4.

Serosa
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 With the help of the circulatory
system, is like a gigantic ‘meals on
wheels’, serving 100 T customers the
nutrients they need
 Has its own quality control and waste
disposal methods
 Outermost layer
 Consists of the peritoneum (smooth
epithelial layer + underlying CT)
 Adventitia – connective tissue; regions
of the DT not covered by the peritoneum
Peritoneum

FUNCTIONS (IDEA) 1. Visceral Peritoneum / Serosa – serous

membrane that covers the organs
1. Ingestion of food.
2. Digestion of food. 2. Parietal Peritoneum – serous membrance
3. Elimination of wastes. that covers the wall of the abdominal cavity
4. Absorption of nutrients. Mesenteries – CT sheets that hold the
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY abdominal cavity organs in place

Digestive Tract / Gastrointestinal Tract a. Lesser omentum – connects the lesser

curvature of the stomack to the liver
 Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and diaphragm
small intestine, large intestine, anus b. Greater omentum – connects the
greater curvature of the stomach to the
Four Tunics
transverse colon and posterior body
1. Mucosa wall

 Innermost tunic
 Consists of mucous epithelium, lamina
propria (loose CT), muscularis
mucosae (thins SM layer)
 Mouth, esophagus, anus; resists
abrasion
 Stomach, intestine; absorbs and
secrets
2. Submucosa
 Thick layer of loose CT, consists of
nerves, blood vessels, small glands
 Plexus – extensive network of nerve
cell processes (innervated by the
autonomic nerves)
3. Muscularis
 Consists of circular SM (inner),
longitudinal SM (outer)
 Enteric nervous system – composed of
the nerve plexuses of the submucosa
and muscularis; controls movement
and secretion within the tract
 Omental bursa – a long, double fold of
mesentery that extends inferiorly from the
stomach before looping back to the
transverse colon to create a cavity/pocket
 Mesentery proper – attaches the small
intestine to the posterior abdominal wall
Retroperitoneal – abdominal organs that have
no mesenteries; duodenum, pancreas,
ascending + descending colon, rectum,
kidneys, adrenal glands, urinary bladder
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, AND
ESOPHAGUS
Anatomy of Oral Cavity
 Bounded by the lips and cheeks ++
contains the teeth and tongue
Lips – muscular structures formed by the
orbicularis oris muscle
Cheeks – buccinators muscles flatten the
cheeks against teeth
Mastification – begins the process of
mechanical digestion
Tongue – plays a major role in the process of
swallowing; major sensory organ for taste; one
of the major organs of speech
 Frenulum – thin fold of tissue inferior to
the tongue
Teeth
 32 teeth in normal adult mouth
 Located in the mandible and maxillae
1. Incisor – to cut
2. Canine – to tear
3. Premolars
4. Molars
5. Wisdom teeth – third molars
Permanent teeth – secondary teeth
Primary teeth – deciduous teeth; milk or baby
teeth
Parts
 Crown
 Cusps
 Neck
 Root
Pulp cavity – center of the tooth; contains
blood vessels nerves, and pulp (connective
tissue)
Dentin – bonelike tissue that surrounds the
pulp cavity
Enamel – extremely hard, acellular substance
that covers the dentin of the tooth drown
Cementum – covers the surface of the dentin
in the root; anchors the tooth in the jaw
Alveoli (along the alveolar process of
mandible x maxillae) – where the teeth are
rooted
Gingiva – dense fibrous CT and most
stratified squamous epithelium that covers the
alveolar processes
Periodontal ligaments – CT fibers that extend
from the alveolar walls that hold the teeth in
place
Dental caries / Tooth decay – result of the
breakdown of enamel by acids produced by
bacteria on tooth surface
Periodontal disease – inflammation x
degeneration of the periodontal ligaments,
gingiva, alveolar bone
Palate and Tonsils
Palate – roof of the oral cavity; prevents food
from passing into the nasal cavity during
chewing and swallowing
a. Hard palate – anterior part that
contains bone
b. Soft palate – posterior portion that
consists of skeletal muscle _ CT
 Uvula – grape-like; posterior extension
of the soft palate
Tonsils – protect against pathogens from
entering the nose and mouth
Salivary Glands
 Produce saliva (serous + mucous fluids)
3 Pairs of SG
1. Parotid glands – largest; serous
glands located anterior to each ear
2. Submandibular glands – produce
more serous than mucous secretions
3. Sublingual glands – smallest;
produce primarily mucous secretions
Mumps – inflammation of the parotid gland
caused by viral infection
Saliva
 Helps keep the oral cavity moist
 Contains enzymes that begin the process
of digestion
Salivary amylase – a digestive enzyme that
breaks the covalent bonds bet. glucose
molecules (starch) and other polysaccharides;
enhances the sweet taste of food
Lysozyme – enzyme that has weak
antibacterial action
Mastification
 Breaks large food particles into many
small ones
 Increases the efficiency of digestion
Pharynx
 Throat
 Connects the mouth with the
esophagus
 Oropharynx + laryngopharynx –
transmit food
 Contains pharyngeal constrictor
muscles
Esophagus
 Muscular tube that ransports food
from the pharynx to the stomach
 Esophageal sphincters – regulate the
movement of food into and out of the
esophagus
 Cardiac sphincter – lower ES
Swallowing / Deglutition
1. Voluntary Phase
 Bolus (mass of food) us formed in the
mouth
 Bolus is pushed by the tongue forcing
in into the oropharynx
2. Pharyngeal Phase
 A reflex initiated when a bolus of food
stimulates receptors in the oropharynx
 Epiglottis – tipped posteriorly to
cover the larynx
3. Esophageal Phase
 Responsible for moving food form the
pharynx to the stomach
 Peristaltic waves – muscular
contractions of the esophagus
STOMACH
 Functions primarily as a storage and
mixing chamber for ingested food
Anatomy
Gastroesophageal opening – opening from
the esophagus ino the stomach
Cardiac region – region of t around the
gastroesophageal opening; near the heart
Fundus – most superior part of the stomach
Body – largest part of the stomach
 Greater curvature
 Lesser curvature
Pyloric opening – opening from the stomach
into the small intestine
Pyloric sphincter – thick ring of smooth
muscle
Pyloric region – region near the pyloric
opening
Outer longitudinal, middle circular, and
inner obique layer – produce a churning
action in the stomach
Rugae – large folds where the submucosa and
mucosa are thrown into when the stomach is
empty
Gastric pits – openings for the gastric glands;
formed by simple columnar epithelium
Epithelial cells of the Stomach
1. Surface mucous cells – inner surface of
stomach & lining the gastric pits; coats
and protects the stomach lining
2. Mucous neck cells – produce mucus
3. Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric
acid & intrinsic factor
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory
chemicals
5. Chief cells – produce pepsinogen
(precursor of the protein digesting
enzyme pepsin)
Secretions of the Stomach
Chyme – semifluid mixture (food + stomach
secretions)
1. Hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms
and activates pepsin
 2. Pepsin breaks covalent bond of proteins
to form smaller peptide chains.
3. Mucus lubricates and protects epithelial
cells from the damaging effect of acidic
chime + pepsin
4. Intrinsic factor binds with vit. B12
(DNA synthesis and RBC prod.) and
makes it more readily absorbed in the
small intestine
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
1. Cephalic phase – stomach secretions
are initiated by the sight, smell, taste,
or thought of food
2. Gastric phase – partially digested
proteins and distention of the stomach
promote secretion
 Gastrin – hormone that enters the
circulation and is carried back to
the stomach
3. Intestinal phase – acidic chime in the
duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes
and the secretion of hormones that
inhibit gastric secretions by negative
feedback loops
 Secretin – hormone that inhibits
gastric secretions; released from
the duodenum in response to low
pH
 Cholecystokinin – major inhibitor
of gastric motility; released from
the duodenum initiated by fatty
acids and peptides
Movement in the Stomach
 Increased motility = increases
emptying
 Distention of stomach = increases
gastric motility
A. Mixing waves – thoroughly mix ingested
food with stomach secretions to form chime
 Fluid part of chime – pushed toward
the pyloric sphincter
 Solid center – moves back toward the
body of the stomach
B. Peristaltic waves – force the chime toward
and through the pyloric sphincter
SMALL INTESTINE
 Major site of digestion and absorption of
food
 Major function is the absorption of
nutrients
Anatomy
1. Duodenum – 12 in. long
2. Jejunum – 2.5 m long; makes up 2/5
3. Ileum – 3.5 m long; makes up 3/5
Common bile duct (liver) and pancreatic
duct (pancreas) – join and empty into the
duodenum
Increased surface area
1. Circular folds – formed by mucosa and
submucosa that run perpendicular to the
long axis of the digestive tract
2. Villi – formed by tiny, fingerlike
projections of the mucosa
3. Microvilli – numerous cytoplasmic
extensions on the surface of the villi
Lacteal – lymphatic capillary
Simple Columnar Epithelium
1. Absorptive cells – have microvilli,
produce digestive enzymes, absorb
digested food
2. Goblet cells – produce a protective
mucus
3. Granular cells – help protect the
intestinal epithelium from bacteria
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory
hormones
Intestinal glands – epithelial cells produced
within tubular galnds of mucosa
Duodenal glands – mucous glands in the
submucosa of the duodenum
Peyer patches – clusters of lymphatic nodules
along the digestive tract
Ileocecal junction – where the ileum connects Portal Triads:
to the large intestine
1. Hepatic artery
Ileocecal sphincter – ring of smooth muscle 2. Hepatic portal vein
3. Hepatic duct
Ileocecal valve – allow intestinal contents to
move from the ileum to the large intestine; but Hepatic cords – located bet. the center and
not in opposite direction margins of each lobule

Secretions of the Small Intestine
1. Peptidases – break peptide bonds in
proteins to form amino acids
2. Disaccharidases – break down
disaccharides (maltose) into
monosaccharides (glucose)
Movement of the Small Intestine
a. Peristaltic contractions – proceed
along the length of the intestine for
variable distances; causes the chime to
move along the small intestine
b. Segmental contractions – propagate
for shot distances; mix intestinal
contents
LIVER AND PANCREAS
Anatomy of Liver
Major Lobes:
1. Right lobe
2. Left lobe
Falciform ligament – CT septum that
separates the right and left lobe of the liver
Smaller Lobes:
1. Caudate lobe
2. Quadrate lobe
Porta – gate through which blood vessels,
ducts, and nerves enter and exit the liver
Sources of Blood in the Liver
1. Hepatic artery – takes oxygen-rich
blood to the liver; supplies liver with
oxygen
2. Hepatic portal vein – oxygen-poor
blood but rich in nutrients
Hepatic veins – where blood exits the liver
and empty into the inferior vena cava
Hepatocytes – platelike groups that form the
hepatic cords
Hepatic sinusoids – blood channels that
separates the hepatic cords from one another
Central vein – where mixed blood flows
toward the center of each lobule
Bile canaliculus – a cleftlike lumen bet. the
cells of each hepatic cord
Common hepatic duct – right + left hepatic
ducts
Common bile duct – common hepatic duct +
cystic duct
Gallbladder – stores and concentrates bile
Duodenal papilla – where the common bile
duct joined the pancreatic duct and opens into
the duodenum
Functions of the Liver
1. Digestion
2. Excretion
3. Nutrient storage
4. Nutrient conversion
5. Detoxification of harmful chemicals
6. Synthesis of new molecules
Bile – dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid;
dramatically increases the efficiency of fat
digestion and absorption; stimulated by
secretin
Bile salts – emulsify fats
Bilirubin – bile pigment that results from the
breakdown of hemoglobin
Anatomy of Pancreas
1. Head – near the midline of the body
2. Tail – extends to the left
Pancreatic islet / Islets of Langerhans – Anal Canal
endocrine part; produce insulin and glucagon
 Begins at the inferior end of the rectum
Compound acinar gland – exocrine part and ends at the anus (external digestive
tract opening)
Acini – produce digestive enymes
Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle
Pancreatic duct – formed by larger ducts
layer at superior end
from clusters of acini
External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle at
Functions of the Pancreas
inferior end
Major Proteolytic enzymes – continue
Hemorrhoids – enlarged or inflamed rectal or
protein digestion that began in the stomach
hemorrhoidal, veins that supply the anal canal;
1. Trypsin may cause pain, itching, bleeding around anus
2. Chymotrypsin
3. Carboxypeptidase Functions of Large Intestine
Pancreatic amylase – continues 1. Feces production
polysaccharide digestion that began in the oral 2. Water absorption
cavity Feces – converted chyme
Lipase – lipid-digesting enzyme Defecation – elimination of feces from the
Nucleases – enzymes that degrade DNA and colon
RNA to their component nucleotides Mass movements – strong contractions in the
LARGE INTESTINE large parts of the colon; propel the colon
contents a considerable distance towards the
Anatomy anys
Cecum Defecation reflex – local (weak contractions)
+ parasympathetic (strong contractions)
 Proximal end of the large intestine
reflexes
Appendix – 9 cm tube attached to the cecum
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND
Colon: TRANSPORT
1. Ascending colon Digestion – breakdown of food to molecules
2. Transverse colon that are small enough to be absorbed into the
3. Descending colon circulation
4. Sigmoid colon
a. Mechanical digestion – breaks large
Crypts – straight, tubular glands in the good particles into smaller ones
mucosal lining of the colon b. Chemical digestion – breaking of
covalent chemical bonds in organic
Teniae coli – three bands molecules by digestive enzymes
Rectum Absorption – begin in stomach; lipid-soluble
 Straight, muscular tube that begins at the molecules diffuse through the stomach
termination of sigmoid colon & ends at epithelium into the circulation
the anal canal Transport – requires carrier molecules and
includes facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and
active transport
Carbohydrates
 Consist primarily of starches, cellulose,
sucrose (table sugar), small amounts of
fructose (fruit sugar), and lactose (milk
sugar)
Polysaccharides – large carbohydrates that
consist of many sugars linked by chemical
bonds
Salivary amylase – begins the digestion of
carbohydrates in the mouth
Pancreatic amylase – continues digestion of
carbohydrates
Disaccharides – two sugars; broken down
polysaccharide
Disaccharidase – group of enzymes that break
the disaccharides to monosaccharides
Monosaccharides – single sugars; glucose,
galactose, and fructose
Pepsin – enzyme secreted by stomach that
breaks down proteins
Polypeptides – shorter amino acid chains
Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase
– enzymes produced by pancreas that continue
the digestive process
Peptidases – small peptides
Water and Minerals
 Approximately 9 L of water enters the
digestive tract
 Approximately 2 L from food & drink &
remaining 7 liters is from digestive
secretions


Lipids
 Molecules which are insoluble or slightly
soluble in water
Triglycerides – most common type of lipid; 3
fatty acids bound to glycerol
Saturated – fatty acids have only single bonds
Unsaturated – fatty acids have one or more
double bonds
Emulsification – large lipid droplets are
transformed into much smaller droplets
Lipase – secreted by pancreas; digests lipid
molecules
Micelles – aggregated bile salts around small
droplets of digested lipids
Chylomicrons – packaged lipid-protein
complexes (lipoproteins)
Chyle – lymph containing late amounts of
absorbed lipid

Proteins
 Chains of amino acids