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COVERAGE
1. Digestive System Major Divisions of Digestive system:
2. Urinary System I. Digestive tract
3. Endocrine system A. Oral cavity
4. Somatic and Special Senses B. Pharynx
5. Reproductive system a) oropharynx
b) laryngopharynx
C. Esophagus
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM D. Stomach
- composed of organs whose primary functions are E. Small intestines
ingestion, digestion, absorption of food and excretion F. Large intestine
of undigested food a) Cecum with vermiform appendix
- it includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, b) Ascending colon
small and large intestines and the accessory digestive c) Transverse colon
organs (Salivary glands, Liver, pancreas and gall d) Descending colon
bladder) e) Sigmoid colon (pelvic colon)
Histologic Characteristics (Figure 1.1) f) Rectum
- Walls of the Digestive tract composed of the g) Anal canal
following: II. Accessory organs/glands
1. Tunica mucosa A. Lips
- Functions: absorptive, secretory, and protective B. Teeth
- consist of the ff: C. Tongue
a. Epithelium D. Salivary glands
- all are lined by simple columnar a) Big
- except mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and - Parotid
lower anus which are lined by stratified sq. - Submandibular
non keratinized - Sublingual
b. Lamina propria b) Small
- loose areolar tissue - Lingual
c. Muscularis mucosa - Labial
- made up of smooth muscles - Buccal
2. Submucosa E. Liver
- Major function is nutritive and protective F. Gall bladder
- Connective tissue consisting of the ff: G. Pancreas
• Blood vessels
Mouth (Oral Cavity) *Figure 1.2
• Lymphatics
1. Oral vestibule
• Nerves
- space bounded anteriorly by lips and cheeks
3. Tunica Muscularis
- posteriorly by teeth and gums
- Usually 2 layers of smooth muscles, inner circular
2. Oral cavity proper
and outer longitudinal muscle layer
- space bounded by gums and teeth
- Stomach has 3 layers of tunica muscularis, inner
- the floor is the tongue
oblique, middle circular and outer longitudinal
- the roof is the hard and soft palate
muscle layer
3. Teeth
4. Tunica Serosa
- Two sets of teeth:
- Visceral peritoneum
a) Deciduous teeth, or temporary (milk)
- It is a single layer of simple squamous epithelium
- The deciduous teeth erupt on the average
which secretes a small amount of serous
between 6 and 24 months after birth and are
lubricating fluid which reduces friction among the
usually shed between the ages of 6 and 12
GI tract organs and the body wall
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- The deciduous set consists of 20 teeth, 5 in
each quadrant: 2 incisors, 1 canine, and 2
molars.
b) Permanent teeth
- Eruption of the third molars, or wisdom
teeth, is delayed until after the age of 18
- There are 32 permanent teeth in a full set,
8 in each quadrant: 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2
premolars, and 3 molars.
4. Tongue
- Organ for speech and mechanical digestion of food
- it will contain Papillae:
a) Vallate – largest; sulcus terminalis that will
dividing the tongue into anterior 2/3 and
posterior 1/3
b) Foliate
c) Fungiform
d) Filiform
- This will contain Taste buds except filiform:
sensory organs of taste especially numerous
around vallate papillae
Nerves of tongue:
1) General sensory – touch
- lingual (CN V) (anterior 2/3 of tongue)
- Glossopharyngeal (CN IX post. 1/3 of
tongue)
- Vagus (CN X) epiglottic area
2) Special sensory – taste
- anterior 2/3 - chorda tympani from VII
- posterior 1/3 - glossopharyngeal (CN IX)
3) Motor
- to intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of
tongue - hypoglossal
5. Salivary Glands
- secretions (salivary amylase) poured in the oral
cavity starts digestion of carbohydrates.
a) Parotid
- largest, lies on the posterior border of ramus of
mandible
- secretion is purely serous
- duct: Stensen's - opens into the vestibule of
mouth opposite upper second molar tooth
- viral inflammation: mumps or parotitis
- important structure embedded: facial nerve
b) Submandibular
- second largest; mixed serous and mucous
gland, more of serous
- duct: Wharton's - which opens at sublingual
papillae
c) Sublingual
- smallest of 3 salivary glands
- mixed serous and mucous but more of mucous
- ducts: Rivinu's - small opens at summit of
sublingual fold
- Bartholin's - large; opens into sublingual
papillae
Pharynx
1. Nasopharynx (Epipharynx)
- located behind the nasal cavity
- respiratory function only
2. Oropharynx (Mesopharynx)
- located behind oral cavity proper
- palatine tonsil bounded by palatoglossal and
palatopharyngeal fold
- digestive and respiratory function
3. Laryngopharynx
- located behind larynx
- continuous with the esophagus
- digestive and respiratory function
Esophagus (Figure 1.3)
- a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the
stomach
- with 3 anatomical constrictions:
1. at the pharyngo-esophageal junction
2. when left main bronchus crosses esophagus
3. when it enters the diaphragm
Stomach (Figure 1.4)
- located within peritoneal cavity
- with greater and lesser curvatures
- there have folds – rugae
- 2 notches: cardiac and angular notch
Parts:
1. Fundus
- Found on the left border
- Imaginary line through your cardiac notch that
will be boundary of fundus
2. Body
- Imaginary line through your angular notch that
will be the lower boundary of body.
3. Pyloric antrum
4. Pylorus
- Tubular portion
- Guarded by pyloric sphincter
5. Cardiac region
- area surrounding the point of entry of food
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3 layers of smooth muscles: Tunica Muscularis 3. Ileum
- will be mixing the food within your stomach - longest, found at the right lower quadrant
1. inner oblique layer - lower 3/5 (12ft)
2. middle circular layer - provided with Peyer's patches or aggregated
3. outer longitudinal layer lymph nodules
Chyme
Large Intestines (Figure 1.3 & 1.5)
- food + acid
- 5 feet long
- mixing wave
1. Cecum
Cells in the stomach:
- widest; located in the right lower quadrant of the
a) Parietal cell – secretes HCl and intrinsic factor
abdomen near the iliac fossa.
(Vitamin B12) 2. Vermiform appendix
b) Chief cell – secretes pepsin - located posteromedial to cecum
c) Mucus neck cell – secretes mucus 3. Ascending colon
d) G cell – secretes gastrin - extends superiorly from the cecum to the right
Swallowing: colic flexure, near the liver, where it turns to the
1. Tongue moves upward and backward left.
2. Soft palate closes the nasopharynx 4. Transverse colon
3. Epiglottis moving down closing your larynx - extends from the right colic flexure to the left colic
4. The food will be going to your esophagus flexure near the spleen, where the colon turns
Small Intestine (Figure 1.3 & 1.5) inferiorly
5. Descending colon
- Longest
- extends from the left colic flexure to the pelvis,
- 20 ft
where it becomes the sigmoid colon.
- Absorption of nutrients
6. Sigmoid colon
- Presence of Villi and plica circularis – fold of - s-shaped tube that extends medially and then
mucosa inferiorly into the pelvic cavity and ends at the
Parts: rectum.
1. Duodenum 7. Rectum
- C-shaped - continuation of sigmoid at s3 vertebra
- Enclosing the head of pancreas - a straight, muscular tube that begins at the
- with 4 parts (superior, descending, transverse and termination of the sigmoid colon and ends at the
ascending) anal canal
- the common bile duct (CBD) and main pancreatic 8. Anal canal – The last 2–3 cm of the digestive tract
duct and accessory pancreatic ducts enter to the 2nd a) Internal anal sphincter
part of duodenum b) External anal sphincter
Gross Structural Characteristics:
- major duodenal papilla with sphincter of Oddi Right Colic flexure (Hepatic Flexure)
around common duct and main pancreatic duct of - Fold in the right side
Wirsung Left Colic flexure (Splenic Flexure)
- minor duodenal of accessory pancreatic duct of - Left side
Santorini
• Ampulla of vater Characteristic Features of Large Intestines:
- CBD and MPD uniting to form ampulla vater 1. Plicae semilunares
- Guarded by sphincter of oddi 2. Haustra/sacculation
2. Jejunum 3. Taenia coli – longitudinal band of muscle
- located at the left upper quadrant 4. Epiploicae appendices – fatty tags
- upper 2/5 (8ft)
- more vascular wider and thicker than ileum

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Small intestines Large Intestines Inferior/ Visceral surface:

Mobile expect duodenum Fixed ascending and 1. Fissure for ligamentum teres hepatis, ligamentum
descending colon venosum
Narrower lumen Wider lumen 2. Fossa of Gallbladder and IVC
With peyer’s patches in the With taenia coli, 3. Porta hepatis – entrance to the liver
ileum appendices epiploicae, a) common bile duct
haustra/ sacculation b) hepatic artery
Plicae circulares and villi Plicae semilunares c) portal vein
4. Lymphatics and nerves

Accessory Digestive Organs Gall bladder (Figure 1.7)

1. Salivary glands - location: undersurface of the liver
a) Parotid gland - stores and concentrates the bile
- purely serous, with stensen’s duct that open into - parts: fundus, body, neck, infundibulum
oral vestibule opposite the upper 2nd molar tooth - mucosa, muscular layer and serosa
b) Submandibular gland - Spiral valve of heister – guarding the neck of gall
- Mixed; serous bladder
- its duct, wharton’s opens into sublingual papilla Pancreas (Figure 1.8)
c) Sublingual gland - retroperitoneal at the back of the stomach
- Mixed; mucous - both endocrine and exocrine organs
- It has 2 ducts: - endocrine – secretion of islets of Langerhans
1. Bartholin’s duct – opens into sublingual - exocrine – secretion of enzymes
papilla - with head, neck, body and tail and uncinate process
2. Duct of rivinus – opens into sublingual fold - 2 ducts:
Liver (Figure 1.6) a) major duct of wirsung – will drain to Main
- largest gland of the body duodenal papilla and it will be joint by the
- with right and left lobe common bile duct
- will produce the bile b) accessory duct of Santorini – will drain to minor
- 2 smaller lobes duodenal papilla
a) Quadrate lobe Extrahepatic Biliary tract (Figure 1.7)
b) Caudate lobe 1. Common hepatic duct
Ligaments: - formed by the union of right and left hepatic duct
1. Falciform ligaments 2. Cystic duct
- Anatomical division of the liver - duct of gall bladder
- Sickle-shaped 3. Common bile duct
- Anchors the liver the anterior abdominal wall and - formed by the union of cystic duct and common
the diaphragm hepatic duct
2. Coronary ligaments - Ampulla of vater – CBD and MPD uniting;
- Coronal ligament Guarded by sphincter of oddi
- Attaches the liver to the diaphragm, and the
right kidney and adrenal gland Blood supply of GIT
3. Triangular ligaments • Celiac trunk
- Asymmetrical • Superior mesenteric artery
- Right and left components • Inferior mesenteric artery
- Covers left lobe of the liver - this 3 are the unpaired branches of the abdominal
aorta

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URINARY SYSTEM
Composed of:
• Kidney
• Ureter
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
Kidney
- Paired, reddish brown, retroperitoneal
- Coverings: (Figure 2.1)
1) Renal capsule – immediate covering of the
kidney
2) Perirenal fat (perinephric fat) – around the renal
capsule
3) Renal fascia (gerota’s fascia) – external to
perirenal fat; continuous with transversalis fascia
4) Pararenal (paranephric fat) – outermost
2 parts of kidney: (Figure 2.2 &2.3)
1. Cortex – outer
2. Medulla – inner
• Renal pyramids – triangle
• Renal column – extension of cortex
towards the medulla; between the
pyramids
• Renal Pelvis – union of major calyces
• Major calyx – union of minor calyces
Nephron (Figure 2.4)
- Structural and functional unit of the kidney
- 1 million nephron each kidney
- Consist of the ff:
1) Glomerulus – top of capillaries
2) Bowman’s capsule
3) Proximal convoluted tubule
4) Loop of henle
5) Distal convoluted tubule – yung kulot
Afferent arteriole – papasok ng glomerulus
Efferent arteriole – palabas ng glomerulus
Collecting tubule – this will be the collecting duct that
will drain to your minor calyx
Bowman’s capsule
1. Inner visceral layer
- Composed of podocytes, octopus like that
terminates in branching pedicles
- Podocyte cell processes will be forming filtration
slits, together with the endothelium of the capillary
will form the filtration membrane
2. Parietal layer
- Simple squamous epithelium
Renal (Malphigian) corpuscle
- Glomerulus plus bowman’s capsule
- Juxtaglomerular apparatus – consist of the ff:
- JG cells, Macula densa and Mesangial cell
a) JG cell (Juxtaglomerular cells)
- Secreting substance called Renin
b) Macula densa
- Part of the distal convoluted tubule - Cuboidal
cells
- Columnar cells – adjacent to the afferent arteriole
c) Mesangial cell
- Extra glomerular mesangial cell/ Lacis cells
Mechanism of Urine formation
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular reabsorption
3. Tubular secretion
• Filtration – filtration (blue arrow) is the
movement of materials across the filtration
membrane into Bowman’s capsule to form filtrate
• Reabsorption – solutes are reabsorbed (purple
arrow) across the wall of the nephron into the
interstitial fluid by transport process, such as
active transport and cotransport.
o Water is reabsorbed (green arrow) across
the wall of the nephron by osmosis.
o water and solutes pass from the
interstitial fluid into the peritubular
capillaries.
• Secretion – solutes are secreted (orange arrow)
across the wall of the nephron into the capillaries.
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1. Glomerular filtration
- Acts as a filter
- 1/5 of blood flowing through the kidneys is
filtered from the glomeruli
- Through filtration membrane: podocyte cell
processes, basement membrane & capillary
endothelium
Pressures acting on the Glomerulus:
a) Glomerular hydrostatic pressure
- a force that push the water and solutes across
the filtration membrane
b) Glomerular osmotic pressure
- opposes filtration, hold the fluid inside the
glomerulus exerted by plasma protein
- plasma protein – like a magnet for the fluid
c) Capsular hydrostatic pressure
- opposes filtration, force exerted by the fluid
inside the bowman’s capsule
Glomerular Filtration Rate
- Refers to the amount of filtrate formed per
minute time
- Equal to 125ml/min
- Directly proportional to the net filtration pressure
2. Tubular reabsorption
- The process of returning needed substance from
the filtrate to the capillary blood
- Active or passive depending on a particular
substance
- Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) is the most
active 80% of filtrate, nutrients water and Na, the
bulk actively transported ions are reabsorbed here
- Reabsorption in Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
tubule and collecting duct is controlled by
Aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone

1. Glomerular capillary pressure, the blood pressure

within the glomerulus, moves fluid from the blood
into Bowman’s capsule.
2. Capsular pressure, the pressure inside Bowman’s
capsule, moves fluid from the capsule into the
blood
3. Colloid osmotic pressure, produced by the
concentration of blood proteins, moves fluid from
Bowman’s capsule into the blood osmosis
4. Filtration pressure is equal to the glomerular
capillary pressure minus the capsular and colloid
osmotic pressures.
Net filtration pressure
- Force responsible for filtrate formation
- NFP = glomerular hydrostatic pressure –
(glomerular oncotic pressure + capsular
hydrostatic pressure)

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3. Tubular secretion
- adding substance to the filtrate from blood or
tubular cells
- Can be active or passive
- Important in eliminating urea, excess ions, drugs,
and maintaining acid base balance
Regulation of Urine concentration and volume
- Urine osmolarity ranges from 50-1200mosm
- Hyperosmolarity of the medullary fluid ensures that
the urine reaching the DCT is hypo-osmolar
- In the absence of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), urine
becomes diluted – If you don’t have ADH, your water
will not be inhibited from going out of your system.
Water will be joining the solutes therefore; the urine
will become diluted.
- When Blood ADH increases the permeability of DCT
and collecting duct to water increases (the water will
not be going out, your ADH will hold the water in)
When you have decreased BP, JG cells will secrete the
renin
Angiotensinogen
- protein in your blood
- this will be converted by renin into Angiotensin I
Angiotensin I
- will be circulating in the lungs
- angiotensin converting enzyme, this will be
converted into Angiotensin II
Angiotensin II
- vasoconstrictor, there will be an increased in BP
- it will stimulate the aldosterone secretion from
your adrenal cortex
- aldosterone – will increased Na and water
reabsorption results in increased BP
Renal clearance
- The rate at which the kidneys clear the plasma for
a particular solute

Ureter
- 10 inches long muscular tube
- 3 anatomical constrictions:
1. at the uretero-pelvic junction
2. where iliac vessels cross the ureter
3. where it joins the urinary bladder
Urinary Bladder
- Hollow muscular organ
- Temporary storage of urine
- Wall consist of detrusor muscle
- Will contain folds called rugae; without rugae called
- Increased osmolality/ large decrease in BP – you have trigone – smooth area
less water (decreased Fluid volume) - Inner – trigone occupied by ureteral orifices and
- Increased ADH release – the kidney will increase urethral orifice
water reabsorption in decreased osmolality and Urethra
increased BP(increased Fluid volume) Male (Figure 2.6)
a) Prostatic - widest, most dilatable, prostate gland
b) Membranous – traverses’ urogenital diaphragm,
shortest and least dilatable
c) Penile(spongy) – longest, traverses corpus
spongiosum
Female (Figure 2.5)
- 4cm
- Opens into vestibule

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2. Posterior Pituitary
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endocrine Glands
- It is also called the ductless glands.
- responsible for the synthesis and secretion of chemical
messenger known as hormones which are
disseminated throughout the body via the bloodstream
where they act on specific target organs.
- the secretory cells release their hormones into the
interstitial space from which they are rapidly absorbed
into the circulation.
- Unlike exocrine glands, endocrine glands have no duct
system and therefore sometimes called the ductless
glands.
- Endocrine organs are highly vascular and you have
blood vessels that are fenestrated (there are holes for
the passage of large molecules)
Pituitary Gland (Figure 3.1)
- also known as Hypophysis or Hypophysis Cerebri
- a specialized appendage of the brain which secretes
several hormones.
- small slightly elongated gland approximately 1 cm in
diameter situated in the Sella turcica of the sphenoid
bone and it is connected to the base of the brain via the
infundibulum or stalk.
- Pea shaped structure measuring 1-1.5 cm in diameter
- formerly regarded as the master gland because it
influences the rest of the endocrine glands; however,
the hypothalamus regulates the function of the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland hence this was
regarded untrue
Divisions of the Pituitary Gland
1. Anterior Pituitary
- also called the adenohypophysis
- makes up 75% of the total weight of the gland
- arises as an epithelial outgrowth from the roof of the
primitive oral cavity known as the Rathke’s pouch
- secreting the hormones
Hormones secreted by Anterior Pituitary:
1. Growth hormones – long bones
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone – thyroid gland
3. GnRh (follicles stimulating hormone, luteinizing
hormone) – testis and ovary
4. Prolactin – mammary gland for milk production.
5. ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone) – adrenal
glands/cortex
6. MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone) – skin
- also called neurohypophysis
- derived from downgrowth of nervous tissue from
the hypothalamus to which it remains joined by the
pituitary stalk
- coming from the floor of diencephalon.
- It will just store the hormones that will come from
hypothalamic nuclei.
- the neurohypophysis does not synthesize
hormones. Instead stores and releases two
hormones
- Secretions from this lobe are produced by the cell
bodies of the supraoptic nucleus (produces
vasopressin or ADH) and the paraventricular
nucleus (produces oxytocin) of the hypothalamus
and are moved by axonal transport to the axon
terminals in the posterior pituitary
Hormones stored by Posterior Pituitary:
1. ADH (antidiuretic hormone, Vasopressin) –
kidney tubules
2. Oxytocin (pitocin) – smooth muscle of uterus
for contraction; mammary gland for milk let
down or milk ejection.
Pituicytes
- modified neuroglial cells found in the pars nervosa
- believed to store and release 2 hormones:
a) Pitocin (oxytocin)
- Stimulates uterine contraction
- stimulates milk ejection (milk “letdown) from
the mammary glands in response to the
mechanical stimulation provided by the
suckling infant
b) Pitressin or ADH
- increases water reabsorption at the distal
convoluted tubules of the kidneys.
- has a vasopressor effect hence also called
vasopressin
- raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles
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Pineal Gland (Figure 3.1)

- also called epiphysis cerebri or conarium Parathyroid Gland (Figure 3.3)
- a small organ, 6-8 mm long located at the caudal end - are small oval endocrine glands closely associated
of the diencephalon of the brain. posteriorly with the thyroid gland
- consists of cells called pinealocytes - supplied by inferior thyroid artery
- Hormones secreted: Melatonin derived from serotonin, - secretes parathormone, which directly elevate blood
which may promote sleepiness calcium levels
- if your calcitonin will decrease your calcium level,
Thyroid gland (Figure 3.2) your parathormone will increase your calcium level.
- a lobulated gland lying in front of the neck at the upper - usually there are:
part of the trachea • 2 superior parathyroid glands
- there are 2 lobes connected at the midline by the
• 2 inferior parathyroid glands
isthmus
- Also secretes thyrocalcitonin secreted by the
Adrenal (Suprarenal) Gland (Figure 3.4)
parafollicular cells which helps regulate calcium
- small flattened endocrine glands closely applied to the
homeostasis
upper pole of the kidneys
- Contains follicles, which secrete 2 thyroid hormones:
2 components of the adrenal gland:
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
1. Adrenal Cortex
- Actions of the thyroid hormones:
- outer and thicker portion
1. increase basal metabolic rate
- 3 layers of cell: zona glomerulosa, zona
2. helps maintain normal body temperature
fasciculata and zona reticularis
- histologically, it is formed by various follicles of
- Secretions:
different sizes and shape lined by simple cuboidal cells
a) Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone and
containing colloid material containing thyroglobulin
deoxycortisones)
- between capillaries are dense capillary network
- regulate fluids and electrolytes
supported by reticular fibers
- help adjust blood pressure and blood
- magsesecrete si calcitonin/thyrocalcitonin kung
volume
mataas un calcium mo (hypercalcemia). Sila un
b) Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisone)
magpapadecrease ng calcium level mo.
- regulate metabolism and resistance to
- Pinapababa nya un calcium, by inhibiting osteoclast
stress
activity (bone destroying cells)

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c) Androgens
- promote libido in females and are
converted to estrogen,
- also stimulate growth of axillary and
pubic hairs in boys and girls and
contribute to the prepubertal growth
spurt
2. Adrenal medulla
- Secretes the catecholamines – epinephrine and
norepinephrine
- Produces effects that enhance those of the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system during stress
1. Increase blood K levels or decreased blood Na levels
cause the adrenal cortex to increase the secretion of
aldosterone into the general circulation.
2. A decrease in blood pressure is detected by the kidneys.
In response, they increase the secretion of renin into
the general to angiotensin I. a converting enzyme -
changes angiotensin I to angiotensin II, which causes
constriction of blood vessels, resulting in increased -
blood pressure.
3. Angiotensin II causes increased secretion of
aldosterone, which primarily affects the kidneys.
4. Aldosterone stimulation of the kidneys causes Na
retention, K excretion and decreased water loss.
Pancreas (Figure 3.5)
- pistol shaped flattened organ, the head part of which is
enclosed by the duodenum, the body at the back of
stomach and tail related with spleen
- not only exocrine gland but also has important
endocrine functions
- the endocrine portion is the Islets of Langerhans
- the exocrine portion is secretion of enzymes.
- pancreatic islets vary in size and most numerous at the
tail of the pancreas
Cells in the Islets of Langerhans
1. Alpha Cells
- less numerous containing acidophilic granules.
- found at the periphery of the islet and secrete
glucagon – which increases blood sugar
2. Beta cells
- found at the center of the islets
- it secretes insulin which decreases blood sugar
3. Delta Cells
- secrete somatostatin, which inhibits secretion of
insulin and glucagon and slows absorption of
nutrients from the GIT
4. F Cells
- secrete pancreatic polypeptide
Testis (Figure 3.7)
- are paired organs lodging in the scrotum are
responsible for the production of the male gametes,
spermatozoa, and male sex hormones
- the endocrine portion is the interstitial cells of Leydig
which secrete these androgens:
a) Testosterone
b) Dihydrotestosterone
c) Androstenedione
- Its main hormone testosterone regulates production of
sperm and stimulates the development and
maintenance of masculine secondary sex
characteristics such as beard growth and deepening of
the voice
Ovaries (Figure 3.6)
the follicular cells of the ovarian follicle secrete
estrogen and the corpus luteum secretes progesterone
These hormones regulate the female reproductive
cycle.
• Regulate oogenesis
• maintain pregnancy
• prepare the mammary gland for lactation and;
• promote development and maintenance of
female secondary sex characteristics
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- placenta also producing a hormone –

syncytiotrophoblast, human chorionic
gonadotropin (HCG)
Endocrine Gland Diseases
1. Grave’s Disease
- autoimmune disorder associated with increased
circulating levels of thyroid hormones
2. Diabetes Mellitus
- disorder of metabolism and chronic
hyperglycemia
3. Cushing’s Syndrome
- refers to the manifestations of excessive
corticosteroids
- eg. Central obesity, moon face, buffalo hump,
osteoporosis, hypertension, hyperglycemia
4. Addison’s Disease
- disorder caused by the destruction of the adrenal
cortices characterized by chronic deficiency of
cortisol, aldosterone and androgens causing skin
pigmentation

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SOMATIC AND SPECIAL SENSES
Sensory and Motor Nerve Endings
A. Somatosensory System
1. Light touch or tactile discrimination
2. Pressure
3. Touch
4. Pain
5. Temperature
6. Limb position
Receptors
- Neurons that will receive the stimulus
1. Meissner’s corpuscles – touch
2. Hair follicle nerve ending – touch
3. Merkel’s tactile disc – touch
4. Pacinian corpuscle – pressure
5. Krause end bulb – cold
6. Ruffini’s nerve ending – hot /warm
7. Free nerve ending – pain
8. Muscle spindle – proprioception
9. Golgi tendon organ/ tendon spindle – proprioception
General Sense Pathways
1. First order neuron: also called sensory neuron or N1
2. Second order neuron or association neuron: N2
3. Third order neuron: N3
Ascending Fiber Tracts
1. Anterolateral system
a) Lateral spinothalamic tract (LST)
- For pain and temperature expect head region
b) Anterior spinothalamic tract (AST)
- Crude touch or light touch except head region
2. Pathways to the cerebellum
a) Posterior spinocerebellar tract
- For unconscious proprioception
b) Anterior spinocerebellar tract
- Unconscious proprioception
- Both a and b carry information to the
cerebellum from the lower limbs.
3. Cuneocerebullar tract
- For unconscious proprioception in the upper
extremity.
4. Posterior Column/Dorsal Column/ Lemniscal
System
- conscious proprioception
- deep pressure and discriminative touch
- vibratory sense
- position sense
- Stereognosia – ability to recognize familiar objects
by touch with eyes closed
a) Gracile fasciculus
- conscious proprioception for lower extremity
b) Cuneate fasciculus
- conscious proprioception for upper extremity
Pain and Temperature Pathway
Pathway: lateral spinothalamic tract
Receptors: free nerve endings; Krause end bulb, Ruffini’s
corpuscle
N1 – dorsal root ganglion
N2 – dorsal horn cells (spinal cord)
- laminae V, VI, VII (LPT)
- axons cross to the contralateral side and
ascend as lateral spinothalamic tract
N3 - Ventroposterolateral Nucleus (side
contralateral to receptor)
(Thalamus)
Center: Broadmann’s area 3, 1, 2 (primary
somesthetic area in the post central gyrus) side
contralateral to receptor)
When you have lesion in left side of the brain, the
manifestation will be the right side of the body. You cannot
feel the pain from the right side of the body, if you have
lesion in left side of the brain. Because the pathway will be
crossing to the other side of your spinal cord.
Crude touch (Light touch pressure)
Pathway – Ventral/Anterior Spinothalamic tract
Receptor: Meissner's corpuscle, Merkel's disc, Hair
Follicle nerve ending
• Fibers synapse with dorsal root ganglion cells
• N1 - Dorsal Root Ganglion
- axons of dorsal root ganglion make synapses
with neurons in spinal cord
• N2 - Laminae VI, VII, VIII (ATP)
- Axon from the laminae will then go to the
contralateral side passing thru the anterior
white commissure as origins in the ventral
funiculus of the ventral spinothalamic tract
- Fibers will then ascend as the ventral
spinothalamic tract on the contralateral side.
- Fibers will continue to ascend until they
terminate at the ventral posterolateral nucleus
of thalamus.
• N3 - Ventro-postero-lateral nucleus of thalamus
(side contralateral to NI -> N3)
• Center: Brodmann's area 3, 1, 2 (side contralateral
to N1 > N3)
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Discriminative Touch, Deep Pressure and
Proprioceptive Pathway
Pathway: Posterior Column/Dorsal Column/Medial
Lemniscal, Pathway/
Conscious Proprioceptive Pathway
Receptors: Paccinian corpuscle
Meissner's corpuscle
Muscle spindles /Tendon spindles
• N1 – Dorsal Root Ganglion
- Axons do not synapse with the posterior horn
cells but instead these fibers ascend on the
same side forming the fibers of fasciculus
gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus
- These fibers synapse with the nucleus gracilis
(medial) or nucleus cuneatus (lateral) at the
level of lower medulla.
• N2 - Nucleus of fasciculus gracilis or cuneatus
- The fibers from the cells of the nuclei then cross
the midline forming the decussations of the
medial lemniscus.
- Medial Lemniscus then ascend in brainstem
until it terminates at ventral postero-lateral
nucleus of thalamus (entry)
• N3 – Ventro-postero-lateral nucleus of thalamus
- Fibers are then projected into the primary
somesthetic areas 3,1,2 of the postcentral gyrus.
• Center - Brodmann's area 3, 1, 2 (side contralateral
to N1 -> N3)
Fasciculus Gracilis
- nerve fibers that carry impulses coming from the lower
extremity
- these fibers enter the spinal cord thru the sacral, lumbar
and lower thoracic segments
Fasciculus Cuneatus
- formed of fibers that carry impulses arising from the
upper extremity
- these fibers enter the spinal cord thru upper thoracic
segments
Clinical Signs of Injury to the Lemniscal Pathway
1. Inability to recognize limb position
2. Astereognosia: inability to identify an object by touch
with eyes closed
3. Loss of vibration sense
4. Loss of two-point discrimination
5. Positive Rhomberg’s sign: abnormal increase in the
degree of body sway with eyes closed
Unconscious Proprioception
Pathway – Spinocerebellar Tract
1. Anterior spinocerebellar tract
- relays proprioceptive information regarding group
of muscles at the lower extremity
2. Posterior spinocerebellar tract
- relays proprioceptive information regarding the
status of individual muscle at lower extremity
3. Cuneocerebellar tract
- relays proprioceptive information regarding the
status of the muscles in the upper extremity
Anterior Spinocerebellar Tract
Pathway: Anterior Spinocerebellar Tract
Receptors: Muscle spindle
• Golgi tendon organ from lower extremity
• Enter the spinal cord thru the sacral, lumbar, and
lower 6 thoracic segments
• N1 - Dorsal Root Ganglion
• N2 - Dorsal horn cells mainly laminae V, VI, VII
- Decussate on the contralateral side and;
- ascend as Ventral or Anterior Spinocerebellar
Tract and;
- passes in Superior Cerebellar Peduncle.
• N3 - Cerebellar cortex
Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract
Pathway: Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract
Receptor: Muscle Spindle, Golgi tendon Organ
• Enter the spinal cord thru sacral, lumbar, and
lower six thoracic segments
• N1 - Dorsal Root ganglion
- Axons of dorsal root ganglion synapse with
dorsal nucleus of Clark on the same side.
• N2 – Dorsal Nucleus of Clark in laminae VII
- Axons ascend on ipsilateral side as Posterior
Spinocerebellar Tract
- and then passes in Inferior Cerebellar
Peduncle
• N3 - Cerebellar cortex
Cuneo-Cerebellar Tract
Pathway: Cuneo-Cerebellar Tract
Receptor: Muscle Spindle, Tendon Spindle Cutaneous and
Joint Receptors
• N1 - Dorsal Root Ganglion of the spinal cord at the
level of cervical and upper six thoracic segments
- Fibers will synapse with Accessory Cuneate
Nucleus.
• N2 – Accessory Cuneate Nucleus
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- Axons of N2 will ascend on ipsilateral side as B. Lower Motor Neuron Lesion
Cuneocerebellar Tract and; - involves the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord
- passes in Inferior Cerebellar Peduncle and the motor nuclei of cranial nerves
• N3 - Cerebellar cortex - Manifestations:
• Flaccid paralysis
Motor System • Hyporeflexia
- Descending pathway (coming from cerebrum BA 4 • Negative Babinski sign
will be going down to the spinal cord and going to the • Marked atrophy
effector organ which will be the muscle) • Positive fasciculations and fibrillations
• Pyramidal system
• Extrapyramidal system Extrapyramidal System
Pyramidal system - Network of interconnections of various parts of
- mainly concerned with the production of skilled cerebral cortex and several subcortical center
voluntary movements: (including thalamus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum)
with major pathways to spinal motor neurons arising
Corticospinal Tract from reticular formation.
- Origin: Primary motor area or BA 4, 6 (Cerebral Functions:
cortex) 1. Regulation of actions of pyramidal system for smooth
- Descend on the ipsilateral side of the midbrain, coordinated movements
pons and medulla 2. Production of automatic movements (smiling,
- 90% of the fibers cross the medullary decussation gesticulating)
to become the Lateral Corticospinal Tract 3. Production of unconscious adjustment in postures and
- 10% of the fibers do not cross the medullary muscle tone
decussation to become the anterior corticospinal
Tract Visual Pathway
- Termination: Lower Motor Neuron (LMN) in the Accessory Structures of The Eye
spinal cord (contralateral to the origin in the • Extrinsic eye muscles
cerebral cortex) • Eyelids
Corticobulbar Tract • Conjunctiva
- Origin: Broadman’s area 4 and 8 (Cerebral Cortex) • Lacrimal apparatus
- Descend on the ipsilateral side of the midbrain,
pons and medulla Eyelids
- Corticobulbar fibers synapse with - Anteriorly, the eyes are protected by the eyelids which
- Termination: Cranial motor nuclei in the meet at the medial and lateral corners of the eye, the
brainstem of both sides (R&L) except those for medial and lateral canthus respectively.
lower face and tongue which are supplied - Projecting from the border of each eyelid are the
contralaterally only eyelashes
Meibomian Glands
Clinical Correlation - modified sebaceous glands associated with the
A. Upper Motor Neuron Lesion eyelid edges.
- Occurs when there is damage to the pyramidal - produce an oily secretion that lubricates the eye
tract along its path. Ciliary Glands
- Manifestations: - modified sweat glands between the eyelashes
• Spastic paralysis
• Hyperreflexia Conjunctiva
• Positive Babinski sign - lines the eyelids and covers part of the white of the eye
(sclera) in front
• Atrophy from disuse only
- secretes the mucus which helps to lubricate the eyeball
• Negative fasciculations
and keep it moist
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Lacrimal glands:
- located above the lateral ends of each eye Visual Apparatus
- continually release a dilute salt solution (tears = - made up of the eyeball specialized for its ability to
“lacrimal fluid”) that drain into the nasal cavity react to light.
through the inferior meatus Coats of The Eyeball:
- Lacrimal fluid not only moistens and lubricates 1. Fibrous coat
conjunctival sac but also reduces eye infections - protects the delicate inner structures of the eye and
because it contains bactericidal enzyme called with the intraocular pressure maintain the shape
Lysozyme and turgor of the eyeball.
- Parts:
a) Cornea
- transparent anterior 1/6 of the fibrous coat
- transparent fibrous coat covering the colored
part of the eyes, iris.
- slightly thicker than sclera with refractive
power 2x as high as the lens.
- avascular and the central part depends on
diffusion from aqueous humor for its
nourishment.
- one of the few organs that can be successfully
transplanted without rejection from the host.
b) Sclera
- opaque posterior 5/6 of the fibrous coat
1. Tears are produced in the lacrimal gland and pass - mainly made up of densely packed
through several ducts to the surface of the eye. collagenous fibers (type I collagen fibrils) -
2. The tears pass over to the surface of the eye. where tendons of extraocular muscles are
3. Tears enter the lacrimal canaliculi. attached
4. Tears are carried through the lacrimal sac and - pierced by optic nerve, ciliary nerves and
nasolacrimal duct. blood vessels
5. Tears enter the nasal cavity from the nasolacrimal duct. 2. Vascular and Muscular coat or UVEA
- concerned with nutrition of retina and production
Extrinsic eye Muscles of aqueous humor
Nerve - provides mechanisms for accommodation of the
Action
supply eyes for near vision and control of amount of light
Lateral rectus Lateral CN VI entering the eye.
Medial rectus Medially CN III - Parts:
Superior rectus Upwards and medially CN III
a) Choroid
Inferior rectus Downwards and CN III
- middle coat of the eye
medially
- blood-rich nutritive tunic that contains a
Inferior oblique Upwards and laterally CN III
Superior Downwards and laterally CN IV dark pigment that prevents light from
oblique scattering inside the eye
b) Ciliary Body
- a thickening of the vascular tunic
- connects choroid with circumference of iris
- with ciliary muscle for accommodation
- when ciliary muscle contracts, the lens
become more convex
- with ciliary process producing aqueous
humor

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c) Iris
- heavily pigmented colored part of eye Lens
- acts like a diaphragm with a central opening - transparent biconvex body situated immediately
called pupil. Smooth muscle in iris control the behind the pupil.
amount of lights going to the retina - shape changes during accommodation
- rest on anterior surface of the lens, thus it - covered by a homogenous highly refractile capsule
separates the anterior chamber from the posterior which is essentially an exceedingly thick basal lamina
chamber.
- main mass consists of loose, pigmented, highly
vascular connective tissue.
- with 2 smooth muscles:
1. Sphincter Pupillae
- circumferentially oriented fibers
- constriction of pupils -
parasympathetic
2. Dilator Pupillae
- radially oriented fibers
- dilation of pupils - sympathetic
3. Nervous Coat
- Retina
- innermost layer where receptors for sense of
sight are found
- nervous coat of the eyeball containing the
photoreceptor cells
- Photoreceptors:
a) Rods
- stimulated by low intensity light
- for night vision (scotopic vision)
- contains reddish pigment, Rhodopsin.
Very sensitive and produces
detectable signal on absorption of a
single photon of light
b) Cones
- stimulated by high intensity light for
day vision/color vision (photopic)
sensitive to blue, green and red lights.
- And the differences in absorption of
these 3 kinds provide basis for color
vision.
Refractive Media of The Eye
- the transparent structures traversed by the light rays on
the way to the photoreceptors of the retina.
- These structures can bend or refract the light rays so
the images can be focused on the retina.
- Parts: Cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous
humor

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Vitreous Humor
- colorless, structureless. gelatinous mass with a glass- •
like transparency filling up the vitreous cavity between
lens and retina.
- nearly 99% is water
- with liquid and solid phase.
Eyeball
- the stimuli for sense of vision, the light rays must pass
through the different parts of the refractive media
before reaching the retina.
- These are the following:
a) cornea
b) aqueous humor
c) lens
d) vitreous humor
Pars Optica
- photosensitive area
- with a circular depressed white area, optic disk or optic
papilla where optic nerve exits and retinal vessels enter
and leave
Optic Disk
- contains nerve fibers but no photoreceptors and is
insensitive to light. Called physiologic blind spot.
- 2.5 cm lateral to optic disk is a small oval yellow area
Macula Lutea with central depressed area Fovea
Centralis. This is the area of most acute vision.
- Characterized by presence of cones and neural element
greater than elsewhere. This is a rod free area
• the light rays must then pass through the layers of the
retina to reach the photoreceptive layers of rods and
cones.
• the outer segments of rods and cones transduce light
energy from photons into membrane potentials.
• photopigments in rods and cones absorb protons, and
this causes a conformational change in the molecular
structure of these pigments.
• rods and cones have synaptic contacts on bipolar cells
that project to ganglion cells.
• axons from the ganglion cells converge at the optic disc
to form the optic nerve, which enters the cranial cavity
through the optic foramen.
• at the optic disc, these axons acquire a myelin sheath
from the oligodendrocytes of the CNS.
• at the optic chiasm, 60% of the optic nerve fibers from
the nasal half of each retina cross and project into the
contralateral optic tract
• fibers from the temporal retina do not cross at the
chiasm and instead pass into the ipsilateral optic tract.
the optic tract contains remixed optic nerve fibers from
the temporal part of the ipsilateral retina and fibers from
the nasal part of the contralateral retina.
• the eye inverts images like a camera, in reality each
nasal retina receives information from a temporal
hemifield, and each temporal retina receives
information from a nasal hemifield.
Visual Pathway & Visual Fields Defects
1. Right optic nerve lesion
- Anopsia of right eye
2. Lesion of both lateral parts of optic chiasm
- Binasal Heteronymous hemianopsia
3. Lesion of medial part of optic chiasm
- Bitemporal heteronymous hemianopsia
4. Right optic tract lesion
5. Right optic radiation lesion
6. Right calcarine area lesion
- Left homonymous hemianopsia
Cuneus gyri
- lies on the superior bank of the calcarine cortex
- receives the medial fibers of the visual radiations.
Lingual gyrus
- lies on the inferior bank of the calcarine cortex.
- the medial fibers coursing in the visual radiations,
which carry input from the upper retina (i.e. the lower
contralateral visual field)
- pass from the lateral geniculate body directly through
the parietal lobe to reach the cuneus gyrus.
Special Sense: Hearing or Auditory Sense
Made up of 3 parts:
I. External Ear
- Pinna or auricle
- External acoustic meatus
II. Middle ear (Tympanic cavity)
- Ossicles (malleus, incus stapes)
- Tensor tympani, stapedius
III. Internal Ear (Labyrinth)
External Ear (Outer)
1. Pinna or Auricle
- Shell shaped structure surrounding the auditory
canal opening
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2. External Auditory Canal b) Utricle and saccule
- A short narrow chamber (about 1 inch long by
1 - Inside bony vestibule
2
c) 3 semicircular ducts
inch wide)
- Inside the semicircular canal
- Curved into temporal bone of the skull
- Fluid inside the bony labyrinth –
- Skin of walls lined with ceruminous glans which
endolymph
secrete a waxy yellow substance called earwax
- Fluid inside the membranous labyrinth
or cerum
Receptor for Hearing – “Organ of Corti” – cochlea
3. Tympanic Membrane or Eardrum
Cochlea
- A thin membrane separating outer from middle 3
ear. - A spiral bony canal turning 2 around a central bony
4
Middle Ear (Tympanic cavity) axis called Modiolus
- A small, air-filled cavity within the temporal bone. - a spiral bony projection from modiolus called Spiral
a) Medial boundary 3
Lamina makes also a 2 turns.
4
- A bony wall with 2 openings: oval window and
- This incompletely divides the bony cochlea into 2:
round window
a) Scala vestibuli
b) Lateral boundary
b) Scala tympani
- Tympanic membrane with handle of the malleus
- Scala vestibuli and tympani contain perilymph – they
attached.
communicate in Helicotrema
c) Anterior boundary
- Scala media contains endolymph
- Eustachian tube connects middle ear and
nasopharynx.
Tectorial Membrane
d) Posterior boundary
- Composed of five filaments embedded in gelatinous
- Mastoid process
matric rich in mucopolysaccharides.
Ossicles in the middle ear: - Secreted at the upper surface of Interdental Cells.
• Malleus (hammer) attached to tympanic membrane.
• Incus (anvil) 2 types of Deafness
• Stapes (stirrups) pressure on the oval window of the 1. Conduction deafness
inner ear. - Temporary or permanent
- Disease of external and middle ear
Internal Ear (Inner) - E.g.
Composed of 2 parts: • Impacted cerumen
1. Bony labyrinth • Otosclerosis – fusion of ossicles
- Wall is bony (temporal bone) • Rupture of eardrum
- Fluid is perilymph • Otitis media – inflammation in the middle
- Made of: ear
a) Cochlea 2. Sensorineural
- Made up of scala vestibule and tympani - Degeneration or damage to receptor cells, to
- Concerned with hearing cochlear nerve, or to neurons of auditory cortex
b) Vestibule due to old age (presbycusis), extended listening
- Concerned with static equilibrium to excessively loud sounds, intake of ototoxic
c) 3 semicircular canals drugs
- Concerned with dynamic equilibrium Hearing Test
2. Membranous labyrinth 1. Weber’s Test
- Found inside the bony labyrinth - base of vibrating tuning fork is applied to the
- Wall is fibrous forehead in the midline
- Fluid inside is endolymph a) Normal – sound – midline
a) Scala media b) Conduction – sound louder in the affected ear
- Inside bony cochlea c) Sensorineural – sound louder in the normal ear

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2. Rinne’s Test
- base of tuning fork is placed over the mastoid
process of the skull
- when it can no longer be heard, it is removed and
then is held in front of the ear
a) Normal – air conduction greater than bone
conduction.
b) Conduction deafness – bone conduction greater
than air condition
c) Sensorineural deafness – both are diminished but
air condition remains better than bone conduction.
Vestibular Apparatus
Functions:
1. Maintains body balance
2. Coordinates eye, head and body movements
3. Permits eyes to remain fixed on a point in the space
as the head moves.
Vestibular organs
- vestibule and the semicircular canals are
components of the bony labyrinth associated with
balance
- membranous part of each includes a special sensory
organ composed of:
Receptors:
Crista Ampullaris
- for angular acceleration
- found in the dilatations of semicircular ducts
called ampulla
- contains gelatinous substance called cupula
Macula
- found in the vestibule
- Stimulated by linear acceleration
- Contains gelatinous substance called otolithic
membrane containing otoconia, which are calcium
carbonate crystals
a) Dynamic function
- Mediated largely by the semicircular canals
- Can detect motion of head in space
b) Static function
- Mediated mostly by the utricle
- Allow detection of the position of the head in
relation to gravity
- Important in control of posture
Utricle
- largest membranous component of the vestibular
system
Saccule
- spherical and smaller
- communicates with the cochlear duct through the short
narrow ductus reuniens and with the utricle through the
utriculo-saccular duct.
Endolymphatic duct
- tubular evagination of the utriculosaccular duct
- it terminates as a blind expansion called the
endolymphatic sac
Vestibular Nuclei
1. Superior – vestibular nucleus of Bechterew
2. Inferior –descending spinal
3. Medial – vestibular nucleus of Schwalbe
4. Lateral – vestibular nucleus of Deither
• Will have ascending fibers synapsing with somatic
motor neurons of CN III, IV, VI for movement of
eyeballs
• will have descending fibers to the spinal cord
controlling the anti-gravity muscles
Olfaction
- Receptor: olfactory epithelium located in the upper
1/3 of each nasal mucosa
- stimulated by chemicals (chemoreceptor) dissolved in
the mucus, they transmit impulses along olfactory
nerve to olfactory center in the temporal lobe (uncus –
Brodmann’s Area 34)
- closely tied with the limbic system (emotional –
visceral part of the brain)
Gustatory
Taste Receptors: taste buds
Taste Buds
- most are localized in the tongue
- few found on the soft palate, inner surface of the cheeks,
walls of oropharynx
- cylindrical taste bud is composed of many sensory
gustatory cells that are encapsulated by supporting cells
Taste Pore
- opening in the taste buds where the gustatory hairs
(sensitive portion of receptor cell) pass through.
- dorsal surface of tongue is covered with small peglike
projections

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Papillae
1. Circumvallate
2. Fungiform
3. Foliate
4. Filiform – contain only gustatory cells (no taste buds)

Taste sites on the tongue

• Sweet – sugar, saccharine, some amino acids

• Salt – metal ions
• Bitter – alkaloids
• Sour – hydrogen ions, acidity

Gustatory Center
- Termination of the gustatory pathway is at the area
located in the opercular part of the post central gyrus
(Brodmann’s Area 43)

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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Internal Genitalia

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Testis
Functions: - intra-abdominal during fetal life
1. Production and transport of male sperm cells - descends and covered by tunica vaginalis from
2. Production of male hormones like testosterone peritoneum
Gonads: - deep covering tunica albuginea
• Male – testis - divides the testis into lobules
• Female – ovary - each lobule contains seminiferous tubule
External Genitalia
Scrotum Cells in the Testis:
- wrinkled sac containing testis, epididymis, and vas 1. Spermatogenic cells
deferens - grow and mature to form mature sperm cells.
- dartos muscle 2. Sertoli cells/ Sustentacular cells
- regulates testicular temperature - support and protect sperm cells.
- cold temperature – testis gets closer to the body 3. Interstitial cells of Leydig
- warm temperature- testis hangs loosely - secrete testosterone
- spermatogenesis requires 2-3 °C lower than body - located in between seminiferous tubules
temperature
Penis Male Reproductive Duct
1. Body
A. Epididymis
- made up 3 erectile tissues
- comma shaped, 4cm long,
a) Corpora Cavernosa
- located posterior to the testis, with ff parts, head,
- 2, dorsolateral, vascular spaces
body and tail
b) Corpus Spongiosum
- tail is continuous with vas deferens
- contains spongy urethra
Functions:
- located ventrally
1. Site of sperm maturation – mobility and capability
2. Root
to fertilize an ovum (10-14 days)
- proximal
2. Storage of sperm cells
a) Bulb
3. Propel sperm cells to vas deferens
- expanded proximal portion of corpus
spongiosum.
B. Vas/ Ductus Deferens
- Covered by bulbospongiosum.
- Continuation of epididymis
b) Crura
- 45cm long
- proximal tapered parts of corpora
- Passes through the inguinal canal and enter the
cavernosa.
pelvic cavity
- Covered by ischiocavernosum.
- Joins the duct of seminal vesicle to form
3. Glans penis
ejaculatory duct – which will drain to the prostatic
- expanded distal end of corpus spongiosum
urethra
- distal terminal urethra is expanded called
- Will go to the back of urinary bladder and will
fossa navicularis
dilate to form your ampulla
- prepuce and frenulum
Functions:
1. Storage of sperm cells
2. Conveys sperm cell from epididymis to
ejaculatory duct and urethra
3. Reabsorbed not ejaculated sperm cells

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C. Cowper’s (Bulbourethral) Gland
- Located within the urogenital diaphragm on either Semen
side of membranous urethra - volume- 2.5- 5ml with 50-150million sperm cells/ml
- opens into penile urethra appro 300-500millions sperm
Secretions: - Slightly alkaline 7.2-7.7
1. Alkaline fluid - Contains seminal plasmin destroys certain bacteria
2. Mucus – lubricates penis and lining of urethra - Once ejaculated sperm coagulates in 5min due to
clotting protein from seminal vesicle
Male Urethra (20 cm) - About 10-20 min liquefies due to prostate specific
- for passage way of urine and semen antigen (PSA) and other proteolytic enzymes from
a) Prostatic (2-3 cm) prostate
- Traverse prostate gland
Components of Semen:
- widest, most dilatable
1. Seminal fluid
b) Membranous (1 cm)
- secretion from glands
- traverses’ urogenital diaphragm
- prostate gives milky white, seminal vesicle and
- shortest and least dilatable
bulbourethral gland sticky appearance
c) Penile (15-20 cm)
2. Sperm
- longest, travers’s corpus spongiosum
- 70um, viable in 72hrs
a) Head
Accessory Reproductive Organs
1. Acrosomes with lysosomal enzymes for
1. Prostate gland
penetration of zona pellucida of 2° oocyte
- located beneath urinary bladder with 5 lobes
2. Nucleus – with 23 chromosomes haploid
- surround prostatic urethra
number
- secretes milky, slightly acidic pH 6.5 seminal fluid
b) Mid Piece – with mitochondria
Secretions of Prostate gland:
c) Tail – flagella for motility
1. Citric acid – for ATP energy of sperm cells
Erection
2. Acid phosphatase
- Enlargement and stiffening of the penis
3. Proteolytic enzyme – breaks down clotting protein
- Due to tactile, visual, auditory, olfactory and
4. Prostate specific antigen (PSA)
imagination reaches erection center in hypothalamus -
-- sends parasympathetic nerve impulses into the penis
2. Seminal vesicle
--- vasodilatation of helicine arteries into the penis –
- Located postero-inferior to urinary bladder
erection
- 5cm long
- Convoluted pouch Ejaculation
- 60% of semen volume - Powerful expulsion of semen from the urethra to the
- Secretes fructose exterior --- due to sympathetic reflex--- closure of
Secretions: smooth muscle sphincter at the base of urinary
1. Alkaline viscous fluid bladder- peristaltic contraction of the male
- neutralizes acidic environment of vagina and male reproductive tract
urethra Emission
- contains fructose for energy source of sperm cells - Discharge of small volume of semen before
2. Prostaglandin ejaculation
- mobility and sperm viability - May occur during sleep, nocturnal emission
- stimulate smooth muscle contraction of female - Due to peristaltic contraction of male reproductive
3. Clotting protein tracts
- coagulate sperm after ejaculation Cryptorchidism
- Undescended testis
- 80% will spontaneously descend during 1 year of life
- May result to sterility and testicular cancer

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Circumcision Internal Genitalia

- Removal of the foreskin from the penis 1. Vagina
- fibromuscular canal
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - lined by mucous membrane
Functions: - rugae
1. Production and transport of ovum - hymen
2. Production of hormones - acidic
- Estrogen - fornices
- Progesterone Functions of Vagina:
- Relaxin 1. Copulation
- Inhibin - Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
3. Nurture the developing zygote 2. Birth canal
3. Outlet of menstrual flow
Perineum
- Diamond shape 2. Uterus
- Contains genitalia and anus Parts:
Boundaries: 1) Fundus
a) Anterior – pubic symphysis - Above attachment of fallopian tube
b) Lateral – ischial tuberosities 2) Body
c) Posterior – coccyx - From attachment of fundus to isthmus uteri
3) Cervix
External genitalia - Distal with canal
- Sex organ is located - Surrounded by proximal part of vaginal canal
1. Mons pubis
- Mound, fats beneath and symphysis pubis Layers of the Uterus:
- Puberty, pubic 1. Perimetrium
2. Labia majora - outer covering
- Skin fold with hair - derived from peritoneum
- Pudendal cleft – space in between labia majora - forms the uterovesical and rectouterine pouch
3. Labia Minora 2. Myometrium
- Skin fold, hairless - Middle layer
- Few swear gland, many sebaceous gland - Smooth muscles
- Vestibule – space between labia minora - Thickest at the fundus and thinnest at the
a) Clitoris cervix
- Frenulum and prepuce - Response to oxytocin stimulation during labor
- Small cylindrical mass and delivery
- Abundant nerve endings 3. Endometrium
- Corpora cavernosa- clitoral erection - Innermost
- Homologue to male glans penis - Contains endometrial glands
b) Urethral orifice - Response to estrogen and progesterone that
c) Paraurethral glands (skene’s gland) prepares the uterus for possible implantation
- Secretes mucus - Layers:
- Homologue to prostate a) Stratum functionalis
- vaginal orifice – guarded with hymen - slough off during menstruation
d) Bartholin’s (greater vestibular gland) b) Stratum basalis
- does not slough off during menstruation
gives rise to new stratum functionalis

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Ligaments support of the Uterus: Female Reproductive Cycle

1. Broad ligament 1. Ovarian Cycle
- Derived from peritoneum - involves maturation of oocyte
2. Round ligament of the uterus 2. Uterine cycle
3. Uterosacral ligament - Changes in the endometrium
4. Cardinal ligament Hormonal regulation
3. Fallopian Tube - Controlled by GnRH from hypothalamus that causes
Parts: the release of FSH and LH
1. Infundibulum 1. Follicle stimulating Hormone
- With fimbria - stimulate growth of follicle and secretion of
2. Ampulla estrogen
- Most dilated 2. Luteinizing hormone
- Site of fertilization - stimulate further development of follicle,
- Longest, lat 2/3 ovulation, corpus luteum production of
3. Isthmus progesterone
- Narrowest 3. Estrogen
4. Intramural/ interstitial - maintenance of female repro, secondary
- Buried into uterus characteristics and breast development.
4. Progesterone
Functions of Fallopian Tube: - Secreted by corpus luteum
- Provide route for sperm to reach the ovum - Acts synergistically with estrogen
- Transport oocyte from ovary to fallopian tube - Prepares the endometrium for implantation and
during ovulation mammary gland for milk production
- Site of oocyte digestion if no fertilization Phases of Female Reproductive cycle
- Transport fertilized ovum to be implanted in the a) Menstrual phase
endometrium of the uterus - Last for 3-5 days
4. Ovary - 1st day of menstruation is 1st day of cycle
- Almond shape - 50-150ml of menstrual flow
- located lateral to the uterus - decreased estrogen and progesterone level in the
- produces oocyte blood causes ischemia of functionalis leading to
- mesovarium menstruation
- ovarian ligament b) Preovulatory Phase (Proliferative)
- infundibulopelvic ligament - Between menstruation and ovulation
Hormones secreted by the ovary: - More variable length
1. Progesterone and Estrogen - Dominant follicle is selected to mature
- prepares the uterine glands and maintains the - Estrogen and inhibin secreted by dominant follicle
endometrium for implantation and stop FSH secretion to prevent other follicle to
- Prepares the mammary for milk production grow
- inhibits FSH and LH if high - Repair of endometrium
2. Inhibin - Cells of basalis form new functionalis
- Secreted by granulosa cell and inhibits FSH c) Ovulation
secretion - Release of secondary oocyte into the follopian
3. Relaxin tube
- relaxes the uterus during implantation and - Usually during 14th day of a 28th day cycle
pregnancy - Follicles retained from mature graafian lead to
- help dilates the cervix minor bleeding called corpus hemorrhagicum and
later transforms into corpus luteum

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d) Post Ovulatory Phase

- Constant phase last for 14 days in a 28 days cycle
- After ovulation LH stimulated remnants of mature
graafian follicle to develop into corpus luteum
- Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and some
estrogen
- Ovary if oocyte is fertilized corpus luteum can
persist up to 2 weeks due to Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin produced by placenta
- If not fertilized corpus luteum degenerates in 10 to
12 days’ time forming corpus albicans
- Endometrium thickens and edema formation for
preparation of implantation

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