.
 It may be contractile and non contractile

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Occurrence:
 It is found in both plant cell and animal cell. It is found in nerve cell and muscle.
Function:
 It helps in streaming of cytoplasm.
 It helps in formation of microvilli, pseudopodium and functional complexes.
 It helps in exocytosis and endocytosis.
 It involves in cell furrow formation during division of animal cell.
 It takes part in formation of pseudopodia helps in formation of spindleapparatus.
 Endocytosis and Exocytosis. Microfilaments are responsible for changes in plasma
membrane during endocytosis and exocytosis.
 Movement of cell components. Pigment granules, chloroplasts and other cell or ganelles are
able to change their position inside the cytosol by means of microfilaments.
MICROTUBULES:
 It was discovered by Robertis and Franchi (1953).
 It is unbranched and submicroscopic tubules of protein it consists of 11–13 protofilaments.
 Chemically it consists of tubulin protein (α and β ).
 The tubulin molecules in the microtubule are held with each other by noncovalent bonds for
which polymerization and depolymerization takes place quickly.
 It is hollow and bout 25nm diameter.
 It may not be contractile

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 .
Occurrence:
 It is found in both animal and plant cell. It is present in flagella, cilia, centrosome, spindle
fibres, chromosome, sperm tail.
Function:
 It is the structural component of centrosome, cilia, flagella and spindle fibres.
 It provides rigidity to the cell organelle, orientation of cellulose microfibril.
 It helps in the movement of chromosome during the cell division.
 It helps in formation of spindle fibres during cell division.
 Nuclear movements : They help in the movement of nuclei during division.
 Cell plate : Place of future cell plate formation has been found to be determined by a
microtubular band.
 Cell differentiation : They are believed to play a vital role during differentiation.
 Cell movements : Along with microfilaments they take part in cell movements.
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT:
 It is hollow, unbranched, nonmotile (10 nm in thickness)
 Structure is made up of proteins like vimentin, desmin and protofilaments.
 Fibrous protein molecule twined together in an stable, no breakage seen.
 It is of four types:
i. Keratin filament (e.g., skin)
ii. Neuro filament (e.g., axon, dendron)
iii. Glial filament [e.g. astrocyte (protection of nervous tissue)]
iv. Heterogeneous filament (e.g., in muscle)
 It is most stable, absent in plants.
Function:
 It provides support to all biomembranes.
 It maintains the integrity of epithelial tissue.
 Keratin deposited in the skin provides protection.
 It provides mechanical strength to axons and dendrons of nerve cells.
CILIA AND FLAGELLA

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 Cilia and flagella are the protoplasmic processes present on the cell surface these are found
in protests, algae, bryophyte, pteriodophyta, gametes, spores.
 In our body cilia are found in respiratory tracts, renal tubules, oviduct, both cilia and flagella
are similar in structure but they have the following differences.
Cilia Flagella
1 The number of cilia is large. The no of flagella per cell is few.
.
2 It is shorter in length i.e., 5-10 µm It is longer i.e. 150µm.
.
3 Cilia shows co-ordinated movement Shows independent movement.
.
4 Ciliary movement is sweeping type Flagellar movement is undulation
. cilia present in paramecium. present in Euglena.

 Cilia and flagella are the movable protoplasmic process of the cell. Both are structurally
similar and consist of basal body, rootless, basal plate and shaft.
(i) Basal body:
 It is also called basal ganule or
blepharoplast or kinetosome.
 It is present in the outer part of the
cytoplasm below the cell
membrane.
 It is similar in structure to the
centriole.
(ii) Root lets:
 These are developed from the
lower part of basal body.
 The root lets are made of bundles
of microfilament. They provide
support to the basal body.
(iii) Basal plate:
 It is an area of high density just
above the basal body are at the
level of plasma membrane. In this
region are subfibres of basal body
disappear from each triplet. The central singlet fibril of shaft developed in this area.
(iv) Shaft:
 It is the hair like projecting part of flagellum or cilium the shaft is covered on the
outside of the sheath.
 The sheath is the extension of plasma lemma over the cilia.
 The inner semi fluid substance of shaft is called matrix. The matrix contains an
axoneme of 9 peripheral doublets and two central singlet.
 This arrangement is called 9+2 or eleven stranded.
 The two central singlet fibres are enclosed by a central sheath or inner sheath.

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  Each doublet consist of two sub fibres A and B.
 A sub fibres consist of two arms. The inner arm A and fibre is connected to the B
subfiber of nearest doublets by a linker.
 The A sub fibre is connected to the central sheath by a spoke. The arms consist of
dynein protein and the linker consist of nexin protein.

Function:
 Cilia and flagella are locomotary organelles of protists of unicellular organisms.
 In some protists they also help in food capture.
 In the sponges it helps in the development of water current within the body.
 In the respiratory tract it removes the dust particles of the incoming air.
 In oviduct, it helps in the transport of egg.
 In kidney it helps in the transport of excretory products.
 In lower animals the motile gamets consist of cilia or flagella.
 It also sensitive to external changes in the lower animals.
CENTROSOME
 The cytoskeleton formed is not permanent it can disassemble.
 It provides mechanical support, keep organelle separated from one another.
 Centrosome is a membrane less cell organelle.
 It is present in animal and absent in plant cell. It was discovered by T. Bovery (1888).
 The clear cytoplasm present around the centrosome is called centrosphere.
 Usually one centrosome in present in a cell.
 The centrosome also divided during cell division.
 Each centrosome consists of two rod like centrioles so it is also called diplosome.
 The two centrioles are arranged in perpendicular to each other.

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Structure of centriole:
 Each centriole consists of peripheral 9 triplets.
 Each triplets consist of 3 sub-fibres.
 Sub fibres are absent in the centre, so the arrangement is known as (9+0) pattern.
 The triplets are equally spaced from each other that is angle between two triplets is 40o.
 The sub fibres of triples are named as (A,B, C) or 1,2, and 3 from inner to outer side.
 The adjacent triples are joined by C-A. Linkers. At one end of the centriole there is cart wheel
like structure. It consists of central hub and 9 spokes. Each spoke is attached to the A-sub
fibres of the triplets.
Function:
 The centriole help in cell division and formation
spindle fibre.
 Centrioles are called microtubules organizing
centre.
 It forms the asters at poles during cell division.
 It forms the basal bodies of cilia and flagella.
 Centriole forms the axial filament of sperm.
Nucleus
 Nucleus is the largest most easily seen cell organell.
 It is a specialized double membrane bound cell organell cell organell containing genetic
materials.
 It was discovered by Robert Brown (1839) in root cells of orchid.
 The genetic function of nucleus was discovered by Hammerling (1953) in algae Acetabularia.
Number:
 Usually a cell contains single nucleus.

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 The cell body of paramecium is binucleate that is consist of 2 nuclei.
 Similarly the multinucleate plant cells are called coenocytic cells.
 The multinucleate animal cell are called syncytial cells. eg striated muscle fibre. the matured
RBC of mammals, sieve cells, of vascicular plants are devoid of nucleus.
 Nucleus is commonly situated in the centre of cell. In mature plant cell, it is pushed to
periphery due to presence of vacuole. In adipocytes (fat storing cells) the nucleus is also
peripheral in position.
 The nucleus is easily rounded in shape.
 It may be cylindrical, cuboidal.
 It is about 5-25 µm. It consist of nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, nuclear matrix, nucleolus
and chromatin reticulum, Nuclear membrane (Karyotheca/Karyolema)
 The nucleus consists of two unit membranes.
 The space between outer and inner membrane is called perinuclear space.
 Each membrane 60 – 90 Å in thickness. The perinuclear space 100 – 700 Å in width.
 The outer membrane is attached with ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum, a large number
of nuclear pore (600 to 1000 Å in diameter) are present on the nuclear membrane. The
nuclear pore maintains a protoplasmic continuity between the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm
(allow passage of protein and RNA) pore is blocked or fitted with a cylindrical structure
protein complex known as annulus or bub.
 Nuclear pore and annulus together form pore complex.
 Pore complex is an eight fold symmetry. Consist of eight spokes connected to cytoplasmic
ring outsided and nuclear ring at inner membrane (nuclear basket).
Nuclear membrane or karyotheca:
 It is derived from membrane of
endoplasmic reticulum.
 Exchange of genetic material takes
place through nuclear membrane in
between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.
 Nuclear pore also exchange
macromolecules.
Nucleoplasm / karyoplasm /
karyolymph nuclear sap:
 It is the protoplasm of nucleus. It is a transparent semifluid colloidal substance.
 It contains nucleotides and enzymes required for synthesis of nucleic acid.
Nuclear Matrix:
 Suspended in nuclear sap are network of protein containing fibril called nuclear matrix.
Nucleolus:
 It was discovered by Fontana (1781).
 It was named by Bowman.
 It is naked rounded structure attached
to the chromosome at a specific
region called nucleolar organizer
region (NOR).

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 It consists of components such as matrix granular part and fibrillar part.
1. Amorphous matrix
It is the homogenous ground substance consists of protein.
2. Granular / pass granular:
It consist of granules of size (150 – 200 Å). formed of protein and RNA.
3. Fibrillar part:
It consists of fibrillar of 50-80 Å long made up of protein and RNA.
Function:
 It synthesizes and stores RNA.

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 It receives and stores ribosomal protein from cytoplasm.
 It forms ribosome.
Chromatin reticulum:
 It is the network of chromatin fibres present in the nucleoplasm.
 It is a complex of DNA and protein.
 The chromatin network is folded to form the chromosome during cell division.
Function:
 The nuclear membrane provides definite shape to the nucleus.
 The nuclear pores help in transport of macromolecules like RNA from nucleoplasm to
cytoplasm.
 The nuclear membrane also provide surface for protein synthesis, nucleolus is the site for
synthesis of ribosome.
 The nucleoplasm provides the space to the chromosome.
 The chromosome controls the hereditary functions so nucleus is the cell organelle to control
heredity.
 Nucleus is main or principal cell organelle because it controls the activity of all other cell
organelle.
Nucleus Nucleolus
1. It is a cell organelle. It is component of nucleus.
2. It is bounded by two membrane. It is component of no membrane
3. Consist of nuclear membrane nucleolus, It consists of amorphous matrix, granular
nucleoplasm chromosome. part fibrillar parts.
Function of nucleus:
 Nucleus maintains the cell growth occurs by synthesizes structural protein.
 It regulates cell metabolism.
 It contains genetic information of the organism.
 It takes part in ribosome formation.
 It develops genetic variation that contributes to evolution.

CHROMOSOMES
HISTORY:
 Hofmeister (1848) discovered nuclear filaments in the nuclei of pollen mother cells of the
plant Tradescantia.
 E Strasburger (1875) observed thread like structures called chromosomes during cell
division.
 W. Flemming (1979) described the splitting of chromosome and termed the stained material
as chromatin.
 The term chromosome was coined by W. Waldeyer (1888).
 Sutton and Boveri (1902) stated that the chromosomes are physical structures of heredity &
proposed the chromosome theory of inheritance.
NUMBER:
 The number of chromosomes in a given species remains constant. For example the
chromosome number in man is 46 or 23 pairs.

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 The number of chromosome in all cells of the body of an organism is always same.
 The number of chromosomes in a gamete is called gametic number or haploid number. It is
represented by the letter n.
 A haploid set of chromosome is called genome.
 Somatic cells have two haploid sets (2n) of genomes. The cell is then called diploid (2n) for
example 2n = 46 in man.
PLANTS CHROMOSOME NO. ANIMALS CHROMOSOME NO.

Yeast 36 Amoeba proteus 250

Neurospora 7 (Haploid) Frog 26

Garden pea 14 Rabbit 44

Rice 24 Dog 78

Maize 20 Cow 60

Wheat 42 Gorilla 48

Chimpanzee 48

Man 46

Elephant 56

HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES:
 A pair of chromosomes which have same length, centromere position, staining pattern and
bear genes controlling the same characters are known as homologous chromosomes.
 One member of a homologous pair comes from male parent (father) and other from female
parent (mother).
 In human beings out of the 23 pairs of chromosomes 23 comes form father and 23 comes
from mother.
 The homologous chromosomes lie together for a short while in early meiosis.
Size:
 The size of chromosomes is generally measured during metaphase of mitosis.
 The metaphase chromosomes usually vary from 0.1 to 33 μ m in length and from 0.2 to 2
μ m in thickness.
 All the chromosomes of a species are not of the same size. However the particular
chromosome of a species have a more or less of constant size.
 The chromosomes are relatively large in organisms which have fewer chromosomes than
those having many.
 In general plants have larger chromosomes
than animals.
Shape :
 The shape of chromosome changes with the
phases of cell cycle. The shape of the

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 chromosome depends upon the position of the centromere. The chromosome shows the
following shape in the mitotic anaphase.
1. Metacentric :
(a) The centromere is situated in the centre of the chromosome.
(b) The two arms of the chromosome are equal in length.
(c) The chromosome are V-shaped.
2. Submetacentric:
(a) The centromere is situated a little away from the centre.
(b) The two arms of the chromosome are unequal in length.
(c) The chromosomes are L-shaped.
3. Acrocentric:
(a) The centromere is subterminal in position.
(b) The chromosome consists of a very long and and a very short arm.
(c) The chromosome appears J-shaped.
4. Telocentric:
(a) The centromere is present at one end of the chromosome.
(b) The chromosome consists of a single arm.
(c) The chromosome appears I-shaped.
ULTRA STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOME:
 The structure of chromosome is best studied in mitotic
metaphase. Structurally chromosome consists of the
following parts.
(a) Chromatids : Each metaphase chromosome consists of
two symmetrical strands called chromatids. Thus each
chromatid is half of the chromosome. The two
chromatids are held together at the centromere. The
anapahase chromosome consists of a single chromatid.
(b)Centromere/Primary constriction : The region of
chromosome becomes attached to the mitiotic spindle.
the chromosome cannot survive without a centromere.
On the basis of number of centromeres the
chromosome may be :-
i. Acentric – Centromere is absent.
ii. Monocentric – One centromere is present.
iii. Dicentric – Two centromeres are present.
iv. Polycentric – More than two centromeres are
present.
(c) Arms : The parts of the chromatids on the two sides of
the centromere are called arms. The chromosome with
equal length of arms is called isobrachial and that with
unequal arms is called heterobrachial.
(d)Kinetochore :This is the disc-shaped multi protein
complex attached to the centromere to which spindle
fibres are attached.

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 (e) Telomore : This is the cytologically distinct tips of the chromosome. It prevents fusion
with other chromosome due to non sticky nature.
(f) Secondary constrictions : These are the narrow zones in addition to the primary
constriction.
(g) Nucleolar organizer : Certain secondary constriction are the site of synthesis of
nucleolus. These are termed as nucleolar organizer. The chromosome having nucleolar
organizer is called nucleolar chromosome.
(h)Satellite : This is a rounded body separated from the rest of the chromosome by a
secondary constriction. It is also known as trabant. The chromosomes having satellite are
called SAT chromosome.
(i) Chromonema(ta) : Each chromatic consists of a fine and highly coiled filament. It is
called chromonema(ta). It represents the sub units of chromatids.
(j) Chromomeres : There are bead like structures formed due to accumulation of chromatin
materials. These are present along the entire length of chromonemata. These regions are
said to be the genes.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:
 The eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of DNA. Histone proteins, nonhistone proteins,
RNA, metal ions and enzymes.
FUNCTION OF CHROMOSOMES:
1. Chromosome contains genes. All the hereditary information is located in the genes.
2. Chromosomes control the synthesis of structural proteins and thus help in cell division and
cell growth.
3. They control cellular differentiation.
4. By directing the synthesis of particular enzymes, chromosomes control cell metabolism.
5. Chromosomes can replicate themselves or produce their carbon copies for passage to
daughter cells and next generation.
6. Their haploid or diploid number respectively bring about gametophytic and sporophytic
characteristic to the individual.
7. Chromosomes form a link between the offspring and the parents.
8. Some chromosomes called sex chromosomes (eg X and Y or X and 0) determine the sex of
the individual.
9. Through the process of crossing over, chromosomes introduce variations.
10. Mutations are produced due to change in gene chemistry.



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 GROUP – A
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. The cell organelle associated with protein synthesis is:
(a) Chloroplast (b) Ribosome (c) Pyrenoid (d) Mitochondria
2. Oxysomes occur in the :
(a) Golgi apparatus (b) Mitochondria (c) Chloroplasts (d) ER
3. The cell organelle involved in membrane transformation is:
(a) Lysosome (b) Mesosome (c) Golgi apparatus (d) ER
4. Anthocyanin occurs in:
(a) Chloroplasts (b) Leucoplasts (c) Chromoplsts (d) Vacuoles
5. Controlling centre of a cell is:
(a) Mitochondrion (b) Nucleus (c) Nucleous (d) Ribosomes
6. The concept of cell lineage (cells arise from the preexisting cells only) was put forward by:
(a) Virchow (b) Purkinji (c) Swammerdam (d) All of these
7. Desmosomes are connected with:
(a) Cell adherence (b) Cell excretion (c) Cell division (d) Cytolysis
8. Detoxification site in the liver cell is:
(a) Golgi apparatus (b) Free ribosomes (c) RER (d) SER
9. Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane was proposed by:
(a) Robertson (b) Danielli and Davson
(c) Singer and Nicolson (d) Watson and Crick
10. Internalization of a solid particle by a cell (cell eating) is termed:
(a) Pinocytosis (b) Phagocytosis (c) Osmosis (d) Diffusion
11. Pectin of the cell wall is:
(a) Excretory product (b) Waste product (c) Secretory product(d) All of these
12. Mitochondria will more in:
(a) Germinating seeds (b) Dormant seeds (c) Dry seeds (d) None of these

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13. Who coined the term ‘nucleolus’?
(a) Fontana (b) Robert Brown (c) Camillo golgi (d) Bowman
14. One of these associated with fat digestion:
(a) Peroxisomes (b) Mitochondria (c) Sphaerosomes (d) Glyoxysomes
15. Ribosomes are formed in:
(a) Nucleolus (b) Golgi bodies (c) Cytoplasm (d) Plasma membrane
16. Golgi bodies originate from:
(a) Plasma membrane (b) ER (c) Ribosomes (d) Mitochondria
17. A cell active in protein synthesis will be rich in:
(a) Mitochondria (b) Golgi bodies (c) Starfish egg (d) Acetabularia
18. Gel part of plasma membrane is:
(a) Endoplasm (b) Ectoplasm (b) Plasmalema (d) Both (a) and (b)
19. In chloroplasts, chlorophyll is present in the:
(a) Inner membrane (b) Thylakoids (c) Stroma (d) Outer membrane
20. DNA is present in:
(a) Chromsomes and dictysomes (b) Chroplasts and lysosomes
(c) Mitochondria and chloroplasts (d) Mitochondira and endoprasmic reticulumn.

VERY SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Who discovered the chromosomes?
2. How many chromosomes are found in human cells?
3. Name the two cytoplasmic organells which posses extranuclear genes.
4. What are homologus chromosomes?
5. A haploid cell ahs a single set of chromosomes? Is it right?
6. How many sets of chromosomes a diploid cell has?
7. What is a cell with more than two sets of chromosomes called?
8. What is the primary constriction of a chromosome?

GROUP – B
WRITE SHORT NOTES ON:
1. Centromere 7. Leucoplasts
2. Homologous chromosome 8. Plastids
3. Chromatid 9. Palade particles
4. Nucleosome 10. Chloroplasts
5. Karyotype 11. Ribosomes.
6. Flagella
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN:
1. Primary cell wall and secondary cell wall
2. RER and SER
3. 70S ribosomes and 80S ribosomes

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4. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts.
5. Leucoplasts and Chromoplasts
6. Microtubules and microfilament
7. Cilia and flagella.

GROUP – C
1. Describe the structure and function of a eukaryotic chromosome. Add a note on
nucleosome concept.

ENTRANCE CORNER
1. A prokaryotic cell is characterized by:
(a) Cellulose cell wall (b) Single envelope system
(c) Double envelope system (d) Presence of histones
2. In bacteria the respiratory enzymes are situated in the part:
(a) Cell membrane (b) Cytoplasm (c) Mitochondria (d) Ribosomes
3. Golgi body arises from:
(a) Plasma membrane (b) E.R.
(c) Vacuole (d) Chloroplast
4. T.C.A. cycle takes place in:
(a) Mitochondrial cristae (b) Chloroplast grana
(c) Mitochondrial matrix (d) Chloroplast stroma
5. Ripe fruits soften due to:
(a) Degeneration of cell walls (b) Partial solubilisaiton of pectic compounds
(c) Metabolism of tannis (d) Exosmosis
6. Cystoliths are made of:
(a) Calcium oxalate (b) Calcium chloride
(c) Calcium carbonate (d) Potassium bicarbonate
7. The most abundant substance of middle lamella is:
(a) Suberin (b) Cutin (c) Lignin (d) Pectin
8. Which of the following is responsible for mechanical support and enzyme transport?
(a) Dictyosome (b) Cell membrane (c) E.R. (d) Mitochondria
9. Addition of new cell wall particles amongst the existing ones is:
(a) Deposition (b) Apposition (c) Intususception (d) Aggregation
10. Single membrane bound organelles are:
(a) Lysosome (b) Sphaerosome (c) Glyoxysome (d) All of these
11. Plasma membrane is made of:
(a) Proteins and carbohydrates (b) Proteins and lipids
(c) Proteins, lipids and carbohydrates (d) Proteins, some nucleis acid and lipids

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12. Active transport across biomembrane involves:
(a) Production of ATP (b) Requirement of energy
(c) Production of toxin (d) Release of energy
13. Phospholipids are:
(a) Amphibolic (b) Amphipathic (c) Hydrophobic (d) Hydrophilic
14. Active transport occurs:
(a) Against concentration gradient and requires ATP
(b) Against concentration gradient but does not require ATP.
(c) Along concentration gradient but requires ATP
(d) Along concentration gradient but does not require ATP.
15. Phospholipid molecules of cell membrane posses:
(a) One polar head and one polar tail
(b) One nonpolar head and one nonpolar tail
(c) One polar head and two nonpolar tail
(d) One nonpolar head and two polar tails.
16. Which cell organelle connect nuclear envelope with cells membrane?
(a) Lysosome (b) Golgi body
(c) Endoplasmic reticulum (d) Mitochondria
17. Which one forms nucleolus:
(a) Vesicles or ER (b) Sat chromosome (c) RNA (d) Nuclear membrane.
18. Ribosomes that occurs exclusively in mitochondria are:
(a) 70S (b) 55S (c) 30S (d) 50S
19. In mitochondria, ATP is sythesised at:
(a) F1 particles (b) Outer membrane (c) Matrix (d) Ribosomes
20. Cells involved in energy consumption have a large number of:
(a) Ribosomes (b) Mitochondira (c) Peroxisomes (d) Lysosomes
21. Prokaryotic cell does not possess :
(a) Chromosome (b) Mitochondrion (c) Ribosome (d) Plasma membrane
22. Which of the following is the phosphorylating unit?
(a) Oxysome (b) Mesosome (c) Peroxisome (d) Mitochondria
23. The substance found between cell wall of two cells is called:
(a) Lysosome (b) Lomasome
(c) Microsome (d) Middle lamella
24. Formula of chlorophyll ‘a’ is:
(a) C55H72O5N4Mg (b) C55H72O6N4Mg
(c) C55H70O6N4Mg (d) C57H70O5N3Mg2
25. Cell organelle responsible for autolysis:
(a) Dictyosome (b) Mitochondria (c) Peroxisome (d) Glyoxysome
26. Which of the following organelle does not contain RNA?
(a) Chromosome (b) Plasmalemma (c) Nucleolus (d) Ribosome
27. Organelle involved in modification and routing of newly synthesized proteins to their
destination is:

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 (a) Chloroplast (b) Lysosome
(c) Mitochondrian (d) Endoplasmic reticulum
28. Adjacent cells are interconnected by:
(a) Vacuoles (b) E.R. (c) Desmosomes (d) Mitochondria
29. The oxidative breakdown of respiratory substrates with the help of oxygen is termed as:
(a) Fermentation (b) Combustion
(c) Anaerobic respiration (d) Aerobic respiration
30. In plants vacuole contains:
(a) Soil (b) Water and dissolved substance
(c) Cytoplasm (d) All of these
31. The organelle which bear anthocyanins is:
(a) Chloroplast (b) Chromoplast (c) Vacuole (d) Itioplast
32. Agranal chloroplasts are found in:
(a) Bryophytes (b) Gymnosperms (c) Green algae (d) Angiosperms
33. Eucaryotic cells devoid of E.R. are:
(a) Liver cells (b) Kidney cells
(c) Mature leucocytes (d) Mature erythrocytes
34. Sacroplasmic reticulum is endoplasmic reticulum of:
(a) Adipose cells (b) Muscle cells (c) Nerve cells (d) Leucocytes
35. Quantasomes occur in:
(a) Stroma (b) Grana (c) Glogi body (d) Mitochondria
36. Cells connected by plasmodesmata from a system:
(a) Symplast (b) Apoplast
(c) Cross-connection (d) None of these
37. The thylakoid in chloroplast are arranged as:
(a) Interconnected disc (b) Interconnected sacs
(c) Stacked discs (d) None of these
38. Export house of cell is:
(a) E.R. (b) Golgi body (c) Nucleus (d) Lysosome
39. The production and storage of energy in mitochondria increases during:
(a) Seed germination (b) Dormant seed
(c) Ripening seed (d) Seed maturation
40. Photorespiration takes place only in:
(a) Green part of plant (b) All living cells of plant
(c) Mitochondria of plant cell (d) Root of hydrophytic plant
41. Electron microscope has revealed the presence of:
(a) Ribosomes (b) Chromosomes (c) Chloroplast (d) Leucoplast
42. Polyribosomes are aggregates of:
(a) Ribosomes and rRNA
(b) Only rRNA
(c) Perixisomes

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 (d) Several ribosomes held together by string of mRNA
43. Ribosomes units are synthesized in a eukaryotic cell inside:
(a) Nucleus (b) Nucleolus
(c) Nuclear pore complex (d) Cytoplasm
44. In photosynthesis:
(a) Reduction of H2O takes place (b) Reduction of NH3 takes place
(c) Reduction of CO2 takes place (d) Oxidation of CO2 takes place
45. Plant cell store fat in:
(a) Peroxisome (b) Lysosome (c) Sphaerosome (d) Microsome
46. Peroxisomes posses:
(a) Hydrolases (b) Transferases
(c)Oxidases (d) Isomerases
47. Colour of Rose petals is due to water soluble pigment present in:
(a) Cytoplasm (b) Intercellular spaces
(c) Nucleus (d) Vacuoles
48. Cell sap occurs in organelle:
(a) Nucleous (b) Vacuole
(c) Endoplasmic reticulum (d) Golgi bodies
49. Major funciton of contractile vacuole is:
(a) Execretion (b) Storage (c) Osmoregulation (d) Circulation
50. The main function of lysosome is:
(a) Sexual reproduction (b) Extracellular digestion
(c) Intracellular digestion (d) Both ‘b’ and ‘c’
51. Plant and animal cells, both have in common:
(a) Cell membrane and nucleolus (b) Cell membrane and cell wall
(c) Nucleolus and chloroplast (d) Nucleus and cell wall
52. Dark reaction of photosynthesis does not require light and chlorophyll. It occurs in:
(a) Cytoplasm (b) Stroma (c) Stroma lamellae (d) Granna
53. Most of hydryulytic enzymes of lysosomes function at:
(a) Acidic pH (b) Basic pH (c) Neutral pH (d) Any pH
54. Which cell organelle reduces the number of other oganelles?
(a) Oxysome (b) Lysosome (c) Mitochondria (d) None of these
55. EMP pathway is the other name of:
(a) Oxysomes (b) Glycolysis (c) Kreb’s cycle (d) Galvin cycle
56. ATP formation in photosynthesis is called:
(a) Photophosphorylation (b) Oxidative phosphorylation
(c) Photophosphatisation (d) Oxidative phosphatisation
57. Which is not bounded by a membrane:
(a) Plastid (b) Mitochondria
(c) Nucleus (d) Centriole
58. Centriole/ centrosome takes part in:

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 (a) Nucleolus formation (b) Start of cell division
(c) Cell plate formation (d) Spindle formation
59. Principal protein of cilia and flagella is:
(a) Globulin (b) Fibrin (c) Flagellin (d) Tubulin
60. Light phase of photosynthesis takes place inside the:
(a) Stroma (b) Thylakoid (c) Mitochondria (d) Angiosperms
61. Which one of the function of nucleous:
(a) DNA replication (b) Ribosome synthesis
(c) Organization of chromosomes (d) Chromatid separation
62. Protein associated with nucleic acid is:
(a) Histone (b) Globulin (c) Albumin (d) Scleroprotein
63. Nucleolus of eukarotic cell is:
(a) Site for synthesis or RNA polymerse
(b) Bounded by membrane
(c) Site for packaging of rRNAs with ribosomal proteins
(d) Visible in metaphase
64. In chloroplasts the chlorophyll is located in:
(a) Astroma (b) Grana (c) Pyrenoid (d) Both A and B
65. Which one of the following remain absent in prokaryotes?
(a) Nuclear membrane (b) Ribosome
(c) Cell wall (d) Plasma membrane
66. Crystals of calcium carbonate forming bunches in the epidermal cells of certain leaves
are:
(a) Cystoliths (b) Raphides (c) Sphaeraphides (d) Otoliths
67. Cell wall is absent in:
(a) Plants (b) Animals (c) Mucor (d) Mango
68. Which is closely associated with the energy conversion reactions of aerobic respiration?
(a) Mitochondria (b) Chloroplast (c) Golgi body (d) Nucleus
69. The organelles which play in important role in the formation of cell plate are:
(a) Microtubules (b) Endoplasmic reticulum
(c) Ribosomes (d) Golgi complexes
70. Which of the following statements regarding micochondrial membrane is not correct?
(a) The outer membrane is permeable to all kinds of molecules
(b) The enzymes of the electron transfer chain are embedded in the outer membrane
(c) The inner membrane is highly convoluted forming a series of infoldings
(d) The outer membrane resembles a sieve

PREVIOUS YEAR AIPMT QUESTIONS

1. Which one of the following structures is an organelle within an organelle ? (PMT 2012)

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 (a) Ribosome (b) Peroxisome (c) ER (d) Mesosome
2. Which one of the following cellular part is correctly describes ? (PMT 2012)
(a) Centriole – Sites for active RNA synthesis.
(b) Lysomes – Optimally active at a pH of about 8.5.
(c) Thytlocoids – Flattened membranesous sacs forming the grana of chloroplasts.
(d) Ribosomes – Those on chloroplasts are larger (80S) while those in the cytoplasm are
smaller (70S)
3. The Golgi complex plays a major role : (PMT 2013)
(a) In digesting proteins & carbohydrates
(b) An energy transferring organelles
(c) In post translational modification of proteins and glycosidation of lipids.
(d) In traping the light and transforming it into chemical energy
4. The major site for synthesis of lipid is : (PMT 2013)
(a) SER (b) Symplast (c) Nucleoplasm (d) RER
5. Which structures perform the function of mitochondria in bacteria ? (PMT 2014)
(a) Nucleoid (b) Ribosomes (c) Cell wall (d) Mesosomes
6. The solid linear cytoskeletal elements having a diameter of 6 nm and made up of a single
type of monomer are known as : (PMT 2014)
(a) Microtubules (b) Microfilaments
(c) Intermediate filaments (d) Lamins
7. The osmotic expansion of a cell kept in water is chiefly regulated by : (PMT 2014)
(a) Mitochondria (b) Vacuoles (c) Plastids (d) Ribosomes
8. Match the following and select the correct answer. (PMT 2014)
1 Centriole (i) Inforldings in mitochondria
2 Chlorophyll (ii) Thylakoids
3 Cristae (iii) Nucleic acid
4 Ribozyme (iv) Basal body cilia or flagella

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
9. The structures that are formed by stacking of organized flattened membraneous sacs in
the chloroplast are : (PMT 2015)
(a) Cristae (b) Grana (c) Stroma (d) Stromalamella
10. Select correct matching in the following pairs. (PMT 2015)
(a) Smooth ER – Oxidation of phospholipids
(b) Smooth ER – Synthesis of lipid
(c) Rough ER – Synthesis of glycogen
(d) Rough ER – Oxidation of fatty acids
11. True nucleus is absent in : (PMT 2015)
(a) Anabena (b) Mucor (c) Vaucheria (d) Volvox
12. Which one of the following is not an inclusion body found in prokaryotes ? (PMT 2015)

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 (a) Phosphate granule (b) Cyanophycean granule
(c) Glycogen granule (d) polysome
13. Which of the following are not membrane-bound ?
(a) Ribosome (b) Lysosomes (c) Mesosome (d) Vacuole
14. Which of the following structures is not found in a prokaryotic cell ?
(a) Ribosome (b) Mesosome
(c) Plasma membrane (d) Nuclear envelope
15. Pick up the wrong statement.
(a) Protista have photosynthetic and heterotrophic modes of nutrition
(b) Some fungi are edible
(c) Nuclear membrane is present in monera
(d) Cell wall is absent in animalia
16. Chromatophores take part in :
(a) Growth (b) Movement (c) Respiration (d) Photosynthesis
17. Cellular organelles with membranes are :
(a) Chromosome, ribosome & ER
(b) ER, ribosome & nuclei
(c) Lysosomes, Golgi apparatus & mitochondria
(d) Nuclei, Ribosomes & mitochondria
18. Cell wall is absent in :
(a) Funaria (b) Mycoplasma (c) Nostoc (d) Aspergillus

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1. Cytoplasm:
 The portion of the protoplasm present outside the nucleus and inside the plasma
membrane is called cytoplasm.
 It contains cytoplasmic matrix and cell organells.
 The matrix contains water, minerals and different enzymes.
 It provides internal support to the cell to maintain a particular shape.
 It is the site for different metabolic reactions like glycolysis, transportation etc.
2. Mitochondria:
 Kolliker observed the mitochondria and named by Benda.
 These cytoplasmic cell organells are found in all eukaryotic cells.
 These are either filamentous or granular and can change their shape.
 The number varies from 1 to 30,00,00 per cell.
 It is bounded by double layered unit membrane contains semifluid matrix.
 The outer membrane is smooth and inner membrane is infolded to form cristae.
 A large no. of tennis racket like structures are found, called oxysomes. The matrix
contain DNA, RNA, 70s ribosomes, enzymes of kreb’s cycle etc.
 It helps in aerobic respiration and stores ATP. So it is called as ‘Power house’ of the
cell.
3. Ribosomes:
 Ribosomes are dense granules present in cytoplasm of prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.
 It is also found in chloroplast and mitochondria.
 It is made of rRNA and protein and not bounded by any membrane.
 These are either remain free or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 According sedimentation co-efficient ribosomes and 2 types.
 80s ribosomes are found in Eukaryotic cells.
 70s ribosomes are found in prokaryotic cells chloroplast and mitochondria.
 Each ribosome has two sub-units.
 Ribosomes are the centres of protein synthesis, so it is called as ‘protein factory’ of the
cell.
4. Golgi apparatus:
 Italian zoologist Camellio Golgi observed the golgi apparatus for first time.

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  This organell is known by several names i.e., Golgi bodies, Golgi complex, Golgi somes,
Golgi materials, Golgi membrane etc.
 In plants and lower invertebrates it is known as Dictyosome.
 These are found in all eukaryotic cells and the shape is polymorphic.
 It originates from endoplasmic reticulum.
 It is usually composed of four parts (i) Cisternae (ii) tubules (iii) vesicle (iv) vacuoles.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN:
1. Cell wall and Cell membrane

CELL WALL CELL MEMBRANE

01 Cell wall is the outer layer of plant cell. 01 Cell membrane is the outer layer of animal
cell.
02 It is non-living. 02 It is living.
03 It is made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses, 03 It is made up of lipoprotein.
pectin etc.
04 It gives a particular shape and protection 04 It helps in transportation, turgidity etc.
to the cell respiration and cell.
05 Metabolically it is inactive. 05 Metabolically it is active.

2. Chloroplast and Mitochondria

CHLOROPLAST MITOCHONDRIA
01 These are green colour cell organelles. 01 These are colourless cell organelles.
02 They are restricted to only exposed cells of 02 Mitochondria are found in all types of cell of
plants. aerobic organisms both plants and animals.
03 Chloroplast generally disc shaped in 03 They are generally cylindrical in out line.
higher plants.
04 The inner membrane is smooth. 04 The inner membrane is infolded to form
cristae.
05 Stroma contains grana. 05 Inner membrane contains oxysomes.
06 It helps in photosynthesis. 06 It helps in aerobic respiration.

3. Nucleus and Nucleolus

NUCLEUS NUCLEOLUS
01 Nucleus was discovered by Robert brown. 01 Nucleolus was discovered by Fontana.
02 It is present inside the cytoplasm. 02 It is present inside the Nucleus.
03 It is bounded by nuclear membrane. 03 It is not bounded by any membrane.
04 It controls all the metabolic activities of 04 It helps the formation of Ribosome.
the cell.

4. Integral Proteins and Peripheral Proteins

Integral Proteins Peripheral Proteins
01 They are membrane proteins which occur 01 They are membrane proteins which lie on the

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 embedded in the lipid bilayer. surface of the lipid bilayer.
02 Some of the integral proteins function as 02 Peripheral proteins have no role in formation
carries and channels for passage of of carriers or membrane channels.
materials.
03 They cannot be easily separated from the 03 Peripheral proteins can be easily separated
membrane. from the membrane.

5. Active Transport and Passive Transport

Active Transport Passive Transport
01 The mode of transport is linked to 01 Energy is not required for passive transport.
expenditure of energy.
02 Because of its requirement of energy, 02 Rate of respiration is not affected by passive
active transport increases the rate of transport.
respiration.
03 It takes place against concentration or 03 It occurs along concentration or
electrochemical gradient. electrochemical gradient.
04 Active transport helps cells to accumulate 04 Accumulation of biochemicals does not occur
important biochemicals. except along a favourable electrochemical
gradient.
05 It is a means of maintaining a definite 05 Passive transport does not help in
osmotic concentration in extracellular maintaining osmotic concentration.
fluid and inside the cells.
06 It is a vital or biochemical process. 06 Passive transport is a physical process.
07 Active transport is mediated through 07 Carriers are not involved in passive transport.
carriers.
08 It is unidirectional. 08 It is bidirectional.
09 Active transport is selective. 09 Passive transport is largely nonselective.
10 It is a rapid process. 10 It is comparatively slower process.
11 Active transport inhibited by reduction in 11 Passive transport is not influenced by
oxygen supply. reduction in oxygen supply.
12 Lowering of temperature reduces active 12 There is little reduction in rate of passive
transport. transport on lowering of temperature.
13 It is inhibited by metabolic poisons like 13 It is not affected by metabolic poisons.
cyanide.
6. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Endocytosis Exocytosis
01 It is bulk intake of extracellular materials. 01 It is bulk exit of intracellular materials.
02 The endocytotic vesicle is formed by the 02 The exocytotic vesicle is formed internally,
cell membrane. mostly from Golgi apparatus or food vacuole.
03 It is meant for obtaining useful materials 03 Exocytosis is related to excretion, secretion
from outside. and throwing of indigestible materials.
04 A lysosome often fuses with endocytotic 04 A lysosome does not fuse with exocytotic
vesicle to retrieve materials brought from vesicle.
outside.
05 Endocytotic vesicle bursts open or fuses 05 Exocytotic vesicle fuses with cell membrane
with an internal membrane for releasing for throwing the materials to the outside.
materials.

7. Pinocytosis and Phagocytosis

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 Pinocytosis Phagocytosis
01 It is the intake of extracellular fluid and its 01 Phagocytosis is the ingestion of large sized
contained solutes with the help of vesicles solid particles with the help of vesicles or
or pinosomes. phagosomes.
02 Vesicles are not visible under optical 02 Vesicles are visible under optical microscope.
microscope.
03 Vesicle size is 0.1 – 0.2 mm. 03 Vesicle size is 1 – 2 mm.
04 Receptor or adsorption sites may or may 04 Receptor sites are required to recognize the
not be present. particle.
05 Pits are often present on cell surface to 05 Pits are generally absent.
receive and recognize the extracellular
substances.
06 The cell membrane does not develop 06 The cell membrane produces pseudopodia
evaginations around the fluid drop or like evaginations around the solid particles
adsorbed molecules. for engulfing the same.
07 It may or may not involve digestion with 07 Lysosomes are essential for killing and
the help of lysosomes. digestion of solid food materials.
08 An exocytosis or ephagy is not required. 08 The undigested materials are thrown out by
means of ephagy or exocytosis.

8. Outer Mitochondrial Membrane and Inner Mitochondrial Membrane

Outer Mitochondrial Membrane Inner Mitochondrial Membrane
01 It is smooth. Cristate are absent. 01 The inner mitochondrial membrane is folded
to form a number of ingrowths called cristae.
02 The membrane is permeable to a large 02 It is selectively permeable to even small
solutes. number of solutes and metabolites.
03 Protein content is about 60%. 03 Protein content is about 80%.
04 Lipid content is high, about 40%. 04 Lipid content is low, about 20%.
05 Phospholipid and cholesterol contents are 05 Phospholipid and cholesterol contents are
high. 1/3 – 1/6 of the outer membrane.
06 Cardiolipins are scarce. 06 Cardiolipins are abundant.
07 The membrane contains porins. 07 Porins are absent. Instead a number of
carriers occur in the membrane.
08 It does not possess elementary particles. 08 Elementary particles are present.
09 Enzymes present in the membrane are not 09 It possesses enzymes connected with electron
involved in oxidative phosphorylation. transport and oxidative phosphorylation.

9. Leucoplasts and Chromoplasts

Leucoplasts Chromoplasts
01 They are colourless plastids. 01 Chromoplasts are brownish to red in colour.
02 Leucoplasts have cylindrical to rounded in 02 They are commonly irregular in shape.
shape.
03 Lamellae are often present. 03 Lamellar structure degenerated during
maturation of chromoplasts.
04 Leucoplasts commonly occur in the cells of 04 Chromoplasts commonly occur in exposed
unexposed plant parts. parts except carrot root.

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 05 Depending upon stored materials, 05 Chromoplasts are of one type. They may
leucoplasts are of three types – synthesise and store lipids.
amyloplasts, elaioplasts and aleuroplasts.
06 Leucoplasts can change into other types of 06 Chromoplasts are unable to change into other
plastids. types of plastids.

10. Microfilaments and Microtubules

Microfilaments Microtubules
01 They are narrower filaments with the 01 They are comparatively broader, about 25 nm
thickness of 6 nm. in diameter.
02 Microfilaments are solid. 02 Microtubules are hollow.
03 Each microfilament is actually double 03 Microtubular wall is formed of 13
helix. protofilaments.
04 Microfilaments are formed of protein 04 Microtubules are made of protein tubulin.
actin.
05 There is only one type of actin molecule. 05 Tubulin molecules are of two types,  and .
06 They are contractile component of 06 They are noncontractile component of
cytoskeleton. cytoskeleton though they can help in
movement through assembly-disassemble
and sliding past each other.
07 They bring about sol-gel changes in the 07 Microtubules have no role in sol-gel changes.
cytoplasm.
08 They cause cytoplasmic streaming. 08 They help in directing vesicle, granules and
molecules in a particular direction.
09 They form a network in the cytosol with 09 Microtubules mostly run parallel through
the help of cross-linking proteins. cross-bridges may occur amongst them.
10 Microfilaments occur in microvilli, 10 They occur in some of the cellular processes
pseudopodia and membranes rufflings. like dendrites and axons of neurons but not in
microvilli, pseudopodia and membrane
rufflings.
11 They help in endocytosis. 11 Microtubules do not take part in endocytosis
though they direct vesicles in particular
direction.

11. Centriole and Basal Body

Centriole Basal Body (Blepharoplast)
01 A cell usually possesses two centrioles in 01 Number of basal bodies depends upon the
its centrosome. number of cilia or flagella, from on to several
hundred.
02 It occurs near the nucleus. 02 Basal body occurs in the outer part of
cytoplasm, immediately below the
plasmalemma.
03 Centriole is comparatively smaller. 03 Basal body is comparatively larger.
04 It has a cartwheel structure throughout its 04 Cartwheel structure is present in only the
length. proximal half.
05 Rootlets are absent. 05 Basal body gives rise to rootlets from its
proximal end for anchorage.
06 It is not associated with a cilium or 06 It occurs at the base of a cilium or flagellum.
flagellum.
07 Centriole forms aster, spindle and basal 07 It gives rise to a cilium or flagellum and
bodies. controls its movements.
12. Cytoplasm and Nucleoplasm
Cytoplasm Nucleoplasm
01 It is part of protoplasm excluding the 01 It is present inside the nucleus.

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 nucleus.
02 Cytoplasm consists of cytosol and 02 Nucleoplasm is equivalent to cytosol of
cytoplasmic organelles. cytoplasm.
03 Cell organelles and structures are of 03 In the nucleoplasm are embedded only two
several types. types of structures, chromatin fibres and
nucleoli.
04 Cytoplasm is covered on the outside by a 04 Nucleoplasm is covered on the outside by a
single membrane called plasmalemma. double membrane covering called nuclear
envelope or nucleolemma.
05 It contains endomembranes. 05 Internal membranes are absent.
06 Cytoplasm shows cyclosis or streaming 06 Cyclosis is absent.
movement.
07 Its outer part below the plasmalemma is a 07 Its outer part below the nuclear envelope
clear gel called ectoplasm. contains a dense fibrous material called
fibrous lamina.
08 It contains raw materials for synthesis of 08 Nucleoplasm contains raw materials for
all types of chemicals. synthesis of RNAs, DNA and ribosome
subunits.
09 Cytoskeleton is formed of microfilaments 09 Nuclear skeleton is formed of lamins or
intermediate filaments and microtubules. nuclear intermediate filaments.

13. Euchromatin and Heterochromatin.

Euchromatin Heterochromatin
01 It is the normal chromatin which 01 It is modified chromatin that is devoid of
possesses active genes. active genes.
02 Euchromatin takes part in transcription or 02 Transcription is absent.
formation of RNAs.
03 Euchromatin is narrower, 10 – 30 Å in 03 Heterochromatin is thicker, 100 Å or more.
thinkness.
04 It is fibrous. 04 Heterochromatin is granular.
05 Euchromatin represents the bulk of 05 It represents only a part of chromatin.
chromatin.
06 It is lightly stained. 06 Heterochromatin is darkly stained.
07 Euchromatin appears diffused. 07 It is condensed.
08 There is little coiling of nucleosome 08 Heterochromatin is formed by solenoid type
strand. of coiling of nucleosome strand.
09 It is influenced by changes in pH, 09 There is little effect of these factors.
temperature, hormones, poisons, etc.
10 It shows normal crossing over. 10 Crossing over is inhibited by its presence.
11 Euchromatin replicates early in S-phase of 11 It replicates late towards end of S-phase
cell cycle. which spills over to G2 phase.
14. Chromatin and Chromosome
Chromatin Chromosome
01 It represents the entire genetic material 01 Chromosome is a unit of genetic material.
02 Chromatin is largely uncondensed genetic 02 It represents condensed genetic material.
material.
03 It consists of find fibrils. 03 Chromosomes are thick and short rods.
04 Replicated fibrils are not distinct. 04 Chromatids are quite distinct.
05 It occurs in interphase nucleus. 05 It is formed during M-phase.
06 Chromatin contains active genes. 06 Active genes are absent except in giant
chromosomes.
07 It controls cell metabolism, growth, 07 Chromosome is formed to distribute genetic
differentiation and activities of cell. information equitably to the progeny.

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Q. What is a cell? Describe the ultra structure of a typical plant cell briefly.
Ans :
A cell can be defined as a unit of biological activity delimited by a semipermeable membrane capable
of self-reproduction in medium free of other living systems. (A.G.Loewy & P.Siekevitz; 1963)
ULTRA STRUCTURE :
The ultra structure of a typical plant cell reveled by electron microscope consist of following
parts :
Cell wall :
 It is the outer non-living outer covering of plant cell. It is made up of cellulose, hemi-
cellulose & pectic substances.
 It is differentiated into three layers - Middle lamella, Primary cell wall & Secondary cell
wall.
Function :
 It provides particular shape, mechanical support and protection to plant cell.
 It helps in exchange of material with the surrounding cells through plasmodesmata.
Cell membrane :
 It is present below the cell wall. It is very thin about 75A° and lipo-proteinous in nature.
Function :
 It is selective permeable and regulate the exchange of materials ( solutes & solvents)
with the surrounding.
Protoplasm :
 It is present below the cell membrane. It is crystallo- colloidal in nature.
 It is made up of diverse organic and inorganic substances such as water, protein,
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, mineral salts etc. All the living features occur in
protoplasm. It is divided into two parts by nuclear membrane, they are;
Cytoplasm: This the portion of protoplasm outside nucleus but within cell membrane.
Nucleoplasm: This the portion of protoplasm within nucleus which is bounded by nuclear
membrane.
Nucleus :
 It is small, dense, rounded or oval body present in the centre of cell or pushed to one side
due to large central vacuole. It consist of following parts:
i. Nuclear Membrane (Karyotheca) : It is porous double layered membrane.
ii. Nucleoplasm.
iii. Chromatin reticulum: It is a network of fine uncoiled chromatin fibers suspended in
the hodoplasm of an interphase nucleus.
iv. Nucleolus: Spherical dense body found in the interphase nucleus.
Function
 It is the repository of genetic information, as the chromatin fibers contain the
genetic material DNA.
 It controls the overall metabolic activity of the cell.
Cytoplasm :

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  It is the site for different biochemical reactions. It performs several physiological action
with the help of many cell organelles which are suspended within the cytoplasm.
Cell organelles :
i. Plastids : These are double membrane bounded semiautonomous cell organelles. These are
of three types:
(a) Leucoplast: Help in storage of food ( starch, fat & protein)
(b) Chromoplast: Impart coloration to petals and other plant parts.
(c) Chloroplast: Contain chlorophyll pigments and help in photosynthesis.
ii. Mitochondria: It is also double membrane bounded semi – autonomous cell organelle. The
inner membrane is folded to form finger like cristae.
Function :
 It is the site for cellular respiration. It oxidize food material to liberate energy in the form
of 'ATP' which is used in different biological activities. So it is called as " Power house of
the cell"'.
a. Endoplasmic reticulum :
 It is a net work of flattened,
membrane bound cisternae,
tubule and vesicles.
 It extend from nuclear
membrane to cell membrane.
 These are of two types: Smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) -
if ribosomes are absent on
surface.
 Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum(RER) if ribosomes are
present on surface.
Function :
 Provide channel for
intracellular transport.
 Help in synthesis, storage and
transport of protein and lipids.
 Help in formation of cell
organelles like Golgi bodies,
lysosomes etc.
b. Golgi bodies ( Dictyosomcs) :
 It is a stack of flattened membranous structures containing cisternae, tubule and vesicles.
 It has two faces - forming (cis) face towards nuclear membrane & maturating (trans) face
towards cell membrane.
Function :
 It is considered as organelle of secretion as it secretes enzyme, hormone & mucus.
 Help in formation of cell plate during cell division.
c. Lysosomes :
 Single membrane bound, sac like structure containing hydrolytic enzymes.

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 Function:
 It is concerned with intracellular and extra cellular digestion. Due to autophagic
activity it is regarded as “suicidal ba” of the cell.
d. Microbodies :
 These are small spherical bodies bounded by single layered membrane and contain
various enzymes.
 They are of three types: Peroxisome, Glyoxysome & Sphaerosome.
Function :
 Peroxisome helps in photorespiration (Glycolate cycle or C 2-cycle) in C3 plants and β-
oxidation of fatty acids (lipid metabolism) in animal cell.
 Glyoxysome: Helps in gluconeogenesis (fats are converted to carbohydrates) through
glyoxylate cycle.
 Sphaerosome: Involved in synthesis & storage of fats or oils.
e. Ribosome :
 These are membrane less, ribonuleoprotein particles synthesized in the nucleolus.
Function :
 These are concerned with protein synthesis hence known as "protein factory" of the
cell.
f. Vacuoles :
 It is a non cytoplasmic fluid filled spaces in the cytoplasm bounded by tonoplast.
Function :
 It maintain turgor of plant cell. Vacuolar sap contain sugar, minerals, pigments alkaloids
etc.
Cytoskeletal structures
 It consist of microtubules and microfilaments those provide internal support to the cell.
Function :
 These are concerned with compartmentalization of cytoplasm & cyclosis.
 Besides these cell organelles the cytoplasm also contain many non living cell inclusions
(ergastic substances).
 These are of three types - i) Reserve food ii) Secretory product iii) Excretory products.

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BRANCHES OF BOTANY
I. PURE BRANCHES:

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Each branches deals with the study of basic knowledge about plant science.
1. Morphology- Study of external feature.
2. Anatomy – Study of internal structure of plant.
3. Histology – Study of difference tissues with the help of microscope.
4. Physiology – Study of all vital action of body functions or organisms.
5. Evolution – Continuous genetic adaptation of living being to environment, which simple
forms change to complex forms.
6. Genetics – Study of heredity and variation.
7. Embryology – Study of fertilization and development of zygote into an embryo.
8. Taxonomy or systematic – Identification, nomenclature and classification of plants.
9. Ecology or environmental science – It is the study of inter – relationship between living
organisms and their environment.
10. Pathology – Study of diseases, effects, causal agents, transmission and other activities of
pathogens.
11. Palaeontology – It is the study of fossils.
12. Cell biology – Branch of biology that studies different aspects of cells and their
components like structure, organization, fun, genetics, development.
13. Microbiology – Branch of biology that includes the study of all microorganisms.
14. Toxicology – Study of harmful effects of drugs and other substances.
15. Exobiology – Branch of scientific enquiry about the possibility of life in the outer space.
16. Gerontology – Study of ageing and senescence.
17. Phytogerntology (plants) – Ageing
18. Zoo-gerentology (animals) – Ageing

II. APPLIED BRANCHES:

These branches deals with the application of botany for economic development of human being.
1. Economic botany – Study of useful plants and plant products and their cultivation.
2. Agronomy- Science of soil management and production of crops.
3. Olericulture – Cultivation of vegetables.
4. Arboriculture – This branch is chiefly concerned with cultivation of trees and shrubs.
5. Floriculture – Study and cultivation of plants for their flowers.
6. Horticulture – Study of garden plants. (fruit, veg,)
7. Silviculture – Cultivation of forest trees.
8. Pharmacognosy – It deals with study of drug plants. (use of plant and their parts in drug
industry).
9. Forestry – Branch deals with the cultivation development, care and management of
forest.

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10. Tissue culture: Branch dealing with culture of plant protoplast in synthetic culture
media to regenerate plants.
11. Plant breeding: This branch concerned with production of new improved races by
hybridising selection.
12. Molecular biology: Study of nature of biomolecules protein DNA, RNA enzymes.
13. Biogeography – Study of geographical distribution phytogeography.
14. Genetic engineering – it is a branch which involves genetic manipulation to produce cell
or organism with new combination of heredity apparatus.

III. INTEGRATED / INTERDISCIPLINARY BRANCHES

The branches are related with other branches of science.
1. Biophysics – Study of biological structure and processes by methods of physics.
2. Biochemistry – Science connected with chemistry of living matter (chemical compound
reaction, mode of formation, functioning)
3. Biostatistics- Application of statistics in evolution of biological problems.
4. Food technology: Study of processing and preservation of food vegetables, fruits.
5. Biotechnology – Technology connected with employing living beings their products in
industrial processes.
6. Bioinformatics – Application of information technology in biology.
7. Bioenergetics – Flow of energy and energy transformation by living cells.
8. Biometeorology-Effect of atmospheric condition on living beings.

IV. SPECIFIC BRANCHES

1. Phycology or Algology – Study of Algae
2. Mycology – Study of fungi.
3. Licheonology – Study of lichen
4. Bryology – Study of bryophytes.
5. Pteridology – Study of pteridophytes.
6. Anthology – Study of flowers and flowering plants.
7. Pomology – Study of fruit plants.
8. Spermology – Study of seeds.

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