By

Dr G. E. Ebito
 INTRODUCTION
Digestive system is composed of:-
Gastrointenstinal tract (GIT) or
Alimentary canal _ mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine
and large intestine.
Hollow tube stretching from the
mouth to anus.
Accessory digestive organs – teeth,
tongue, salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder and pancreas.
 INTRODUCTION: Digestive Tract
 Food enters the mouth and goes through
mechanical and chemical changes as it passes
through the alimentary canal.
 Large, nutrient macromolecules are taken into the
gut (ingestion).
 The food must be broken down into simpler or
smaller molecules by digestive enzymes
(digestion), before being taken from the gut into
the blood stream (absorption).
 The cells of the body use these small molecules
(assimilation).
 Indigestible waste products are eliminated from
the body (egestion).
At the end of lecture, students should be able to:
The three fundamental processes are:
 Secretion: Delivery of enzymes, mucus,
ions and the like into the lumen, and
hormones into blood.
 Absorption: Transport of water, ions and
nutrients from the lumen, across the
epithelium and into blood.
 Motility: Contractions of smooth muscle in
the wall of the tube that crush, mix and
propel its contents.
functions of the digestive system
 Ingestion
 Secretion of water, acid, buffers, and
enzymes into the lumen
 Mixing and propulsion
 Digestion
 Mechanical digestion _ churns food
 Chemical digestion _ hydrolysis
 Absorption _ passing into blood or lymph
 Defaecation _ elimination of feces
 Actions of Digestive (GI) Tract
 Ingestion  Secretion
◦ Occurs when material ◦ Release of water
enters via the mouth acids, buffers,
 Mechanical Processing enzymes & salts by
◦ Crushing / Shearing – epithelium of GI tract
makes material easier and glandular organs
to move through the  Absorption
tract ◦ Movement of organic
 Digestion substrates,
◦ Chemical breakdown electrolytes, vitamins
of food into small & water across
organic compounds digestive epithelium
for absorption  Excretion
◦ Removal of waste
products from body
fluids
 Digestive Tract _ Embryology
 GIT is endodermal; derived from the primitive gut
 These three regions are defined by their blood supply _
Coeliac, SMA and IMA
Gut tube proper Derivatives of gut tube
Foregut: pharynx liver
esophagus gallbladder
stomach pancreas
proximal duodenum
Midgut: proximal duodenum to
right half of
transverse
colon
Hindgut: left half of urinary bladder
transverse
colon to anus
 Layers of GIT _ Histology
Composed of 4 tunics:
 Mucosa.
 Submucosa.
 Muscularis.
 Serosa/ Adventitia.
digestive system
 Mouth (Oral Cavity)
 Vestibule _ space btw lips  Lips (labia) –
externally & teeth + gums protect
internally. the anterior
 Oral cavity _ area contained opening.
by the teeth.  Cheeks – form the
lateral walls.
 Tongue _ attached at hyoid
& styloid processes of the  Hard palate –
skull, and by the lingual forms
frenulum the anterior roof.
 Soft palate – forms
the posterior roof.
 Uvula – fleshy
projection of the
soft palate
 Mouth
 Oral or buccal cavity
 Formed by cheeks, hard and sot palates, and
tongue
 Oral cavity proper is a space that extends from
gums and teeth to fauces (opening between oral
cavity and oropharynx)
 Salivary glands release saliva
 Ordinarily, just enough is secreted to keep mouth
and pharynx moist and clean
 When food enters mouth, secretion increases to
lubricate, dissolve and begin chemical digestion
 3 pairs of major salivary glands secrete most of the
saliva _ Parotid, submandibular and sublingual.
 Mouth
Tongue
 Accessory digestive organ.
 Skeletal muscle covered by mucous membrane
 Maneuvers food for chewing, shapes mass, forces
food poteriorly for swallowing.
 Lingual glands secrete salivary lipase.

Teeth
 Accessory digestive organ.
 3 major regions – crown, root and neck
 Dentin of crown covered by enamel.
 2 dentitions – deciduous and permanent teeth.
 Digestion in the mouth
Mechanical digestion in the mouth
 Chewing or mastication
 Food manipulated by tongue, ground by teeth, and
mixed with saliva
 Forms bolus
Chemical digestion in the mouth
 Salivary amylase secreted by salivary glands acts
on starches
 Only monosaccharides can be absorbed
 Continues to act until inactivated by stomach acid
 Lingual lipase secreted by lingual glands of tongue
acts on triglycerides
 Becomes activated in acidic medium of stomach.
Pharynx
 Nasopharynx _ not
part of the digestive
system.
 Oropharynx _
posterior to oral
cavity.
 Laryngopharynx _
below the
oropharynx and
connected to
the esophagus.
Esophagus
 Muscular tube _
passes through
thoracic cavity
and diaphragm to
the stomach.
 Normally closed,
stretches open
when a bolus of
food passes
through.
 Connects pharynx
to the stomach.
 Esophagus
 Secretes mucous, transports food – no enzymes
produced, no absorption
 Mucosa – protection against wear and tear
 Submucosa
 Muscularis divided in three parts
 Superior 1/3 skeletal muscle
 Middle 1/3 skeletal and smooth muscle
 Inferior 1/3 smooth muscle
 2 sphincters – upper esophageal sphincter (UES)
regulates movement into esophagus, lower
esophageal sphincter (LES) regulates movement
into stomach
 Adventitia – no serosa – attaches to surroundings
 Stomach
 Muscular gland lined sac that receives ingesta
from the esophagus .
 Conducts both physical and chemical
digestion
 Acts as a storage tank for food
 Site of food breakdown
 Serves as mixing chamber and holding
reservoir
 4 main regions _ Cardia, fundus, body and
pylorus.
 Chemical breakdown of protein begins.
 Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small
intestine
 Stomach
 Primary secretions:
 Pepsin - enzyme that digests protein;
 Hydrochloride - acid that aids in protein digestion

Histological 4 layers
 Mucosa _ gastric glands open into gastric pits
 3 types of exocrine gland cells _ mucous neck cells
(mucus), parietal cells (intrinsic factor and HCl),
and chief cells (pepsinogen and gastric lipase).
 G cell (endocrine cell) _ secretes gastrin.
 Submucosa
 Muscularis _ additional 3rd inner oblique layer.
 Serosa _ part of visceral peritoneum.
 Small intestine
 Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter
to the ileocaecal valve
 Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by
the mesentery.
 Site of nutrient absorption into the blood.
 Water is absorbed along the length of the small
intestine.
 Most substances are absorbed by active transport
through cell membranes.
 Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
 Substances are transported to the liver by the
hepatic portal vein or lymph
 Small intestine
3 Divisions _ duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

Histology _ Same 4 layers

 Mucosa
 Absorptive cells (digest & absorb), goblet cells
(mucus), intestinal glands (intestinal juice), Paneth
cells (lysozyme), and enteroendocrine cells _
abundance of MALT
 Submucosa
 Duodenal glands secrete alkaline mucus
 Muscularis
 Serosa
 Completely surrounds except for major portion of
duodenum
 Small intestine
 Small Intestine
-enzymatic digestion and absorption
-Functions of the small intestine _ digestion of
proteins, carbohydrates and fats;
absorption of the end products of digestion
1. duodenum - most digestion occurs here
2. jejunum - some digestion and some absorption
3. ileum - mostly absorption
[

 Bile - made in liver, stored in gall bladder,

active in the small intestine, emulsifies
fat to aid in digestion
 Small Intestine
 Enzymes in the small intestine
 Large intestine
 Function to complete absorption, produce
certain vitamins, and form & expel faeces.
 4 major regions _ cecum, colon, rectum and
anal canal.
 Ileocaecal sphincter between small and large
intestines.
 Colon divided into ascending, transverse and
descending +sigmoid.
 Opening of anal canal (anus) guarded by
internal anal sphincter of smooth muscle and
external anal sphincter of skeletal muscle.
 Large intestine
 No digestive enzymes are produced.
 Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
 Release gases
 Vitamins K & B are absorbed.
 Absorption of water
 Eliminates indigestible food from the body as
feces.
 Presence of feces in the rectum causes a
defaecation reflex.
 Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a
lubricant
large intestine
 Large Intestine
Histology _ Same 4 layers
 Mucosa – mostly absorptive and goblet cells
 No circular folds or villi
 Does have microvilli
 Submucosa
 Muscularis
 Longitudinal muscle modified to form teniae
coli.
 Forms haustra _ pouches
 Serosa
 Salivary Glands
Secrete juices that contain enzymes to help
break down the food
 Pancreas
Secretes enzymes that breakdown fat & starches
Produces sodium bicarbonate (to neutralize
stomach acids) + variety of digestive enzymes to
breakdown fat, protein, carbohydrate, nucleic
acids.
 Liver
Secretes bile that emulsifies fat.
Bile is stored in the gall bladder and released
into the small intestine via the bile duct.
 Pancreas
 Liesposterior to greater curvature of stomach
 Pancreatic juice secreted into pancreatic duct &
accessory duct and released into small intestine.
 Pancreatic duct joins common bile duct and enters
duodenum at hepatopancreatic ampulla.
Histology
 99% of cells are acini
 Exocrine
 Secrete pancreatic juice – mixture of fluid and
digestive enzymes
 1% of cells are pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans)
 Endocrine
 Secrete hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin,
and pancreatic polypeptide
 Chemistry of Digestion
 Hydrolysis digests foods:

1. Carbohydrates (starches) - become

simple sugars.
2. Proteins - become amino acids.
3. Fats - become fatty acids & glycerol
4. Nucleic acids (RNA, DNA) - become
nucleotides.
 Carbohydrate Digestion
 Begins in mouth - salivary amylase breaks down
starch.
 Stalled in the stomach
 Mostly occurs in small intestine aided by following
enzymes:
a. Pancreatic enzymes - breaks starch into maltose
b. Maltase - breaks maltose into 2 glucoses
c. Sucrase - breaks sucrose into glucose + fructose
d. Lactase - breaks lactose into glucose + galactose
 Last 3 enzymes produced by small intestine.
 Following absorption, glucose, fructose, &
galactose transported to the liver, where they are
converted to glycogen.
 Fat Digestion
 Gastric lipase of stomach breaks down some fats.

 Most fat digestion occurs in small intestine.

 Bile emulsifies fat, exposing more fat to enzymes.
 Bile salts link fat molecules to water molecules;
(normally fats are hydrophobic).

 Pancreatic lipases continues fat digestion

 Subunits cross into microvilli
 Subunits are reassembled into triglycerides,
combined with cholesterol, and transported to the
circulatory system.
 Protein Digestion
 Stomach
 Pepsinogen converted to pepsin in the presence of
HCl.
 Pepsin breaks some of the peptide bonds of some
proteins.

 Small intestine
 Pancreatic enzymes trypsin & chymotrypsin break
proteins into smaller and smaller units.
 Pancreatic enzyme carboxypeptidase breaks
peptides into free amino acids.
 Several enzymes produced by the small intestine
further break peptides into amino acids.
 Protein Digestion
 Amino acids
 Absorbed and transported to the liver.
 Used directly by the liver to make liver proteins
 Others converted to acetyl coenzyme A (used in
citric acid cycle)
 Other amino acids sent to various parts of the body
for protein synthesis.
 Proteases must be activated before being used.
 Prevents them from breaking down pancreas
(where they’re made & stored).
 Activation occurs when they come in contact with
certain chemicals found in the small intestine.
 Nucleic Acid Digestion
 Enzymes called nucleases break down
nucleic acids such as ribonucleic acid
(RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) into
nucleotide chains.

 Thepancreas produces ribonuclease and

deoxyribonuclease.

 Smallintestine produces nucleases that

break down nucleotides into smaller
subunits.
 Heartburn: often due to "gastroesophageal (GE)
reflux" (stomach contents spurting up into
esophagus).
 Peptic ulcer
 Diaphragmatic/ hiatal hernia _ top of stomach
protrudes above diaphragm.
 Hernia
 Haemorrhoids
 Diarrhoea
 Gastritis
 Intestinal obstruction
 Cancer
 Appendicitis
 Cholelithiasis
 Cirrhosis
 Hepatitis