Constructional Features of an engine

Cylinder Arrangements
Single cylinder - Easier and cheaper to construct but one power stroke in every four strokes
creates an out of balance forces because of the heavy reciprocating components.
Roughness and vibrations that results should be smoothed away with large flywheel.
However, the large flywheel absorbs a great deal of energy and takes long to build up speed.
The KE also takes a long time to dissipate. The other engine components also must be
heavier in construction to take the load on them which would result in a very poor power to
weight ratio.
For engines to be economical and have a good performance, they should be light in weight
and produce a lot of power. This is best achieved by increasing the number of cylinders;
engine will run smoothly, have better power to weight ratio and will be more responsive to
required changes in speed and torque.
Multi cylinder engines, however, are more complicated and costly because of the number of
parts.
Cylinder layouts
4 cylinders are considered the usual minimum number arranged in one line.
For smoother performance, 6 or eight may be employed. Consider fig 3.6

For saving space, multiple cylinders are mounted into two banks arranged as vee but
operating on common crankshaft. See fig 3.7
Horizontally opposed engines have also been designed. See Fig 3.8

Cylinder Block
The cylinder block holds the cylinders rigidly in position. On most light vehicle engines, the
block extends to form part of the crankcase. Therefore, it also supports the crankshaft
bearings. The name given to this type of construction is Monoblock.
Monoblock is complicated in shape hence normally cast in close-grain cast iron. It is cheap,
hard wearing, strong, rigid, light and easy to cast. To give the casting strength and rigidity it
is internally webbed to carry and transmit the loads on the main and camshaft bearings. fig
3.9
Aluminum alloy can also be used because it is very light. However, it is not very hard-
wearing hence necessary to have cast iron liners that forms the hard-wearing cylinder.
Aluminum blocks are cast without cylinders but the top and bottom of the cylinder openings
are machined to take separate cylinder liners. Individual liners are kept rigidly in place when
the engine is assembled to prevent coolant or gas from leaking past them.
Liners in direct contact with the coolant are called wet liners while those pressed onto a
complete block are dry liners.
The outer casing of the block contains water jacket. Water passages must direct the coolant to
the hottest areas of the cylinder and enable the heat to be taken away quickly.
The outer surface of the casting on air-cooled engines has fins cast onto the block to create a
large surface area over which air can flow to cool the cylinders.
The top part is machined to take the cylinder heads. The water passages that cool the block
are carried through into the head, together with an oil flow to lubricate the valve gear.
Bolts/Studs and nuts retain the cylinder head to the block.

Cylinder numbering
The cylinders of an engine are identified by giving them numbers. When there is only one ro
w of cylinders, they
are usually numbered from one end towards the other, but in the case of other arrangements t
here is considerable variation in practice.
The cylinders of in-line engines are usually numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., commencing from the ‘fre
e’ or non-driving end.
In the case of vee or opposed engines, each group of cylinders is usually numbered in the sam
e manner, but groups of cylinders are identified by letters A, B, etc. More often they are ident
ified as L and R for the left and right cylinder banks. Sometimes one group of cylinders
contains even numbers and the other odd; sometimes one group of cylinders is numbered con
secutively, followed by the cylinders in the other group.

Firing Order
This is the arrangement of cylinders in a multicylinder engine such that their power strokes
are in succession and the order in which the cylinders work.
Power strokes should be spaced at equal intervals. Each interval is equal to the number of
degrees per cycle of operations i.e., 7200 for a 4-stroke cycle engine. Hence, for a 4-cylinder
engine, the interval will be 720/4= 1800, for 6-cylinder engine, it will be 720/6= 1200.
The firing order is primarily determined by the disposition of the cylinders and the cranks on
the crankshaft, i.e., whether the engine is in-line, vee or opposed. This determines the possibl
e firing orders.

Determination of firing order

It is necessary to know the firing order of an engine to be able to connect up the sparking plu
g leads correctly, or to connect test equipment to the ignition system.

There are several methods by which it may be found. It is sometimes marked on the engine, o
r on a plate on or near the engine. It is invariably given in the workshop manual. If the engine
is not marked and the workshop manual is not available the following method can be used:
1 Remove the valve gear covers and note which are the inlet valves and which the exhaust.
2 Rotate the engine in the direction in which it runs and watch the order in which one set of v
alves, inlet or exhaust, operate. This will give the order in which the inlet strokes or exhaust s
trokes occur, and the power strokes occur in the same order.
An alternative method is for the technician to position his thumbs and fingers over the plug h
oles (or fit corks in the plug holes suitably secured to each other): rotate the engine and note t
he order of cylinder ‘compressions’ as they occur.

Valves
A valve is fitted to each of the inlet and exhaust ports in 4-stroke cycle engine.
They open and close at appropriate times using some form of operating mechanism.
The way valve operate is subject to the following important considerations. Valves must:
 Make completely gas-tight seal in the ports when closed
 Offer the minimum of resistance to the flow of gases when open
 require the simplest possible mechanism to operate them
 operate with the minimum of friction
 operate with minimum wear.
Types of valves
[Link] poppet valve.
This was already in use on steam engines before successful internal combustion engines were
developed. It has proved so successful that its use has continued and it is almost the only type
to be used in modern engines.
2 The slide valve.
This too was very commonly used on some early internal-combustion engines, but proved les
s satisfactory than the poppet valve and is now obsolete.
3 The sleeve valve.
Several versions of this type of valve have been used. The two most successful were the Kni
ght and the Burt–McCullum. The Knight-type valve originated in about 1905 and consisted o
f a sleeve free to slide inside the cylinder with a second sleeve free to slide inside it, the pisto
n moving within the inner sleeve. The sleeves were moved up and down inside the cylinder, a
nd ports cut in the sleeves were arranged to uncover the cylinder ports at the correct times. A
lthough these types of valves seemed to have many advantages over the cruder poppet valve t
hey have not survived in motor-vehicle engines. Their main drawback was relatively high oil
consumption and a smoky exhaust allied to complex operating mechanisms.
4 The rotary valve.
Several types of rotary valve have been developed and some have given very good results. Th
ey consist of rotating ‘plugs’ fitted across the ports, having holes, which at the correct times,
uncover the ports and allow gas to pass. Note that the only type of valve at present in commo
n use in four-stroke motor vehicle engines is the poppet valve and this is the only type which
is described here in detail.

The poppet valves

The valve itself consists of a disc-shaped head having a stem extending from its centre. The e
dge of the head on the side nearest the stem is accurately ground at an angle of typically 45° t
o form the face but sometimes other angles (e.g., 30°) are used.

poppet valve with inlet valve open

When the valve is closed, the face is pressed into contact with a similarly ground seating at th
e inner end of the port. Beyond the seating the port curves smoothly away clear of the valve.
The condition of the face and seating is of vital importance in ensuring the gas-tight seal betw
een the valve and the valve seat. The valve face and the valve seat are ground on special mac
hines, and each valve face is sometimes lapped into the valve seat with a very fine abrasive.
Whether this is necessary or even advisable if the grinding is sufficiently accurate is often in
dispute but lapping the valve into the valve seat has been common practice for many years, es
pecially when overhauling engines. After a considerable period of use, it is possible that the c
ondition of the valve face and seating will have deteriorated and may allow gas leakage; this
would then dictate that the valve and seat are reground or lapped together. Special grinding m
achines have been developed for this purpose although it should be noted that there are some
valve designs and materials in use which should not be subjected to re-grinding, and then co
mponent replacement is the only permissible option.

poppet valve

Valve location
The position of the valve in the cylinder head depends upon the design of the combustion cha
mber. The possible positions of the valves are;
Side valve or L-head
Both valves are at one side of the cylinder; valve heads are uppermost with the stems approxi
mately parallel to the cylinder axis. To accommodate the valves in this position the combusti
on chamber is extended sideways from the top of the cylinder forming a shape similar to an i
nverted letter L. This arrangement is not used on modern engines.
Side valve or T-head
This is similar to a standard side valve arrangement except that inlet and exhaust valves are fi
tted at opposite sides of the cylinder. This arrangement, though common on early engines, ha
s been obsolete for many years.
Vertical overhead valves
Both valves are fitted over the top of the cylinder (within the cylinder head) with their stems
approximately vertical and parallel usually in a single row.

Overhead inlet and side exhaust or F-head

The inlet valve is arranged as an overhead valve, and the exhaust as a side valve. This arrange
ment is not used on modern engines.
Inclined overhead valves
Both valves are fitted over the top of the cylinder head, but in two rows inclined at an angle t
o one another.

Inclined overhead valve

Basic valve-opening mechanisms

Valves are moved to the closed position and then held closed by the valve springs.
However, opening of the valves is almost universally performed using a mechanism, which re
lies on a cam. Cams are carried upon one or more camshafts, which are driven (rotated) by su
itable gearing (or drive mechanisms) from the crankshaft. The cam is simply a device that has
a high point and a low point. When the cam is rotated, the high point pushes the valve open.
The cams do not usually act directly on the valves since their rotary motion would impose a s
ide force on the end of the valve stem. To combat this side force cam followers are interposed
between the cam and the valve. These followers may take one of two forms:
1 Tappets or cam followers, which rest upon the cams and are guided so as to move in a strai
ght line.
2 Rockers (or levers), which rock upon fixed pivots. If the cams are placed close to the ends o
f the valves, no additional mechanism may be needed, but in the case of overhead valves this
involves a long and possibly complicated driving gear between camshaft and crankshaft.
Older engines generally made use of a camshaft, which was located reasonably near the crank
shaft (in the engine cylinder block), so that a short and simple driving gear could be used. In s
uch cases the motion of the tappets was conveyed to the valves through pushrods and overhea
d rockers.
Most modern engines do in fact use overhead camshafts along with a longer or more complex
mechanism to transfer the drive from the crankshaft to the overhead camshaft. The use of ove
rhead camshafts is largely dictated by the need to provide accurate and positive valve control
to assist with good combustion and low emissions. Valve locations on modern, highly efficie
nt engines, are not easily operated with pushrod systems. Additionally, modern belts and chai
ns are less expensive to produce and more reliable than in the past, and combined with operat
ing performance of the overhead camshafts mechanisms, overhead camshaft systems are now
preferable to pushrod systems

typical camshaft

Layout of a pushrod-operated overhead valve system

with rocker shaft
 Layout of direct-acting OHC system.

Valve Operating Mechanisms

Cams and camshafts
Valves are used to open and close the intake and exhaust port.
Most four-stroke engines rely on a cam system to open the valves
Cams and camshaft-based systems have been used since the very earliest internal combustion
engines.
A cam is a component, which is shaped so that when it rotates on the shaft it causes another c
omponent (which is in contact with it) to move in a different manner.
The rotating cam causes the valve to move in a linear way, which enables the valve to open a
nd close the ports.
The cam does not normally act directly on the end or stem of the valve; a cam follower/tappet
allows the profile of the cam as it [Link] follower then transmits the movement to the val
ve (either directly or via a pushrod or rocker mechanism). The cam follower remains stationar
y during that part of the cam’s rotation when it rests upon the base circle, and its ‘lift’ begins
at the point where the opening flank joins the base circle. At the peak of the cam (highest poi
nt of the cam lobe) the lift is maximum, and the follower then falls as the closing flank passes
beneath it. When the follower is again in contact with the base circle it will have returned to it
s original position.
On simple engines, all of the cams required to open the valves for all of the cylinders are for
med on a single camshaft. However, modern engines use two camshafts; one for the inlet val
ves and one for the exhaust valves.
Camshaft materials
Camshafts are usually made of steel, either by forging or casting, with subsequent machining.
Forged camshafts usually have the cams case-hardened, while the cams of cast shafts are gen
erally hardened by chilling during casting.
Camshaft bearings
The camshafts are usually carried in plain bearings, but in some cases ball or roller bearings
may be used. In many engines the shaft is moved into position from the front end of the engin
e (either into the cylinder block or cylinder head) and must therefore pass through the bearing
holes. To enable this to be done the bearings must be larger than the cams.

Camshaft location
Side-valve engines
 Earlier designs of engine located the camshaft in the cylinder block, often just to one s
ide and slightly above the crankshaft which was very convenient on older engines that
had side valves.
 Each of the cams was effectively located just beneath the valve stem. It only required
a cam follower to transmit the cam movement to the valve stem.
  The location of the camshaft, which was close to the crankshaft, allowed the use of a s
hort chain and sprocket system to drive the camshaft, although some engines used gea
rs to transmit drive.
 Side-valve engines were inefficient hence they are no longer in use.

side valve layout showing location of the

camshaft.

Overhead-valve (OHV) engines with pushrods

 Valves are located in the cylinder head. This improves engine efficiency and allows
greater power outputs.
 Camshafts are in the cylinder block. It is therefore necessary to use a pushrod and roc
ker shaft system to transfer the movement of the cam to the valve.
  The simple drive mechanism used in the side-valve layout is retained and the engine
height is still kept to minimum.

Simple Overhead Valve system using pushrods and rockers.

Overhead camshafts (OHC)

 Camshafts are located above the cylinder head.
 The advantages include more accurate control of valve operation, especially at higher
engine speeds, which could not be reliably achieved with the pushrod system.
 Many overhead camshaft designs retain the use of a rocker to transmit the cam move
ment to the valve, the cam usually acting directly onto the rocker, which in turn move
s the valve.
 Overhead Camshaft and rocker
layout

Cam followers
Cam followers and tappets
The term ‘tappets’ has long been associated with the component that immediately contacts th
e cam, i.e., where the cam lobe taps the component to move it. On older engine designs (e.g.,
a side-valve engine) the term tappet was universally applied to these components, which ofte
n contained some form of adjuster to set the working clearance of the valve. In general, howe
ver, these components are now referred to as ‘cam followers’ on all engines, but reference is
made to tappets within this book with regard to those components that were originally referre
d to as tappets.
The purpose of cam followers
 Cam followers are used to follow the movement of the cam as it rotates. The follower
then transmits the movement to the valve, directly or via pushrods and/or rockers. In f
act, a rocker can function as a cam follower.
 By using a cam follower, the stem of the valve is only forced to follow a linear (up an
d down) motion. If, however, the stem of the valve is in direct contact with the cam it
is also forced sideways by the cam, which can result in the valve binding on the valve
guide and accelerated wear of the valve stem and guide.
Overhead and side-valve tappets/cam followers
 Figure a, shows a type of tappet typically made of cast iron. The bottom surface that r
ubs against the cam would be chilled in the casting process to provide a hardened surf
ace. These tappets, which sit in a machined bore, are hollow and may have ‘windows’
which help to reduce weight and assist lubrication. This type of tappet operates directl
y in the cylinder block and would be used in side-valve engines. The valve stem sits i
n the top of the adjuster, which is used to set the working clearance.
 Figure c shows a slightly different type of side-valve tappet.
 Figure b illustrates a tappet/cam follower that is used in an OHV pushrod-type engine.
The pushrod sits in the top of the follower and an adjuster forms part of the rocker. Th
e location and construction are the same as for the side-valve type tappet.
  Figure d shows a tappet or cam follower, which has a roller that makes contact with th
e cam lobe. This type of cam follower is no longer in common use but was in the past
effective on lower speed engines.

Types of tappets

 Most tappets/cam followers used on pushrod or sidevalve engines have a flat base, an
d are used with cams that have convex flanks.
 Some cams have straight flanks, and these operate on followers with curved ends.
 Flat-based tappets are usually allowed to rotate in their guides; in fact, the design pro
motes rotation because this reduces the rubbing speed between cam and tappet and spr
eads the wear over the whole of the tappet base.
 Rotation of the tappet is encouraged by offsetting the tappet from the centre-line of th
e cam or by grinding the cams with a very slight taper (about 1°) in which case the fo
ot of the tappet is ground very slightly convex, forming part of a sphere of large radiu
s.
Overhead camshaft type cam followers
 For overhead camshaft engines where the cam is directly in line with (or above) the v
alve stem, the cam follower is located in a machined bore and sits between the cam an
d the valve stem.
 The followers are usually made of steel and arranged so that they sit over the valve an
d valve spring.
 A pre-sized shim/spacer is inserted between the top of the valve stem and the internal
face of the follower. The thickness of the shim selected during manufacture dictates th
e working gap.
 When wear occurs, which results in too large or too small a working gap, different thi
ckness shims need to be inserted to obtain the correct working clearance. Note that so
me cam followers of this type included a tapered adjusting screw that screwed into the
follower from the side and effectively replaced the shim. By adjusting the tapered scre
w, the working clearance could be altered.
 Other types of overhead camshaft systems make use of rockers that act as cam follow
ers.
Pushrods, rockers and overhead camshaft systems
Pushrods and rockers
 Many engines have overhead valves operated by a camshaft that is located in the cylin
der block (crankcase), close to the crankshaft. This arrangement necessitates the use o
f pushrods to then transmit the motion from the cam followers or tappets from the cyli
nder block up to the valves (located in the cylinder head).
 However, the positioning of the valves does not allow the pushrods to directly contact
and move the valves; therefore, a rocker arm is used which is the link between the top
of the pushrod and the valve. FIG A
 This arrangement is suitable for overhead valve engines where all the valves are arran
ged in a line along the length of the cylinder head, with the valves set vertically (or al
most vertically).
 The rockers pivot on a common rocker spindle or shaft, which is supported by pillars
attached to the cylinder head. The rockers are spaced apart on the spindle by distance
pieces, or springs, or both.
 Each of the individual valve clearances can be adjusted by a hardened, ball-ended scre
w in the end of the rocker; the ball then fits into a small cup formed in the top end of t
he pushrod. The cup in the end of the pushrod retains oil to ensure lubrication at this p
oint. The lower end of the pushrod is ball-ended and is located in a cup formed in the t
appet.
 For those overhead valve engines where the valves are arranged at angles or inclined,
a different and more complex arrangement of pushrods and rockers is required. FIG B
 For engines where the valves are inclined, it is usually preferred to use an overhead ca
mshaft arrangement.
Diagram of pushrod operation of overhead valves

Rockers used to affect valve lift

 The rocker system provides an opportunity for the designer to use a cam profile that h
as a relatively small amount of cam lift, which is then amplified by the rocker action t
o provide a larger movement at the valve.
 The rocker is used as a simple lever and by placing the pivot point of the rocker more
towards one end of the rocker arm, instead of in the centre, a different leverage ratio c
an be obtained. Figure 2.94 shows an exaggerated example of using the rocker arm le
verage ratio to obtain a larger valve movement from a relatively small cam lift.
 Although such extremes of leverage would not be used on an engine, using a leverage
ratio on the rocker allows designers to utilize softer or lower cam profiles that may pr
oduce less noise and wear to the cam followers but still achieve the required valve mo
vement.
Pushrod and rocker arm construction
 The pushrod may be a solid steel rod, the two ends suitably ‘formed’ from the rod itse
lf. Alternatively, the pushrod may be tubular, of either steel or aluminium alloy, with s
eparate hardened steel ends pressed on.
 The rocker is usually made from a steel forging, but is sometimes formed from a steel
pressing, and some are made in a special type of cast steel.

Overhead camshafts and rockers

Rockers are sometimes used on overhead camshaft engines, and in these arrangements, the ro
cker also functions as a cam follower.

valve rocker with overhead camshaft

Figure 2.96 shows an overhead camshaft arrangement for use on an inclined valve layout. A s
ingle camshaft is used with rockers acting as cam followers and transferring the cam lift to th
e valves

Direct acting overhead camshaft systems

 When the valves are arranged in an inclined manner, it is often preferred to operate th
e valves using a camshaft situated directly over each row of valves. This arrangement
is referred to as a double overhead camshaft (DOHC) system.
 The cam lobe acts directly on the cam follower, which acts directly on the valve stem;
this ensures accurate and positive valve operation.
 The DOHC layout has a minimum of moving parts (i.e., no pushrods or rockers) thus
reducing the weight of moving components and also allowing very high engine speeds
to be achieved.
 The DOHC arrangement is therefore used on modern engines where high engine spee
ds and high-power outputs along with low emissions are the primary requirements.
Camshaft Drives
The valve of a 4-stroke cycle engine opens once for every two revolutions of the crankshaft.
Therefore, the camshaft rotates at half the crankshaft speed i.e., speed ratio of crankshaft to
camshaft is 2:1.

Chain Drives (Timing Chains)

 In situations where the camshaft is near the crankshaft, short chains connect the
crankshaft sprocket to the camshaft sprocket.
 The camshaft sprocket has twice as many teeth as the crankshaft sprocket.
 Timing chain is either a single row type or a duplex with a double row of rollers.
Special provision should be made as the camshaft drive component wear causes the
chain to lengthen causing rattling noise due to irregular rotation of the camshaft which
slaps the chain against the timing cover.

 Compensation for wear is achieved by fitting an automatic adjuster to rub on the non-
driving of the chain.
 Chain drives can also be used on OHC engines (camshaft is some distance away from
the crankshaft). Longer and more complex camshaft arrangement is necessary and
should operate with minimum noise and allow for thermal expansion of the cylinder
block and head.
 The chain drive connects the camshaft which then drives a second camshaft via gears.
The gear drive for the second camshaft is one method of providing a drive to an
engine with double OHC.
 The chain is long, hence a guide on the drive side. Hydraulic tensioner acts on a
tensioner blade on the slack side of the chain.
 On DOHC engines, the chain passes from the crankshaft and then across two
sprockets one on each camshaft. This is suited to smaller engines where the chain is
shorter. Chain tensioner and guide is also needed.
Gear Drives
 When the camshaft is close to the crankshaft the gear layout can be used.
 Helical teeth are used as Spur gears (Straight cut teeth) are noisy.
 Sometimes the large gearwheel is made of plastic or other non-metallic material.
 In some cases, an idle gear is fitted where the distance between the crankshaft and the
camshaft is large.

Belt Drives
 Many modern OHC engines sue rubber timing belt to drive the camshaft. The belt is
notched to form equally spaced teeth which maintains the correct valve timing.
 Belt drives are cheaper, very quiet and efficient especially when the camshaft is
mounted far away from the crankshaft. Timing belt does not require lubrication hence
can be located on the outside of the engine. Therefore, camshaft drive can easily be
disconnected when the cylinder head has to be removed or during the changing of the
belt.
 Breakage of the timing belt can cause engine damage if the piston strikes an open
valve. An arrow printed on the timing belt indicates the direction of rotation to be
fitted.
 Timing belt is constructed using reinforced belt materials such as glass fiber strands
or similar flexible cords. The reverse side of the belt is backed by smooth rubber
which provides a surface for the tension to be applied to the belt with a tensioner
pulley. The timing belt may also drive a water pump and balancer shafts. For some
timing belt applications, it must be fitted so that the belt rotates in the correct
direction. The belt should always be replaced at the correct manufacturer service
intervals.
Setting the valve timing
 Crankshaft and camshaft must be re-timed to ensure that valves open and close at the
correct time in relation to the piston position.
 Timing gears and sprockets have alignment marks which are aligned before the
refitting of the camshaft drive. If no marks are indicated on the sprockets, always refer
to the manufacturer instructions to identify the correct procedure.

Camshaft sprocket and gear attachment

 It is common practice to locate the camshaft drive sprocket/timing gear wheel onto
the camshaft with a woodruff key.
 Splines are also used though the woodruff key system provides a simple and
inexpensive method of transferring the drive from the sprocket or gearwheel to the
camshaft.
THE PETROL 4-STROKE CYCLE: VALVE AND IGNITION TIMING

 Opening and closing of valves are spread over a considerable angle of crankshaft
rotation.
 If a valve is required to be effectively open at the beginning of a stroke, it must begin
to open before the dead Centre.
 The engine operates best when the greatest mass of air and fuel is passed through the
combustion chamber and burnt effectively.
Induction stroke
Piston downward movement reduces the pressure inside the cylinder. Hence, pressure outside
forces air through the filter and along the inlet pipe. The air inertia causes the air to lag
behind the piston movement such that by the time the piston has reached its maximum speed,
the pressure is still below atmospheric. During the second half of the stroke, as the piston
speed is decreasing, the airflow is able to catch up with the piston and the pressure inside the
cylinder rises towards atmospheric pressure.

Compression stroke
 At BDC, piston reverses its movement. The momentum of the airflow along the inlet
pipe towards the cylinder causes it to continue entering the cylinder, until the piston
has moved some way up the next stroke.
 At some point during the stroke, the pressure inside the cylinder increases thus
stopping the inward flow of air. The greatest amount of air is trapped inside the
cylinder if the inlet valve closes at this point.
 The inlet valve ideally closes just after BDC.
Power stroke
 The air/fuel mixture is ignited at about the end of compression stroke.
 Ignition timing (time at which ignition occurs) depends on the engine speed and the
ration between the air and the fuel.
 Once the mixture is ignited, the gas pressure increases even further, forcing the piston
to move downwards.
 The increasing volume lowers the pressure of the gas within the cylinder. If exhaust
valve will still be closed, the pressure will still be higher than the atmospheric as the
piston arrives at BDC.
 The pressure that exists at the bottom of the power stroke offers some resistance to the
upward movement of the piston during the exhaust stroke, even though the exhaust va
lve may now be open.
 Moreover, as the piston approaches BDC, the leverage or effort exerted by the connec
ting rod on the crankshaft decreases rapidly because of the angle between the connecti
 ng rod and crankshaft. The pressure on top of the piston therefore has a rapidly reduci
ng effect on the rotation of the crankshaft.
 By opening the exhaust valve early (i.e., before the piston reaches BDC) a good deal o
f the burnt gas is allowed to escape before the piston begins its upward exhaust stroke.
Therefore, the pressure remaining in the cylinder is much lower and consequently the
opposition to the pistons upward movement is very much reduced.

Exhaust Stroke
 During power stroke, if the exhaust valve opens before BDC, the exhaust gases will
already be moving out.
 When the piston is on exhaust stroke, the rising piston increases the gas velocity along
exhaust pipe.
 As piston approaches TDC, upward velocity decreases. The momentum of the gas
rushing out along the exhaust valve creates a partial vacuum inside the cylinder.
 If the inlet valve is opened, fresh mixture will get into the cylinder.
 By opening the inlet valve before exhaust port has closed, the momentum of the
exhaust gas can be used to start the flow of fresh air without any help of the piston.
 Fresh gas will be drawn towards exhaust port helping to displace the exhaust gas. This
ensures the combustion chamber is thoroughly cleared of exhaust gas and filled with
fresh gas.
 The moment the fresh air reaches the exhaust port, the port can now be closed.
The opening point of the inlet valve and the closing point of the exhaust valve depend upon:
1 The flow velocity of exhaust gases along the exhaust pipe. This in turn depends upon engin
e speed, throttle opening, the length and diameter of the exhaust pipe and the restricting effect
of the silencer.
2 The pressure in the intake manifold, which is dependent upon engine speed and throttle ope
ning.
3 The position of the ports in relation to the combustion chamber and to each other.

 Inlet valve opens a little before TDC and the exhaust valve remains a little open after
the TDC. For some angle of crankshaft rotation around TDC, both valves open at the
same time.
 Opening of inlet valve, overlaps the closing of the exhaust valve, a period called,
valve overlap.
Points to note
 The inlet valve remains open after the piston has passed BDC at the end of the inducti
on stroke (inlet valve closing lag).
 The exhaust valve opens before the piston reaches BDC at the end of the power stroke
(exhaust valve opening lead).
 The exhaust valve usually remains open after TDC at the end of the exhaust stroke (ex
haust valve closing lag).
 The inlet valve usually opens before the exhaust valve has closed (valve overlap) and
usually before TDC (inlet valve opening lead).
 The amount of lead (or lag) of valve opening or closing points, and the amount of ove
rlap will depend upon the design of the engine – particularly the port arrangement and
 inlet and exhaust systems – and upon the performance characteristics the engine is req
uired to have.

The opening and closing points of the valves in relation to piston and crankshaft position are
called the ‘valve timing’, and the correct timing for an engine (that selected by the engine ma
nufacturers) is given either in the form of a table or by means of a valve timing diagram.

Variable Valve Timing and valve Lift

 Valves usually open and close at a fixed period in relation to crankshaft rotation at all
engine speeds and loads.

 Mechanisms that provide variable valve timing is now on use.

 Variable Valve Timing systems alter the valve timing (while the engine is running) to
suit engine speed and load conditions.

 Most modern systems make use of the engine management computer to regulate the
mechanical actuation of changes to the valve timing.

 A petrol engine has to operate at varying engine speeds from idle, typically 750 rpm t
hrough to high speeds, up to 7000 rpm and above.
 When the inlet and exhaust valve timing is fixed (the valve timing occurs at a fixed ti
me in relation to the crankshaft angle at all engine speeds) the timing is not suitable fo
r all engine operating speeds and loads.
  The engine will therefore have a valve timing that is most suitable to just one particul
ar engine speed, which is generally at around 50% to 60% of the engine’s maximum s
peed. The chosen valve timing will result in the greatest combustion efficiency (and th
erefore greatest torque) at the selected engine speed.

Slow Engine Speeds

 At slow speeds, the inlet valve timing is altered. It opens late when the piston is at
TDC. All the strokes take place well and engine is stable when idle.
 Retarding the inlet valve timing is good for engine idle speeds but poor for high
performance.
High speed engines
Inlet valve timing is advanced, open before TDC.

Valve opening Period

 This is dictated by the profile of the cam lobe.
 When the engine is at low to medium speeds, the valve opening period allows sufficie
nt fresh mixture into the cylinder to provide good engine performance. At higher engi
ne speeds, the volumetric efficiency of an engine will increase if the opening period o
f the valve is increased.
 It is possible to increase the valve opening period by increasing the valve lift (cam lob
e profile). Increasing the valve lift (or opening period) at high engine speeds provides
an increase in the volume of fresh mixture drawn into the cylinder, resulting in an incr
ease in engine power.
Ignition timing

 The air/fuel mixture is ignited at about the end of compression stroke. The mixture burns
very rapidly causing rapid pressure rise within the cylinder.

 Maximum effect is achieved when the pressure occurs at approximately,100 after TDC.
The spark therefore is timed to occur before the piston reaches TDC. i.e timing of the
spark must be in advance of when the maximum pressure should [Link] is referred to
as the ‘timing advance’.
 The amount of advance necessary to give best results varies with engine speed and throttl
e opening, and it is usual practice to fit automatic devices such as an engine speed advanc
e mechanism and an engine load mechanism to regulate the ignition timing in accordance
with engine conditions.
 With the old type contact breaker (points) systems and some earlier electronic ignition sy
stems, it was necessary to set a base timing(i.e. time the ignition) correctly. This then allo
wed the automatic timing advance systems to alter the timing as necessary when the engi
ne was running under different operating conditions.
 As an example, a base timing setting could be 10°before TDC. If the initial timing is set
at this point (usually set at around idle speed), the advance mechanism will then advance
the timing as the engine speed increases. This is due to the fact that the speed at which co
mbustion takes place, and therefore the time taken to reach maximum pressure within the
 cylinder, will not change significantly. If the engine speed were therefore to increase, the
re would be less time for combustion to take place.
 The timing must therefore be advanced ahead of the base timing to allow sufficient time f
or the combustion and pressure rise to occur.
 However, under certain load conditions (when the throttle opening is increased), the cyli
nder pressures will increase due to the higher volumes of air able to enter the cylinder.

 Additionally, the air/fuel ratio will be richer with fuel than when operating under light lo
ad conditions. Along with other factors, the higher cylinder pressures and richer mixture
will speed up the combustion process. If the ignition timing is advanced too far, this coul
d result in the maximum pressure occurring too soon. It could result in the pressure attem
pting to force the piston down the cylinder before it had actually reached TDC on the co
mpression stroke.
 The advanced timing would cause early detonation which can lead to engine and compon
ent damage. To overcome the problem, a timing retard mechanism is used that responds t
o engine load (often using the intake manifold vacuum as an indication of load). When th
e load increases, the timing can then be retarded slightly.

THE CLUTCH
The clutch:
 Permits smooth and gradual engagement of the drive. Vehicle can gradually move
away from rest. When engaged, the clutch permits a gradual and smooth engagement
of torque from the running engine to the stationary transmission and driving wheels. It
must transmit the maximum torque without slipping.
 Assist gear changing. When changing the gears, there should be no turning effort on
the gearbox input shaft hence the clutch is disengaged during the process.
 Provides a temporary neutral.
 All vehicle clutches of gradual engagement type that transmit the power from the
engine to the driving wheels do so by friction hence called friction clutches.

The Dry Plate Clutch

The driven members of the clutch are the flywheel and the pressure plate. Pressure plate is
contained within a cover attached to the flywheel by bolts and revolves with it as a unit. The
pressure plate is driven at all times by a number of projections which engage in slots in the
cover. Between the flywheel and the pressure plate is the driven plate.
The Driven plate is clamped by applying pressure. One method is by a series of coil springs
and the other one is by a single diaphragm spring. Both springs are located between the cover
and the pressure plate, and press the plate towards the flywheel face. Pressing grips, the
friction-lined driven plate between the flywheel and the pressure plate. The input shaft to the
gearbox is splined so that the driven plate (clutch disc/Centre plate/friction plate) can slide
backwards and forwards on the splines slightly and can drive the gearbox input shaft. The
input shaft is supported by bearings in the flywheel or crankshaft and the gearbox.
Coil spring clutch
When the clutch is engaged, the springs located between the pressure plate and the clutch
cover force the pressure plate towards the flywheel and the driven plate is clamped between
the two surfaces. If there is Sufficient spring pressure, the rotation of the engine will also turn
the driven plate and the input shaft to the gearbox.
When the driver disengages the clutch by pressing the clutch pedal downwards, the pedal
linkage moves a release bearing. This pushes on the levers which are pivoted in the clutch
cover and they pull the pressure plate away from the flywheel. The driven plate then is free to
slide slightly along the input shaft splines and out of contact with the flywheel and the
pressure plate. Hence, engine torque is not transmitted to the gearbox.
A certain amount of slip usually occurs before the clutch is either fully engaged or
disengaged.
Clutch engaged
Clutch Disengaged

Cover assemblies
Consist of the pressure plate. Complete unit is referred to as the pressure plate assembly/
Pressure plate.
The actual movements inside the clutch are very slight.

Coil spring cover assembly.

Disadvantages of coil spring clutch covers.
Due to wearing out of the friction plate, the pressure plate moves nearer to the flywheel when
it is engaged. The springs extend further which has the effect of reducing the clamping
pressure slightly.
At high engine speeds, centrifugal force tends to bend the Centre of the springs outwards.
The effect also weakens the clamping pressure.
This type of pressure plate is heavy and has many moving parts compared with the other
designs.

However, it is advantageous in that it is possible to overhaul in case it becomes faulty.

Diaphragm spring pressure plate

Clamping pressure is provided by a one-piece diaphragm spring made from tempered steel.
It looks like a large, slightly conical washer, slotted from the Centre to produce fingers. The
fingers act as fulcrum levers.
The outer end of the slots is formed into holes to prevent cracking as the fingers flex.
Operation
When the clutch pedal is depressed, the thrust bearing is moved towards the flywheel and
presses on the inner ends of the diaphragm fingers. The diaphragm then pivots on the inner
fulcrum ring, and its outer end flips away from the flywheel, releasing pressure. With the
clamping pressure removed, the pressure plate is pulled back and the clutch is disengaged.
The clamping pressure in the coil spring type reduces as the driven plate wears but in the
diaphragm spring, it moves back from its flattened position as wear takes place and the
clamping pressure is increased.

Engaged diaphragm spring

clutch
 Disengaged diaphragm spring clutch

Advantages of diaphragm spring

It is compact hence can be fitted in a smaller space.
Has fewer moving parts to wear or fail.
Less effort needed to disengage the clutch.
Clamping pressure increases slightly as the driven plate wears.
Not affected by centrifugal force and can be used on high-speed engines.

The disadvantage is that it is not repairable.

Withdrawal mechanism
When the clutch cover assembly is revolving with the engine and the driver depresses the
clutch pedal, thrust bearing of some form is used to push against the fingers. The bearing may
be a sealed ball unit or a hard graphite ring. The former is usually prepacked with a lubricant
and the latter is self-lubricating. A release lever, pivoted in the bell housing, transmits the
movement of the operating mechanism to the bearing.
Driven plate/Friction plate/Centre plate/Clutch plate
Installed between the flywheel and the pressure plate.
Spring center Friction Plate

Consists of;
A spring steel plate normally split into segments
Riveted/Bonded friction material on both sides of the plate.
A splined central hub, which slides upon and drives the gearbox input shaft.
Spring Steel Disc
Slightly Crimped to provide a cushioning effect as the drive is taken up. This Axial
cushioning takes place as the pressure plate clamps the friction linings between itself and the
flywheel.
The Crimping also acts like a spring to push the friction lining away from the flywheel when
the clutch is disengaged thus reducing drag.
Cramping also allows air between the friction plates to assist cooling.
 friction plate with slotted disc type
axial springing

Friction linings
Slip occur between the clutch faces each time it is engaged to pull away from rest. The
friction generates a tremendous amount of heat hence the linings should have the following
properties;
Stable frictional qualities over a wide range of operating conditions
The ability to withstand high compressive and centrifugal loads
Good shear strength
Compatibility with the metals of the flywheel and pressure plate
High resistance to wear.

Asbestos-based linings
Normally woven/molded with threads of brass or zinc incorporated into the asbestos to aid
heat dissipation.
The material is compressed and bonded to form the friction face/lining.
Advantages of asbestos linings
High friction properties
Good resistance to fade
High resistance to wear
Some resistance to oil contamination
Alternative Materials
Materials developed from nylon polymers are now used.
Advantages compared to asbestos
Better rates of wear
Lighter in weight thus reducing the inertia of the driven plate. Driven plate then stops
spinning sooner and also spins more quickly reducing drag and allowing quicker gear
changes.
Has higher tensile strength
Has a greater resistance to high temperature.
A mixture of ceramic and copper is also becoming popular in heavy vehicle clutches. The
lining is formed into segments mounted around the driven plate instead of ring shape.

Clutch Driven plate with Ceramic facings

Advantages
Very low inertia allowing quicker gear changes
High frictional qualities, increasing torque capacity
High temperature resistance which reduces the tendency to fade
Better cooling, because air can circulate between the separate faces
Greater resistance to wear
Resistance to oil and grease.

Driven plate Hub

Although some plates are attached rigidly to the hub, they are often separate parts. The drive
between the hub and the plate is transmitted by a series of radial springs. The springs take the
torsional shock and act as a damper when engaging the drive. They also absorb the engine
crankshaft torsional vibration set up by the cylinder firing pulses. In a solid-drive clutch this
vibration causes gear teeth chatter in the gearbox. The main advantage of the spring-Centre
driven plate is less noise and wear on the transmission components.

The Multi-Plate Clutch

They employ a number of metal and friction discs.
They are used on engines that produce a high torque output such as those of heavy goods
vehicle.
Several discs reduce the operating pressure and the overall diameter hence suitable for use
where the space is restricted e.g., in motorcycles.
This type of clutch disengages in exactly the same way as the single-plate clutch.
 Multi-plate clutch

Clutch Operating mechanisms

Hydraulic
Clutch operating hydraulically enable smooth transmission and allows for movement of the
engine on its flexible mountings.
The clutch pedal operates a master cylinder. When the pedal is depresses, the fluid is
displaced from the master cylinder and operates a slave cylinder attached to the clutch
operating mechanism.
When the clutch is released, the returning clutch thrust bearing pushes the slave piston back
up the slave cylinder to its rest position.
During maintenance of this system, it is of importance to top up the hydraulic fluid to the
correct level and ensuring that running clearances are retained. Frequently the adjustment is
automatic.
 Hydraulic clutch
operating mechanism

Mechanical
Most use a flexible cable linked between the clutch pedal and the operating mechanism.
The cable has a fixed outer casing in which an inner cable is free to slide.
Some form of adjustment (manual/automatic) is necessary because of wear in the system.
 Mechanical cable-clutch operating mechanism

Fault finding and maintenance

As the friction lining of the driven plate wears away, the release levers move closer to the
thrust bearing. If the clearance disappears fully, the clutch would be prevented from engaging
fully and the clutch could start to slip. This would cause heat and rapid wear which would
lead make the clutch not to transmit all the engine power output.
A certain amount of free play usually between 10mm and 30mm measured at the pedal is
essential to prevent this from happening. Clutch repair/replacement should be involved while
setting up the mechanism correctly.
Clutch Slip
Occurs when the clutch cannot transmit the engine torque to the gearbox.
Maybe caused by;
Insufficient free play
Oil/grease on the friction linings
Worn linings
Weak clutch pressure plate springs or springs
Clutch drag
Occurs when the clutch will not fully disengage the drive. Causes difficulty in engaging gear
or in gear changing.
May be caused by;
 Excessive free play at the pedal
 Defective thrust bearing
 Driven plate seized on the gearbox input shaft splines
 Gearbox input shaft spigot bearing seizure
 Driven plate cracked or buckled
 Oil or grease on the driven plate
Clutch judder
This is vibration or judder produced as the clutch is engaged.
Causes
 Cracked/distorted pressure plate
 Loose or badly worn linings
 Misalignment of the gearbox, caused by a loose or distorted clutch housing
 Engine/gearbox mountings broken or sloppy
 partly seized or stiff operating mechanisms
 Oil/grease on the linings.

Clutch Rattle
Results from something loose/broken inside or around the clutch.
Causes
 Pedal return spring missing or broken
 Excessively worn release mechanism
 Finger spring (anti-rattle spring) weak or broken.
 Driven plate springs loose or rivets slack
 Release bearing loose in its holder.

Very Rapid Wear

Incorrect driving may cause clutch trouble apart from the mechanical defects.
The causes are;
Holding the vehicle (from running backwards a slope) with the clutch and resting the foot on
the clutch pedal. It will cause heat build-up and excessive wear due to the slipping of the
driven plate lining and the constant pressure on the thrust bearing.
FLUID FLYWHEEL AND TORQUE CONVERTERS
The fluid flywheel/Fluid Coupling
Acts as an automatic clutch between the engine and the gearbox.
Used instead of a dry plate clutch with automatic or semi-automatic gearboxes.
When the engine is at idle speed, there is insufficient torque transmitted to enable the vehicle
to move but as the speed of the engine is increased, the fluid flywheel gradually transmits
sufficient engine torque to move the vehicle.

Components of a fluid flywheel

Impeller which is driven by the engine.
Turbine which transmits the engine’s torque to the gearbox.
Impeller and turbine have a number of vanes/partitions built into them. When the unit is
assembled together, the vanes on both the impeller and the turbine are facing each other. To
ensure that the vanes do not touch when rotating, a small running clearance is provided.

Fluid Flywheel
The fluid flywheel is partially filled to the filler plug level, with engine oil and it is this that
transmits the torque from the engine-driven impeller to the turbine on the gearbox shaft.

Operating principle of the fluid

flywheel

Cross-section of the fluid flywheel.

Operation: Idling Speed
When the engine is idling, the impeller, which is part of the casing and is bolted to the engine
flywheel, revolves. This causes the oil in the impeller vanes to be flung outwards by
centrifugal force into the turbine which is connected to the gearbox input shaft. At idling
speed, the centrifugal force exerted on the fluid is insufficient to drive the turbine and its
attached gearbox shaft and move the vehicle. However, the handbrake should always be kept
on when the vehicle is stationary.
Operation: Pulling Away and Driving
When the accelerator pedal is depressed, the increasing engine and impeller speed also
increase the centrifugal force acting upon the oil. The oil flows to the outer edge of the
impeller and passes across onto the turbine blades with sufficient force to move the turbine,
rotate the input shaft and propel the vehicle. The oil is constantly recirculated between the
impeller and the turbine. Eventually, the speed difference between or slip between the two
units is almost zero but the turbine always revolves a little slower than the impeller.
Advantages and disadvantages of the fluid flywheel
Advantages
Engine’s torque is transmitted progressively to the gearbox which results in a much smoother
and more comfortable ride.
The unit has a relatively long service life and requires little in the way of routine
maintenance. However, it is necessary to keep the oil level topped up and to check for leaks.
The smoothness of operation tends to damp out any torsional vibrations created by the
engine.
No clutch pedal is needed.

Disadvantages
The drive cannot be disconnected when the engine is running to allow gear changes to be
made which means that the gearbox must be automatic or of the preselector type.
The turbine slip and oil drag when driving result in a small loss of the power that is being
transmitted to the roadwheels which causes an overall increase in fuel consumption.

Torque Converters/Modified Fluid Flywheel

They are used for vehicles fitted with a fully automatic transmission system.
They multiply the amount of torque produced by the engine as the vehicle accelerates from
rest to the speed required and to transmit the drive to the gearbox.
Under certain conditions, it can double the amount of engine torque being transmitted to the
gearbox.

operating principle of the torque

converter

On top of the impeller and turbine, it has a stator (third bladed unit) mounted on a freewheel
(type of one-way clutch). It is located between the impeller and the turbine.
The impeller, turbine and stator blades are curved to make the direction of fluid flow more
efficient. This also allows the turbine to absorb the power of the circulating fluid, causing the
torque to increase.

Principal features of Operation

As the unit rotates, centrifugal force causes the fluid to circulate from the impeller to the
turbine. Stator redirect the flow of transmission fluid from the turbine so that it strikes the
vanes of the impeller at a more effective angle. This increases the force of the fluid as it re-
enters the turbine hence increasing the amount of torque.
The stator movement is controlled by a special one-way clutch mechanism which locks it to
the gearbox casing at low engine speeds.
During acceleration, when the turbine speed rises to that of the impeller, the stator is no
longer needed and the fluid begins to hit the back of the stator blades. The stator, which was
being held firmly against the gearbox casing by the one-way clutch, is now free to move and
turns at the same speed as the turbine. Since the stator is now freewheeling, the torque
converter is operating exactly like a fluid flywheel.
The torque converter uses specially formulated automatic transmission fluid (ATF) pumped
to it from the automatic transmission.
Advantages
Acts both as a smooth-acting clutch and as a gearbox. The gearbox gives a limited but
infinitely variable gear ratio from about 2.5:1 to 1:1, when both the turbine and the output
shaft are rotating at virtually engine speed. Therefore, the automatic gearbox can use fewer
gears than a manual gearbox for the same type of vehicle.
Disadvantage
Some turbine slip still occurs therefore there is a slight power loss.
GEARBOXES

Enable the torque being transmitted from the engine to the driving wheels to be varied to suit
load and speed requirements.
Provides a means of reversing
Provides a permanent neutral position.