FIRST TERM: WEEK 1
RECOGNIZING LIVING
THINGS
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
Living things are distinguished from non-living things by a number of characteristics which
are:
Movement: Movement is defined as the ability of an organism to move its own whole body or
part of its body from one place to another.
Nutrition: Nutrition is defined as the ability of living organisms to feed.
Respiration: Respiration is defined as the exchange of gases between organisms and their
environment.
Excretion: Excretion is defined as the removal of metabolic waste products from the body.
Irritability or sensitivity :Irritability is defined as the ability of organisms to respond to stimuli
Growth: Growth is defined as a permanent or irreversible increase in size and mass of an
organism.
Reproduction: Reproduction is defined as the ability of living organism to produce their kinds.
Adaptation: Adaptation is the features developed by an organism which enable it to survive
successfully in its environment.
Death: All living things must die because they have a definite and limited period of existence
Competition: This is the ability of living things to struggle for all the necessities of life in order
to survive in their various environments.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
1. Both possess reproductive organs
2. Both living and at some point in life, they both die
3. Both the species possess DNA and RNA
4. Both possess energy transforming and utilizing systems
5. Both possess cells which need specific nutrients, pH levels, macromolecules etc to grow.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS.
PLANTS ANIMALS
1Plants are autotrophic(They produce their own food) but digestive Animals are heterotrophic(they depend on plants for food). Digestive
system absent system is present.
2.Plants are non-locomotive as they are rooted in the ground with Animals are locomotive except for sponges and corals
the exception of Volvox and Chlamydomonas
3.Response to stimuli takes a longer time . Response is through touch Response to stimuli is very fast and it is through the nervous system
and light.
4. Growth is unlimited; it continues throughout life time. Root and Growth is limited; it stops at adult stage. Organs and organ systems
shoot tips support growth. support growth
5.Plants store food as starch and oil Animal store food as glycogen
6.Growth in plants is apical (at the root and shoot) Growth in animals is intercalary (in all parts of the body.)
7. Take in Carbon dioxide and release oxygen through stomata Take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide through lungs, gills, skin
and more
8. Reproduction is asexual by budding, vegetative methods, wind, Reproduction is sexual but some lower animals have asexual
spores, insects reproduction
ORGANIZATION OF LIFE
The levels of organization of life consist of the development of cells from simple to very
complex forms of life.
The simplest structures are found at the lowest levels and they interact to build up more
complex structures at the next level and so on. It is the hierachy of complex biological
structures.
SUMMARY OF ALL LEVELS OF ORGANISATION OF LIFE IN BIOLOGY IN ASCENDING ORDER!
Atom ( the basic unit or component of organization in both living and non-living things)
↓
Molecules (group of atoms; smallest unit of most chemical compounds e.g. water, DNA)
↓
Cell Building blocks of the body .Different human cells have different jobs (e.g. skin cells, nerve cells, blood cells, etc., Euglena & Paramecium cells
↓
Tissue Group of similar cells that perform the same function 4 main kinds: Muscle tissues, Nerve tissues, Connective tissues, Epithelial tissues. Example of organism that exist
at this level is the hydra
↓
Organ Structure in the body made of different types of tissues .Each organ has a specific job . Examples include – Liver , skin, kidney, onion bulb, the heart of a cow etc.
↓
Organ Systems Group of organs that work together to perform a major function e.g. digestive system, Excretory system etc.
↓
Organism. A living thing made up of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems… all working together e.g. man, Lion etc.
↓
Population Total number of organisms of the same specie e.g. pride of lions
↓
Community (populations that live together in a defined area)
↓
Ecosystem (community and its non-living surroundings)
↓
Biome (the part of the Earth that contains all the ecosystems)
↓
Biosphere ( a global system that generally comprises everything where life exist and the abiotic environment they reside in, all blending with each other)
Some systems in the human body
Respiratory system
Circulatory
system
Organs work together to
form organ systems
Digestive
system
Muscular system 27/07/2022
Skeletal system
COMPLEXITY OF ORGANIZATION IN HIGHER ORGANISMS - There is an increase in complexity from
unicellular organisms to multicellular organisms. Even though unicellular organisms can perform all life
processes, they still lack vital tissues, organs or system that is efficient and capable of ensuring their
survival.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPLEXITY IN HIGHER ORGANISMS
1.It leads to cellular differentiation
2.It leads to internal structural specialization
3. Mutual interdependence between component cells:
4.Division of labor here promotes efficiency which enable them to exploit their environment.
5.There is a better adaptive feature for higher survival rate.
6.Complexity leads to increase in size
DISADVANTAGES OF COMPLEXITY IN HIGHER ORGANISMS.
1.Inability of individual cells to exist on their own.
2.Difficulties in acquisition of oxygen and food materials
3.It leads to slower rate of diffusion
4.Slower rate of expulsion of waste products.
5.Difficulties in reproduction in higher organisms.
6.Energy and time are wasted.
Importance of cell differentiation in the development of
specialized cells
CELL DIFFERENTIATION AND SPECIALIZED CELLS
The structural differences between different types of cells enables them to
perform specific functions within the organism.
Cell differentiation is an important process by which a cell changes to become
specialized.
As an organism develops, cells differentiate to form different types of cells.
Almost all of the cells in a multicellular organism will contain the same genetic
information (the same genes or alleles), but depending on what role a particular
cell needs to have, only some of the genes in a particular cell are used/ expressed
to control its development.
When a cell differentiates, it develops a structure and composition of subcellular
information (the same genes or alleles), but depending on what role a particular
cell needs to have, only some of the genes in a particular cell are used/ expressed
to control its development.
When a cell differentiates, it develops a structure and composition of
subcellular structures which enables it carry out a certain function.
For example, to form a nerve cell, the cytoplasm and cell membrane of an
undifferentiated cell must elongate to form connections over long distances.
DIFFERENTIATION AND DEVELOPMENT
In an animal, most cells differentiate at an early stage of development.
Specific cells in various locations throughout the body of an animal retain the
ability to differentiate throughout the life of the animal. These are called adult
stem cells and they are mainly involved in replacing and repairing cells (such as
blood or skin cells)
Plants differ from animals in that many types of plant cells retain the ability to
fully differentiate throughout the life of a plant, not just in the early stages of
development.
SOME EXAMPLES OF SPECIALIZED CELLS IN ANIMALS:
CELL FUNCTION ADAPTATIONS
CILIATED Movement of mucus in Extensions of the cytoplasm at the surface of the cell from hair- like structures
CELL the trachea and bronchi called CILIA which BEAT TO MOVE MUCUS and trapped particles up to the throat
NERVE CELL Conduction of impulses a. LONG so that nerves can run to and from DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY to the
central nervous system
b. The cell has EXTENSIONS AND BRANCHES, so that it can COMMUNICATE with
other nerve cells, muscle and glands
c. The axon (extension of cytoplasm away from the cell body) is covered with a
FATTY SHEATH which INSULATES the nerve cell and SPEEDS UP the nerve
impulse
RED BLOOD Transport of oxygen a. BICONCAVE DISC shape INCREASES SURFACE AREA for more efficient diffusion of
CELL oxygen
b. Contains HAEMOGLOBIN which JOINS WITH OXYGEN to transport it
c. Contains NO NUCLEUS to INCREASE AMOUNT OF SPACE AVAILABLE for
haemoglobin inside cell.
SPERM CELL reproduction a. The head contains the genetic material for fertilization in a HAPLOID NUCLEUS
(containing half the normal number of chromosomes)
b. The ACROSOME in the head contains DIGESTIVE ENZYMES so that a sperm can
penetrate an egg
c. The mid-piece is packed with MITOCHONDRIA to release ENERGY needed to
swim and fertilize the egg
SOME EXAMPLES OF SPECIALIZED CELLS IN PLANTS
CELLS FUNCTIONS ADAPTATIONS
ROOT HAIR CELL Absorption of water and mineral ions 1. ROOT HAIR increases SURFACE AREA of cell to ensure
from soil MAXIMUM ABSORPTION of water and mineral ions.
2. Walls are THIN to ensure water moves through quickly
3. No chloroplast present
XYLEM VESSEL Conduction of water through the 1. NO TOP AND BOTTOM WALLS between xylem vessels, so
plant; support of the plant there is a CONTINUOUS COLUMN OF WATER running through
them
2. Cells are DEAD without organelles or cytoplasm to allow
FREE PASSAGE OFWATER
3. Their walls become THICKENED with a substance called
LIGNIN which means they are able to help SUPPORT the
plant
PALISADE Photosynthesis 1. COLUMN SHAPED to maximize absorption of sunlight and FIT
MESOPHYLL CELL AS MANY IN A LAYER under the upper epidermis of the leaf
as possible
2. Contains MANY CHLOROPLASTS for maximum
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Advantages and disadvantages of stem cells in medicine
Cells in the early stages of the development of an embryo are known as STEM CELLS.
These are cells that have not undergone DIFFERENTIATION. A cell which has not yet
become specialized is undifferentiated.
If cells are removed from the embryo they will differentiate into any cell type. These
are called embryonic stem cells. Some stem cells remain in the bodies of adults as adult
stem cells.
Adult stem cells can be found in limited numbers in several regions of the body e.g.
brain, eyes, blood, heart, liver, bone marrow, skin, muscle.
Adult stem cells can differentiate into related cell types only, for instance, bone
marrow cells can differentiate into blood cells and cells of the immune system, but not
other cell types.
Stem cells can divide to produce new cells, which can then divide into different cell
types. They therefore have the potential to be transplanted into patients to treat
medical conditions and diseases. They could be used to replace cells that have been
damaged or destroyed.
Bone marrow cells will differentiate into different types of blood cells. Bone marrow
transplants are carried out in cases of blood cell cancer, e.g. leukaemia and
lymphoma,when blood cells have been destroyed, e.g. During cancer treatment
ADVANTAGES
A. CLINICAL ISSUES
1. There is no guarantee how successful these therapies will be.
2. The current difficulty in finding suitable stem donors.
3. The difficulty in obtaining and storing a patient’s embryonic stem cells. These
will have to be collected before birth or storing blood from the umbilical cord
when a person is born.
4. Mutations have been observed in stem cells cultured for a number of
generations.
5. Cultured stem cells could be contaminated with viruses which would be
transferred to a patient.
B. ETHICAL ISSUES
One source of embryonic stem cells is unused embryos produced by IVF. Is it right
to create embryos for therapy, and destroy them in the process? should embryos
be viewed as a commodity? At what stage of its development should an embryo be
regarded as, and treated as, a person?
