TOS Outline DevPsych 2.0

Developmental Psychology
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Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018), Sigelman-Rider (2012)
Perspectives on Nature and Nurture o Genes turn on and off in patterned ways throughout
o Human Development – focuses on the scientific the lifespan (Epigenetics)
study of the systematic processes of change and o Gene-Environment Interaction – the effects of
stability in people genes depend on what kind of environment we
o Life-Span Development – concept of human experiences, and how we respond to the environment
development as lifelong process, which can be depends on what genes we gave
studied scientifically o In an instance, Intelligence is strongly influenced by
o Life-Span Perspective – views development as heredity. However, it is also affected by parental
lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, stimulation, education, peer influence, and others
multidisciplinary, and contextual, and as a process o 3 factors that contribute to individual differences
that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of in emotionality:
loss 1. Genes
Domains of Development 2. Shared Environmental Influences – common
Physical Development – growth of the body and brain, experiences that work to make them similar (e.g.,
sensory capacities, motor skills, and health parenting style)
Cognitive Development – learning, attention, 3. Nonshared Environmental Influences – unique
memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity experiences to the individual – those who are not
Psychosocial Development – emotions, personality, shared with the other members of the family (e.g.,
and social relationships parental favoritism)
o Social Construction – a concept or practice that is 3 kinds of Gene-Environment Correlations
an invention of a particular culture or society Passive Gene-Environment – parent provide for their
o Stability-Change Issue – which involves the degree children is influenced partly by the parents’ genotypes
to which early traits and characteristics persists Evocative Gene-Environment – child’s genotype
through life or change evokes certain kind of reactions from other people
o Continuity-Discontinuity – focuses on the degree to - Genetic makeup may affect the reactions of other
which development involves either gradual, people to a child and, hence, the kind of social
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages environment that the child will experience
(discontinuity) Active Gene-Environment – children’s genotype
o Maturation – the unfolding of natural sequence of influence the kinds of environment they seek
physical change and behavior patterns o Heredity – consists of inborn traits and
o Behavioral Genetics – scientific study of the extent characteristics provided by the child’s parents
to which genetic and environmental differences (Nature)
among people and animals are responsible for o Environment – influences stems from the outside
differences in their traits body, starting from conception throughout life
o Heritability – proportion of all the variability in the (Nurture)
trait within a large sample of people that can be o Individual Differences – people differ in gender,
linked to genetic differences among those height, weight, and body build; in health and energy
individuals level, etc.
o Gregor Mendel – studied the heredity in plants o Heredity – consists of inborn traits provided by the
o Selective Breeding – involves attempting to breed parents
animals for a particular trait to determine whether the o Context of Development:
trait is heritable 1. Family – Nuclear and Extended Family
▪ Genes contribute to such attributes as activity 2. Socioeconomic Status – combination of economic
level, emotionality, aggressiveness, and sex drive and social factors describing an individual or family,
in rats mice, and chickens including income, education, and occupation
1. Twin Studies 3. Culture – society’s or group’s total way of life
2. Adoption Studies ▪ Ethnic Gloss – overgeneralization that obscures
3. Family Studies or blurs variations
o Concordance Rate – the percentage of pairs of ▪ Race – identifiable biological category, is more
people studied in which if one member of a pair accurately defined social construct
displays the trait, the other does too 4. Gender
5. History
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o Normative Influences – biological or environmental Research Methods in Developmental Psychology and
events that affect many or most people in a society in Ethics
a similar ways and events that touch only certain Ethics
individuals o APA General Principles:
a. Normative Age-Graded Influences General Principles
b. Normative History-Graded Influences A. Beneficence and Take care to do no harm;
▪ Historical Generation – group of people who Nonmaleficence minimize harm
experience the event at a formative time in their B. Fidelity and Establish relationships of
lives Responsibility trusts, upholding
▪ Age Cohort – group of people born at about the professional standards of
same time conduct, cooperate with
o Nonnormative – unusual events that have major other professionals if
impact on individual lives because they disturb the needed to serve the best
expected sequence of the life cycle interests of the client, and
o Imprinting – instinctively follow the first moving strive to contribute their
object they see professional time,
o Critical Period – specific time when a given event, compensated or not.
or its absence, has a specific impact on development C. Integrity Promote accuracy,
o Sensitive Periods – when developing person is honesty, and truthfulness
especially responsive to certain kind of experience D. Justice Fairness and justice to all
o Plasticity – modifiability of performance person to access and
o Theory – set of logically related concepts or benefit from the
statements that seek to describe and explain contributions of
development and to predict the kinds of behavior that psychology
might occur under certain conditions E. Respect for People’s Respect the dignity and
o Hypothesis – explanations or predications that can Rights and Dignity worth of all people by
be tested by further research exercising their rights to
o John Locke – Tabula Rasa privacy, confidentiality,
o Jean Jacques Rousseau – children are born “noble and self-determination
savages” who develop according to their own o PAP General Principles:
positive natural tendencies if not corrupted by General Principles
society I. Respect for Dignity of - Respect for all human
o Mechanistic Model – people are like machines that Persons and Peoples beings, diversity, culture,
react to environmental input beliefs
o Organismic Model – people as active, growing - free and informed
organisms that set their own development in motion; consent
initiate events, and do not just react - privacy, fairness, and
o Continuous – gradual and incremental justice
o Discontinuous – abrupt or uneven II. Competent Caring - working for their benefit
o Quantitative Change – change in number or for the Well-being of and do no harm
amount, such as height, weight, or vocabulary size Persons and Peoples
o Qualitative Change – emergence of new
III. Integrity - honesty, truthfulness,
phenomena that could not be easily predicted on the open and accurate
basis of the past basic functioning communication
o Evolutionary Psychology – emphasized the - appropriate professional
importance of adaptation, reproduction, and boundaries, multiple
“survival of the fittest” in shaping behavior relationships, and
conflicts of interest
IV. Professional and - contributing knowledge
Scientific about human behavior
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Responsibilities to - conducting affairs within ▪ During termination, they must do it rapidly and
Society society with highest minimize the pain
ethical standards o Must no present portions of another’s work or data
o Must provide accurate information and obtain as their own
approval prior to conducting the research ▪ Must take responsibility and credit, including
o Informed consent is required, which include: authorship credit, only for work they have
✓ Purpose of the research actually performed or to which they have
✓ Duration and procedures substantially contributed
✓ Right to decline and withdraw ▪ Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with
✓ Consequences of declining or withdrawing students as early as possible
✓ Potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects o After publishing, they should not withhold data from
✓ Benefits other competent professionals who intends to
✓ Limits of confidentiality reanalyze the data
✓ Incentives for participation ▪ Shared data must be used only for the declared
✓ Researcher’s contact information purpose
o Researchers who study vulnerable population should o Researchers who study cultural influences on
obtain informed consent both from the individual and development or racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic
guardian differences in development must work hard to keep
▪ Seek individual’s assent, provide an explanation, their own cultural values from biasing their
consider their best interest, and obtain permission perceptions of other groups
from their guardians ▪ Ethnocentrism: one’s group is superior than the
▪ Must appropriately document written or oral other groups
consent, permission or assent o Do not conduct studies that involves deception
o Permission for recording images or vices are needed unless deceptive techniques are justified
unless the research consists of solely naturalistic ▪ If ever, deception must be explained as early as
observations in public places, or research designed feasible during the conclusion of the participation
includes deception and participants have the right to withdraw if they
▪ Consent must be obtained during debriefing want to do so
o Dispense or Omitting Informed consent only when: Basic Research Designs
1. Research would not create distress or harm Descriptive – aims to observe and record behavior
▪ Study of normal educational practices conducted Case Study – study of a certain individual or group
in an educational settings - Useful in rare cases
▪ Anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic - Offers useful, in-depth information
observation, archival research - Can explore sources of behavior, test treatments, and
▪ Confidentiality is protected suggest directions for further research
2. Permitted by law - Cannot be easily generalized to other population
o Avoid offering excessive incentives for research - Cannot make strong causal statements
participation that could coerce participation Ethnographic Studies – seek to describe the pattern of
o DO not conduct study that involves deception unless relationships, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, and
they have justified the use of deceptive techniques in traditions that make up a society’s way of life
the study - Case study of the culture
▪ Must be discussed as early as possible and not - Open to observer bias
during the conclusion of data collection - Help overcome cultural biases in theory and research
o They must give opportunity to the participants about - Debunks the logic of western developed theories can
the nature, results, and conclusions of the research be universally applied
and make sure that there are no misconceptions about Correlational Study – determine whether a correlation
the research exist between variables, phenomena that change or
o Must ensure the safety and minimize the discomfort, vary among people or can be varied for purposes of
infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects research
▪ If so, procedures must be justified and be as - Study of the relationship between one variable and
minimal as possible another without manipulation
- No random assignment
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- Lack of control over extraneous variables - Cohort Effects: important because they can
- Cannot establish causation powerfully affect the dependent measures in a study
- Used to study many important issues that cannot be ostensibly concerned with age
studies experimentally for ethical reasons Developmental Theories (25)
- Can study multiple influences operating in natural Psychosexual Theory by Freud (3)
settings o humans were born with a series of innate,
Experiment – controlled procedure which the biologically based drives such as hunger, sex, and
experiment manipulated variables to learn how one aggression early experiences shaped later
affects another functioning
- Establish cause-and-effect o people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts
- Permit replication of which they are largely unaware that they are
- Manipulation shaped by their earliest experiences with the family
- Could encounter ethical issues o viewed newborn as “seething cauldron”, an
- Can be artificial inherently selfish creature driven by Instincts
Quasi-Experiment – natural experiment; compares (inborn biological forces that motivate behavior)
people who have been accidentally assigned to separate o strongly believed in unconscious motivation – the
groups by circumstances of life power of instincts and other inner forces to influence
- Actually, a correlational study our behavior without out awareness
Differentiating Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal o biological instincts provide unconscious motivation
Studies for actions
Developmental Research Designs o selfish and aggressive = negative view of human
Cross-Sectional nature
- children of different ages are assessed at ONE point o Id, Ego, Superego
of time 1. Id – pleasure principle, impulsive, irrational, selfish,
- more economical seeks immediate gratification
- no cases of attrition (dropping out of the study) or 2. Ego – reality principle, rational, finds realistic way
repeated testing (practice effect) to gratify instincts
- individual differences and trajectories may be ▪ Emerge during infancy when psychic energy is
obscured diverted from the id to energize cognitive
- results can be affected by differing experiences of processes
people born at different times 3. Superego – morality principle, individual’s
Longitudinal internalized moral standards
- study the SAME GROUP or PERSON more than ▪ develops from the ego as 3-6 years old internalize
once, or even years apart the moral standards and values of their parents
- can track individual patterns of continuity and change o Health Personality = balance of the id, ego, superego
- time-consuming and expensive o Psychological problems arise when the individual’s
- repeated testing could result to practice effect supply of psychic energy is unevenly distributed
- attrition could be a problem among the id, ego, and superego
- turnover of research personnel, loss of funding, or the o Fixation – arrest in development that can show up in
development of new measures or methodologies adult personality; libido remains tied to an earlier
Sequential stage of development
- data are collected on successive cross-sectional or ▪ Oral Fixation: may grow up to become nail-biters
longitudinal samples or smokers
- track people of different ages over time ▪ Anal Fixation: may be obsessively clean, rigidly
- allows researchers to separate age-related change tied to schedules and routines, or defiantly messy
from cohort effects and provides more complete picture Oral
of development - Mouth
- drawbacks: time, effort and complexity - experience anxiety and the need to defend against it
- requires large number of participants and collection if denied oral gratification by not being fed on
and analysis of huge amounts of data over a period of demand or being weaned too early
years - Oral Fixation manifested in adults: alcoholic,
smoking, overeating, Pica, nail biting, thumb sucking
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Anal - a swimming athlete who lost her competition took her
- anus loss as something she expected anyways and she did
- toilet training era not want the trophy
- Anal-Retentive: perfectionist, orderly, tidy Denial – people refuse to accept or acknowledge an
- Anal-Expulsive: lack of self-control, messy, careless anxiety-producing piece of information
Phallic - a widow never accepted that her husband died in an
- genitals accident
- youngsters develop an incestuous desire for the parent Projection – people attribute unwanted impulses and
of the other sex and must defend against it feelings to someone else
- Oedipus Complex: loves his mother, fears that his - A woman fat-shamed another woman because she is
father will retaliate by castrating him, and resolves the insecure about her body
conflicts through identification with his father Sublimation – people divert unwanted impulses into
- Electra Complex: a girl having desire with her father, socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
seeing her mother as a rival - An angry man jogged instead to cool down his anger
- Castration Anxiety: son believes his father knows Reaction-Formation – unconscious impulses are
about his desire for his mother and fears that his father expressed as their opposite in consciousness
will castrate him - A mother who unconsciously resent her child, acts
- Penis Envy: a girl wants a penis as she desires her lovingly consciously
father o stage-oriented
Latency o reactive
- sexual urges sublimated into sports and hobbies Psychosocial Theory by Erikson
Genitals Period Crisis Virtue
- genitals Infancy Trust Vs. Mistrust Hope
- physical sexual urges reawaken repressed needs Toddlerhood Autonomy vs. Will
- direct sexual feelings towards others lead to sexual Shame and Doubt
gratification Early Childhood Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose
- may have difficulty accepting their new sexuality, Middle and late Industry vs. Competence
therefore, reexperiencing conflict towards their Childhood Inferiority
parents and distance themselves to defend against Adolescence Identity vs. Fidelity
anxiety-producing feelings Identity
o personality formed from unconscious childhood Confusion
conflicts between the inborn urges of the id and the Young Adulthood Intimacy vs. Love
requirements of civilized life Isolation
o Defense Mechanisms – ego adapts unconscious Middle Generativity vs. Care
coping devices Adulthood Stagnation
Repression – unacceptable or unpleasant impulses are Late Adulthood Integrity vs. Wisdom
pushed back into the unconscious Despair
- a woman who experienced sexual harassment cannot o emphasized the influence of society on the
recall what happened to her developing personality
Regression – behaving as if they were at an earlier o Crisis: major psychosocial challenge that is
stage of development particularly important at that time and will remain an
- your father throws a tantrum when he was left alone issue to some degree throughout the rest of life
at home o each stage requires balancing positive and negative
Displacement – the expression of an unwanted feeling tendency
or mere thought is redirected from a more threatening, o successful resolution of each crisis puts the person in
powerful person to a weaker one a particularly good position to address the next crisis,
- an employee shouted at his child after being scolded a process that occurs iteratively across the life span
by his boss o social and cultural influences mattered
Rationalization – people distort reality in order to o Social Clock: conventional, culturally preferred
justify something that has happened timing of important life events
o development is a lifelong process
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o stage-oriented o Equilibration – children shift from one stage of
o active thought to the next
Cognitive Development by Piaget Substages
o viewed intelligence as a process that helps an 1. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month)
organism adapt to its environment Exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control
o children are not born with innate ideas of reality over them
o Constructivism – children actively construct new Practice their reflexes and control them (e.g., sucking
understandings of the world based on their whenever they want to)
experiences 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)
o development as the product of children’s attempts to Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance
understand and act upon their world Begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp
o begins with an inborn ability to adapt to the objects
environment They turn towards the sounds
o Cognitive Growth occurs through 3 related 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
processes: Organization, Adaptation, and Repeat actions that brings interesting results
Equilibration Learns about causality
o Organization: tendency to create categories
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12
o Schemes: ways of organizing information about the
months)
world that govern the way the child thinks and
Coordinate previously learned schemes and use
behaves in a particular situation
previously learned behaviors to attain their goals
o Adaptation: how children handle new information in
Can anticipate events
light of what they already know
o Assimilation: incorporating it into existing cognitive 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
structures Purposefully vary their actions to see results
o Accommodation: adjusting one’s cognitive structures Actively explore the world
to fit the new info Trial and error in solving problems
o Equilibration: children want what they understand of 6. Mental Combinations
the world to match what they observe around them Can think about events and anticipate consequences
o provided rough benchmarks for what to expect of without always resorting action
children at various ages and has helped educators Can use symbols such as gestures and words, and can
design curricula appropriate to varying levels of pretend
development Transition to Pre-operational stage
o stage-oriented Learns about numbers
o active o Representational Ability – the ability to mentally
Sensorimotor represent objects and actions in memory, largely
o The first stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental
development is Sensorimotor Stage picture
o Approx. from birth to 2 years old o Infants develop the abilities to think and remember
o Circular Reactions – an infant learns to reproduce o Visible Imitation that uses body parts that babies can
events originally discovered by chance see develops first followed by Invisible Imitation
o Schemes – actions or mental representations that can (involves with parts of the body that babies cannot
be performed on objects see)
o Assimilation – occurs when children use their o Piaget believed that children under 18 months could
existing schemes to deal with new information not engage in Deferred Imitation
o Accommodation – occurs when children adjust their ▪ Reproduction of an observed behavior after the
schemes to take new information and experiences passage of time
into account ▪ Children lacked the ability to retain mental
o Organization – grouping of isolated behaviors and representations
thoughts into higher-order system o Infants under the age of about 8 months act as if an
o Disequilibrium – cognitive conflict object no longer exists once it is out other line of
o Children constantly assimilate and accommodate as sight
they seek equilibrium
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o Object Permanence – the realization that something o Identities – the concept that people and many things
continues to exist when out of sight are basically the same even if they change in outward
o Until about 15 months, infants use their hands to form, size, or appearance
explore pictures as if they were objects o Animism – tendency to attribute life to objects that
o By 19 months, children are able to point at a picture are not alive
of an object while saying its name, demonstrating an o Centration – the tendency to focus on one aspect of
understanding that a picture is a symbol of something a situation and neglect others
else ▪ Children cannot Decenter (think about several
o Dual Representation Hypothesis – proposal that aspects of a situation at one time)
children under age of 3 have difficulty grasping ▪ Involves on focusing on one dimension while
spatial relationships because of the need to keep ignoring the other
more than one mental representation in mind at the ▪ Irreversibility: failure to understand that an action
same time can go in two or more directions
Pre-operational o Egocentrism – young children center so much on
o Jean Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development their own point of view that they cannot take in
o Lasting from ages 2 to 7, characterized by the another’s
expansion in the use of symbolic thought o Conservation – the fact that two things are equal
o Children begin to represent the world with words, remain so if their appearance is altered, as long as
images, and drawings nothing is added or taken away
o Dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs o Theory of Mind – the awareness of the broad range
o Does not yet perform Operations (which are of human mental states – beliefs, intents, desires,
reversible mental actions that allow children to do dreams, and so forth – and the understanding that
mentally what before they could do only physically) others have their own
o Preoperational Thought – beginning of the ability ▪ Allows us to understand and predict the behavior
to reconstruct in thought what has been established of others and makes the social world
in behavior understandable
o Divided into Symbolic Function and Intuitive Concrete Operational
Thought o At about 7 years of age, children enter the stage of
1. Symbolic Function – being able to think about Concrete Operations according to Jean Piaget
something in the absence of sensory or motor cues o Children can now think logically because they can
▪ Can use symbols, or mental representations such take multiple aspects of situations into account
as words, numbers, or images to which a person o However, their thinking is still limited to real
has attached meaning situations in the here and now
▪ Deferred Imitation: children imitate an action at o Better understanding of:
some point after observing it ✓ Spatial concepts – allows to interpret maps and
▪ Pretend Play: fantasy play, dramatic play, or navigate environment
imaginary play; children use an object to ✓ Causality – makes judgement about cause and effects
represent something else ✓ Categorization
▪ The most extensive use of symbolic function is ▪ Seriation: arranging objects in a series according
language to one or more dimensions
▪ Occurs between ages of 2 and 4 ▪ Transitive Inferences/Transivity: e.g. A < B < C
2. Intuitive Thought – begin to use primitive reasoning ▪ Class Inclusion: ability to see the relationship
and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions between a whole and its parts, and to understand
▪ Occurs approx. 4-7 yrs of age categories within a whole
o Children also begin to able to understand the symbols ✓ Inductive and Deductive reasoning
that describe physical spaces ▪ Inductive Reasoning: involves making
o Piaget believed that children cannot yet reason observations about particular members of a class
logically about causality of people, animals, objects, or events, and then
o Transduction – they mentally link two events, drawing conclusions about the class as a whole
especially events close in time, whether or not here ▪ Deductive Reasoning: starts with a general
is logically a causal relationship statement about a class and applies it to particular
members of the class
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▪ Piaget believed that children in the concrete o Adolescents also become more skilled in social
operations stage only used inductive reasoning perspective-taking, the ability to tailor their speech
✓ Conservation to another person’s POV
▪ Principle of Identity: still same object even tho it o Fuzzy-Trace Theory Dual-Process Model –
has different appearance decision making is influenced by two cognitive
▪ Principle of Reversibility: can picture what would systems: verbatim analytical and gist-intuitional,
happen if he tried to roll back the clay of snake which operate in parallel
▪ Decenter: ability to look at more than one aspect Moral Development by Kohlberg
of the two objects at once Level I: Preconventional Morality (3-7 yrs old)
✓ Numbers Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Formal Operational The child/individual is good to AVOID
o Adolescents enter what Piaget called the highest PUNISHMENT because punishment equates, they
level of cognitive development – Formal must have done something wrong
Operations
o Adolescents move away from their reliance on “What will happen to me if I do this?”
concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
capacity for abstract thought Children recognize that there is not just one right view
o Usually around 11 yrs old that is handed down by authorities. They conform to
o They can now use symbols to represent other rules out of self-interest and consideration what others
symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities, can do for them.
create hypotheses
o Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning – methodical, “You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.”
scientific approach to problem solving, and it Level II: Conventional Morality (Morality of
characterizes formal operations thinking Conventional Role Conformity) (8-13 yrs old)
▪ Involves ability to develop, consider, and test Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationship
hypotheses The child is good in order to be seen as a good person
▪ Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain by others. Approval of others is important.
maturation and expanding environmental
opportunities e.g., Donating to the victims of the recent typhoon and
o According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking posting it on social media so everyone knows they did
of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and something good.
their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order
bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its The child becomes aware of the rules of the society, so
use judgement concern obeying the rules to uphold the law
o Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at and avoid guilt.
the same time yet may lack effective strategies for
choosing them e.g., Crossing the pedestrian crossing or going on a full
o Self-Consciousness – adolescents can think about stop when the traffic light turned red.
thinking – their own and the other people’s thoughts Level III: Postconventional Morality (Morality of
o Imaginary Audience – a conceptualized “observer” Autonomous Moral Principles) (14-older yrs old)
who is concerned with a young person’s thoughts and
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
behavior as he or she is
Child becomes aware that while rules might exist for
o Adolescents often assume everyone is thinking about
the betterment of everyone, there are times you have to
the same thing they are thinking about: themselves
bend the law for self-interests.
o Personal Fable – belief that they are special, their
experience is unique, and they are not subject to the
e.g., Some lawyers study the law so in case they need
rules that govern the rest of the world
it, they can find a loophole and they won’t be convicted.
▪ Underlies much risky, self-destructive behavior
Some laws are unfair and unjust.
▪ Brain immaturity biases adolescent toward risky
Stage 6: Universal Principles
decision making
People developed their own set of moral guidelines,
which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply
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to everyone. They do what they think is right regardless o Macrosystem: overarching cultural patterns such as
of legal restrictions or opinion of others. dominants beliefs, ideologies, and economic and
political systems
e.g., LGBTQIA++ community are still being o Chronosystem: dimension of time
discriminated and just tolerated by the society, but o Exosystem: family composition, place of residence,
certain someone thinks that they deserve better. Thus, or parents’ employment, and larger events
they do everything to recognize the rights of the people o active
of the minority. Sociocultural Theory by Vygotsky
o Kohlberg placed too much emphasis on moral o cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural
thought and not enough for moral behaviors context in which it occurs and grows out of
o Cosmic Stage – people consider the effect of their children’s interactions with the member of the
actions not only on other people but on the universe culture
as a whole o cognitive growth as collaborative process
o Just because a person is capable of moral reasoning o people learn through social interaction
does not necessarily mean the person actually o placed emphasis on Language
o adults or more advanced peers must help direct and
engages in moral reasoning
organize a child’s learning before the child can
o Kohlberg’s System is biased against non-western master and internalize it
cultures o Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the gap
Ecological Model by Bronfenbrenner between what they are already able to do by
themselves and what they can accomplish with
assistance
o Scaffolding: supportive assistance with a task that
parents, teachers, or others give a child
o Allow testers to offer hints to children who were
having trouble answering a question, thereby
focusing on that child’s potential learning
o active
Attachment by Ainsworth and Mahler
Ainsworth – Attachment Theory
o Attachment – reciprocal, enduring emotional tie
between an infant and a caregiver, each of whom
contributes to the quality of the relationship
o Strange Situation – by Mary Ainsworth; designed
to assess attachment patterns between infant and
adult
Secure Attachment – flexible, resilient
- Secure attachment in early development becomes a
foundation for psychological development later
- Parenting Style: Sensitive and Responsive
o child is not seen as just an outcome of development;
the child is an active shaper of development Avoidant (Insecure) Attachment – outwardly
o to understand development, we must see the child unaffected by a caregiver leaving or returning
within the context of multiple environments - Not distressed if caregiver leaves, do not reestablish
surrounding contact when they return
- Parenting Style: Inconsistent, often unresponsive
o Microsystem: everyday environment; interactions
with family, friends, etc. Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment – generally
o Mesosystem: linkages between home and school or anxious even before the caregiver leaves
between the family or peer groups (events that links - Cling to the caregiver then push them away when
the microsystems) comforted
- Parenting Style: rejecting-unresponsive or intrusive-
overly stimulating
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Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment – lack a - Primary Goal: achieve a state of equilibrium, while
cohesive strategy to deal with the stress of the strange lacking the understanding that the satisfaction needs
situation; they show contradictory, repetitive, or may come from an external source
misdirected behaviors; confused and afraid - as if they are inside their own egg shell
- Strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display Normal Symbiotic Phase (1-5 month)
certain specified behaviors such as extreme fearfulness - first 6 months of life, occurs when the child gains
- Parenting Style: frightened and frightening awareness of caregivers but has no sense of
o According to Bowlby, attachment styles resulted individuality
from repeated interactions with a caregiver - acknowledges the mother’s existence as the main
o Stranger Anxiety – wariness of a person she does source of need-satisfaction
not know - egg extends to include the mother
o Separation Anxiety – distress when a familiar Separation-Individuation (5-24 months)
caregiver leaves her - 4 or 5 months
o Separation Protest – crying when caregiver leaves - child develop a sense of self, separated from the
mother
o Babies react negatively to strangers by 8 or 9 months
- In separation, the infant develops an understanding
o Mutual Regulation – the ability of both infant and
of boundaries of the self
caregiver to respond appropriately and sensitively to - Individuation marks the development of a sense of
each other’s mental and emotional states self
o Social Referencing – seeking emotional information - Differentiation: occurs when the child first gains
to guide behavior awareness that he or she is separate from the mother
Mahler - Separation-Individuation Theory (5-10 months)
o Focused on independence, how the child grows - hatching
entirely dependent being to one who is relatively - Practicing: occurs when child becomes toddler,
independent, both physically and psychologically gaining motor skills that enable the child to explore
o Successful completion of the developmental stages the world independently from his or her caregivers
in first few years of life results in separation and (10-16/18 months)
individuation - hastens the physical development and separation
anxiety decreases
o Separation – internal process of mental separation
- Rapprochement: “backing off” from separation, the
from the mother
child becomes anxious about separation from his
o Individuation – developing self-concept mother and regains closeness (18-24 months)
o the child’s developing capacity to represent the - Object Constancy: development of an internalized
mother, allows his/her independence from the mother mental model of the mother, which unconsciously
o Children exist in a symbiotic phase until they reach accompanies and supports the child even when they
about 6 months of age are physically separated (24+ months)
o They are unaware of their surroundings and others Identity Formation by Marcia
and only are cognizant of themselves as one with o James Marcia distinguished four categories that
their mothers differ according to the presence or absence or crisis
o As the child matures, perception of his or her mother and commitment
begins to evolve and the child internalizes the images o Crisis – period of conscious decision making
of her o Commitment – personal investment in an
o Disruptions in normal developmental trajectory occupation or ideology
could lead to maladaptive behavior o Represent the status of identity development at a
Normal Autistic Phase (0-1 month) particular time, and they may change in any direction
- first weeks of life and shows little social as young people continue to develop
engagement 4 types of Identity status
- infant is focused on himself/herself Identity Achievement: crisis leading to commitment
- uninterested in external stimuli Foreclosure: commitment without crisis
- Result of exploring choices but accepting someone
else’s plans for her life
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- Uncritically accepted others’ opinions o evolutionary explanation of animal behavior could
Moratorium: crisis with no commitment yet be applied to the study of human behavior
- Actively grappling with his identity and trying to o human nature and culture is a product of genetic
decide the path he wants his life to take evolution
- Exploration o influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory, whereas the
Identity Diffusion: no commitment, no crisis organisms vary and individual differences can be
- Not seriously considered options and has avoided inherited
commitments o some organisms, because of their particular
Learning Theories based on Behaviorism and Social characteristics, will survive and hence reproduce at
Learning higher rates than others
o Behaviorism – observed behavior as a predictable o Natural Selection: the differential survival and
response to experience reproduction of different variants of members of a
o reacting to conditions or aspects of their environment species and is the tool the natural world uses to shape
that find pleasing, painful, or threatening evolutionary processes
o Classical Conditioning: response to a stimulus is o Ethology: study of the adaptive behaviors of animal
evoked after repeated association with a stimulus that species in natural contexts
normally elicits response o Evolutionary Psychology: apply Darwinian
o Watson’s “Little Albert Experiment” principles to human behavior
o Operant Conditioning: consequences of o active and reactive
“operating” on the environment; reinforcements and Developmental Principles
punishments Development is lifelong. Each period is affected by
o Reinforcement: increasing the likelihood that the what happened before and will affect what is to come.
behavior will be repeated Development is Multidimensional. Development is
o Punishment: decreasing the likelihood of repetition affected by multiple interacting dimensions such as
o reinforcement is most effective when it immediately biological, psychological, and social dimensions.
follows a behavior Development is Multidirectional. As people gain in
o Extinguished: behavior returns to its original level one area, they may lose some aspects as well.
when a response is no longer reinforced Developmental Science is Multidisciplinary.
o Social Learning Theory Psychologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers
▪ Reciprocal Determinism: behaviorist sees the all shares the same interest in unlocking the mysteries
environment as the chief impetus for of development.
development and Bandura suggested that the Relative Influences of Biology and Culture shift
impetus for development is bidirectional over the life span (Contextual). Biological Abilities
▪ Behaviorism = stimulus > response weaken with age, but cultural supports could help
▪ Social Cognitive Theory = stimulus > response > compensate with the loss.
stimulus Development Involves changing resource
▪ Observational Learning: people learn allocations (involves Growth, Maintenance, and
appropriate social behavior chiefly by observing regulation of loss). Resources may be used for growth,
and imitating models – that is, by watching other for maintenance or recovery, or for dealing with loss
people (usually whose behavior is perceived as when maintenance and recovery is not possible. In an
valued in their culture) instance, during childhood, all resources are used for
▪ Social Cognitive Theory: cognitive processes are growth and nurture. During Midlife, resources are used
at work as people observe models, learn chunks for maintenance and preparation for loss.
of behavior, and mentally put the chunks together Development shows plasticity. Many abilities can be
into complex new behavior patterns improved with training and practice.
▪ Self-Efficacy: confidence in one’s ability Development is influenced by historical and cultural
Evolutionary Theory by Wilson context. Each person develops with multiple contexts.
o draws findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics, Developmental Issues and Tasks (30)
ethology, and evolutionary psychology to explain the Critical Issues during Prenatal Development
adaptive, or survival, value of behavior for an Chromosomal Abnormalities
individual or species Name Description Treatment
#BLEPP2023
Down Syndrome Extra copy of Surgery, (Cooley’s adolescence or
(Trisomy 21) chromosome 21 SPED Anemia) Young adulthood
Extra X Duchenne Males with No treatment
Klinefelter Hormone
Chromosome Muscular muscle
Syndrome Therapy
(XXY) Dystrophy weakness, minor
Abnormality in X SPED, mental
Fragile X
chromosome Speech retardation
Syndrome
causes ID Therapy o Anoxia – oxygen shortage
Missing X ▪ Could be umbilical cord becomes pinched or
Turner Hormone
chromosome for tangled at birth
Syndrome Therapy
females ▪ Could also be the position during birth (breech
Extra Y position)
XYY Syndrome No treatment
chromosome ▪ Can initially cause poor reflexes, seizures, heart
Gene-Linked Abnormalities rate irregularities, and breathing difficulties
Cystic Fibrosis Overproduction Physical ▪ Can also lead so Cerebral Palsy – difficulty
of mucus in the Therapy
controlling muscle movements
lungs and
digestive tract ▪ Increases the risk of learning or intellectual
Diabetes Does not produce Insulin disabilities and speech difficulties
enough insulin o Low Birth Weight Infants – weigh less than 5
Hemophilia Delayed blood Blood pounds and 8 ounces at birth
clotting transfusions ▪ Very Low birth Weight – less than 3 pounds 4
Huntington’s CNS deteriorates ounces
producing ▪ Extremely Low Birth – less than 2 pounds
problem in o Pre-term Infants – born three weeks or more before
muscles and pregnancy reach full term (before the completion of
mental decline 37 weeks of gestation)
Phenylketonuria Build up of Special Diet o Small for Date Infants (Small for Gestational Age
Phenylalanine in Infants) – those whose birth weight is below normal
the body when the length of pregnancy is considered
Sickle-Cell Limits body Penicillin, o Progestin – might help in reducing preterm birth
Anemia oxygen supply Antibiotics,
o Extremely Preterm – born less than 28 weeks
Pain Reliever
gestation
Spina Bifida Incompletely Surgery
closed spinal o Very Preterm – less than 33 weeks
canal o Kangaroo Care – involves skin-to-skin contact in
Tay-Sachs Accumulation of Medication, which the baby, wearing only diaper, is held upright
Disease lipids in the NS Special Diet against the parent’s bare chest to help stabilize the
Anencephaly Absence of brain No treatment preterm’s heartbeat, temp, and breathing
tissue o One condition commonly faced by preterm babies is
Polycystic Enlarged Kidney Respiratory Distress Syndrome wherein there is a
Kidney Disease Kidneys Transplant lack of surfactant (lung-coating substance) that keeps
Alpha Cirrhosis of the No treatment air sacs from collapsing
antitrypsin liver in early o Postmature Babies – tend to be long and this
Deficiency infancy because they have kept growing in the womb but
Alpha Severe Anemia; Frequent have had an insufficient blood supply toward the end
Thalassemia nearly all die Blood of gestation
soon after birth Transfusion o Sudden Infant Death Syndrome – crib death;
Beta Severe Anemia; Blood
sudden death of an infant under age 1 which cause of
Thalassemia fatal in Transfusions
death remains unexplained
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Critical Issues related to physical, cognitive, socio- ▪ caused stunted limbs, facial deformities, and
emotional development during Prenatal Development defective organs
o Miscarriages – short-lived pregnancies ▪ treatment for AIDS, tuberculosis, and cancer
▪ Spontaneous Abortion (Miscarriage) – o Tobacco – higher risks of miscarriage, prematurity,
expulsion from the uterus of an embryo that is low birth weight, cleft lips, and cleft palates
unable to survive outside the womb ▪ Restricts blood flow to the fetus which reduces
o Stillbirth – miscarriage occurred after 20 weeks of the levels of growth factors, oxygen, and nutrients
gestation (approx. 5 months) that reach the fetus
▪ CNS impairment
o Males are more likely to be spontaneously aborted or
▪ Infants are more irritable and score lover on
to be stillborn standard assessments of behavioral functioning
o Teratogen – environmental agent that can interfere ▪ Higher risks of respiratory infections and
with normal prenatal development breathing difficulties
▪ Effects are worst during the critical period, when ▪ Higher risk for SIDS
the organs are developing rapidly ▪ Mild cognitive difficulties and to conduct and
▪ The greater the level of exposure and the longer behavior problems
the exposure to teratogen, the more likely it is that ▪ Maternal smoking was identified to be the most
serious damage will occur important factor for low-birth weight babies
▪ Susceptibility to harm is influenced by unborn ▪ Tobacco also increases the risks of miscarriage,
child’s and mother’s genetic makeup growth retardation, stillbirth, SIDS, etc.
▪ The effects of teratogen depend on the quality of o Alcohol – disrupt hormone functions of the placenta
both the prenatal and the postnatal environment ▪ Disrupts the normal process of neuronal
o Teratology – field of study that investigates the migration, leading to several outcomes depending
causes of birth defects on the severity of the effects
o Critical Period – a time during which the ▪ Fetal Alcohol Syndrome – characterized by a
developing organism is specially sensitive to combination of retarded growth, face and body
environmental influences, positive or negative malformations, and disorders of the central
o Women of normal weight are less likely to have birth nervous system
complications ▪ FAS children are smaller and lighter than normal
o Overweight women have risk of having longer and their physical growth lags behind
▪ High risks in CNS damage
deliveries, need more health care services,
▪ Children who were exposed prentally with
gestational diabetes, cesarean delivery, birth defects alcohol but do not have FAS experience Fetal
etc. Alcohol Effects or Alcohol-Related
o Omega-E, DHA, Folic Acid for the development of Neurodevelopmental Disorder
nervous system o Cocaine – causes spontaneous abortion and
o Results to fetal growth restriction and low birth premature detachment of the placenta
weight (5 pounds, 8 ounces = 2.5kg) ▪ Contributes to fetal malnourishment, retarded
o Moderate exercise is recommended to reduce back growth, and low birth weight
pain, risks for gestational diabetes and etc. ▪ Deficits on several measures of information-
o Spina Bifida – neural tube fails to close, part of the processing and sensory motor skills
spinal cord is not fully encased in the protective ▪ Opioids are associated with small babies, fetal
covering of the spinal column death, preterm labor, and aspiration of meconium
▪ Neurological problems ▪ Babies born with drug-addicted mothers tend to
o Anencephaly – lethal defect in which main portion experience withdrawal once they are born and no
of the brain above the brain stem failed to develop longer receive drugs
o Neural tube defects occur 25-29 days after ▪ Neonate Abstinence Syndrome – sleep
conception and more common due to deficient in disturbance, tremors, difficulty regulating the
folic acid body, irritability, crying and etc.
o Thalidomide – used to relieve morning sickness
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▪ Caffeine has slightly increased risk for Developmental Issues during Childhood, Adolescence,
miscarriage, stillbirth, and low birth weight and Adulthood
babies Infancy and Toddlerhood
o Rubella almost certain to cause deafness and heart o For infants, delayed speech due to lack of interaction
defects to babies with the caregiver and delayed cognition due to lack
o Toxoplasmosis – caused by parasite in the bodies of of stimulation
cattle, sheep, and pigs, and in the intestinal tracts of o According Erik Erikson, as babies, our first
cats that causes fetal brain damage, severely challenge involves forming basic sense of Trust
impaired eyesight, seizures, miscarriage, etc. versus Mistrust
o Diabetic mothers are most likely to have babies that o Ideally, babies develop a balance between trust and
have heart and neural tube defects mistrust
o Stress and anxiety has been associated with more o If trust predominates, as it should, children develop
irritable and active temperament in newborns Hope and the belief that they can fulfill their needs
o Chronic stress can result in preterm delivery and obtain their desires
o Depression may cause premature birth or Approximate Crisis Virtue
developmental delays Age Developed
o Chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with Infancy (0-18 Trust vs. Hope
maternal age months) Mistrust
Toddler (18 Autonomy vs. Will
o Adolescent Mothers tend to have premature or
months – 36 Shame/Doubt
underweight babies
months)
o Includes air pollution, radiation, chemicals o Maladaptive Tendency for Infancy: Sensory
o Fetal exposure to low level of environmental toxins
Maladjustment – overly trusting and gullible,
may result to asthma, allergies, lupus
unrealistic, spoiled
o X-Rays could triple the risk of having full-term, low-
o Malignant Tendency: Withdrawal – never trust
birth weight babies
anyone, paranoid, neurotic, depressive
o Exposure to lead, marijuana, tobacco, radiation,
o Significant Person: Mother
pesticides, etc may result in abnormal or poor quality
o Maladaptive Tendency for Toddler:
sperm
Impulsiveness – shameless willfulness that leads to
o Babies who fathers had diagnostic x-rays within the
jump into things without proper consideration,
year prior to conception or had a high lead exposure
reckless, inconsiderate
at work tends to have low birth weight and slowed
o Malignant Tendency: Compulsiveness –
fetal growth
perfectionism, rule follower, anal, constrained
o Older fathers may be significant source of birth
o Significant person: Parents
defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperm such as
o Successful in this stage = hopeful child
dwarfism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, ASD
o Failed = withdrawn child
o Prenatal cell-free DNA Scans – fetal DNA is
o Self-Concept – our image of ourselves; it describes
extracted from the mother’s blood and tested for
what we know and feel about ourselves and guides
early detection of genetic problems
our actions
o Infertility – not being able to get pregnant even after
o By at least 3 months, infants pay attention to their
a year of trying
mirror image
o Another set of drugs that are harmful for pregnant
o Pretend Play – an early indication of the ability to
women: Antibiotics, certain Barbiturates, Opiates,
understand other’s mental states and their own
Acutane
o Usage of person pronouns (me, mine) usually at 20-
24 months
o Socialization – process by which children develop
habits, skills, values, and motives that make them
responsible and productive members of the society
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o Children obey societal or parental dictates because o According to Kohlberg, Children actively search for
they believe them to be right and true cues about gender in their social world
o The eventual goal is the development of conscience o Gender Constancy – a child’s realization that his or
o Situational Compliance – extra assistance provided her gender will always be the same
by their parents’ reminder and prompts to complete Gender Identity – awareness of one’s own gender and
the task that of others, which typically occurs ages 2 and 3
o Committed Compliance – they were committed to Gender Stability – awareness that gender does not
following request and could do so without their change
parents direct intervention Gender Consistency – the realization that a girl
o Receptive Cooperation – eager willingness to remains a girl even if she has a short haircut and plays
cooperate harmoniously with a parent, not only in with trucks, typically occurs between ages 3 and 7
disciplinary actions, but in variety of daily o Gender-Schema Theory – it views children as
interactions actively extracting knowledge about gender from
o (Freud) In Freud’s second psychosexual their environment before engaging in gender-typed
development stage, Anal Stage, it stated how the behavior
development of children on this stage is focused on ▪ Place more emphasis on the influence of culture
controlling bowel movements. ▪ Children match their behavior to their culture’s
▪ Fixations of this stage leads to Anal-Retentive view of what boys and girls are supposed to be
and Anal-Expulsive Individuals and do
▪ Anal Retentive: obsessed with orderliness and o According to Walter Mischel, children acquire
tidiness due to strict potty training gender roles by imitating models and being rewarded
▪ Anal-Expulsive: very messy and disorganized for gender-appropriate behavior
adults due to lax potty training o Other issues: Sleeping problems, bedwetting,
Early childhood malnutrition/obesity, food allergies, oral health,
o Preschool children can do-and want to do-more and accidents
more. At the same time, they are learning that some o Other cognitive issues: centration, egocentrism,
of the things they want to do meet social approval, conservation, usage of media, parenting styles,
whereas others do not relationships with other family members, aggression,
Approximate Crisis Virtue prosocial behavior, fearfulness
Age Developed Middle and Late Childhood
Play Age (3-5 Initiative versus Purpose o Representational Systems: broad, inclusive self-
yrs) Guilt concepts that integrate various aspects of the self
o Purpose – the courage to envision and pursue goals o She can compare her real self with her ideal self and
without being unduly inhibited by guilt or fear of can judge how well she measures up to social
punishment standards in comparison with others
o Maladaptive Tendency: Ruthlessness – don’t care o According to Erikson, in the event that children are
who they step in just to achieve their goals unable to obtain the praise of adults or peers in their
o Malignant Tendency: Inhibition – too much guilt lives, or lack motivation and self-esteem, they may
to do anything so nothing would happen develop a feeling of low self-worth, thus develop a
o Significant Persons: Family sense of inferiority
o Theory of Sexual Selection – the selection of sexual Approximate Crisis Virtue
partners is a response to differing reproductive Age Developed
pressures early men and women confronted in the School Age Age Industry vs. Competency
study for survival (5-13 yrs) Inferiority
o Identification – adoption of characteristics, beliefs, o Developing a sense of industry involves learning
attitudes, values, and behaviors of the parent of the how to work hard to achieve goals
same sex o Maladaptive Tendency: Narrow Virtuosity –
children that aren’t allowed to “be children” and push
into one area of competence
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o Malignant Tendency: Inertia – suffer from o Children whose parents later divorce show more
inferiority complexes anxiety, depression, or antisocial behavior prior to
o Significant Persons: Neighborhood and School the divorce than those parents who stay married
o As children grow, they are more aware of their own o Children do better with joint custody
and other people’s feelings o Co-parenting has been consistently linked to positive
o Children are typically aware of feeling shame and child outcomes
pride and a clearer idea of the difference between o Most adopted children fall within the normal range
guilt and shame of development
o Emotional Self-Regulation – voluntary control of o Children adopted after the age 1 were more likely to
emotions, attention, and behavior show lower school achievement
o Children tends to become more empathetic and more o Having a warm and supportive sibling relationship is
inclined to prosocial behaviors associated with better adjustment and better emotion
o Gender Stereotypes – broad categories that reflect regulation
general impressions and beliefs about males and o Sisters are higher in sibling intimacy than brothers or
females mixed-sex dyads
o Coregulation – children and parents share power o Peer groups helps children learn how to adjust their
o The amount of autonomy parents provide affects needs and desires to those of others, when to yield,
how their children feel about them and when to stand firm
o Children are more apt to follow their parents’ wishes o Children can gauge their abilities and gain a clearer
when they believe the parents are fair and concerned sense of self-efficacy
about the child’s welfare o Prejudice – unfavorable attitudes towards outsiders
o Parents of school-age children tends to use inductive o Children can be negatively affected by
techniques as a form of discipline discrimination
o Children exposed to high levels of family conflict are o Girls are more likely to engage in cross-gender
more likely to show a variety of responses that can activities
include internalizing or externalizing behaviors Positive Nomination – asking children who they like
Internalizing behaviors – anxiety, fear, depression- to play with, they like the most, or who they think other
anger turned inward kids like the most
Externalizing behaviors – aggression, fighting, Negative Nomination – opposite of positive
disobedience, hostility nomination
o If family conflict is constructive, it can help children o Sociometric Popularity – measures that is
see the need for rules and standards and learn what composed of positive nominations, negative
issues are worth arguing about and what strategies nominations or no nominations
can be effective Average children – receive an average no of both
o The more satisfied a mother is with her employment positive and negative nominations
status, the more effective she is likely to be a parent Neglected Children – infrequently nominated as bestie
o Tho poverty can harm children’s development, high- but not really disliked
quality parenting can buffer children from potential Rejected Children – disliked by peers
consequences of poverty Controversial Children – frequently nominated both
o Children tend to do better in families with two bestie and most disliked
Popular Children – frequently nominated as bestie
continuously married parents than in cohabiting,
and rarely disliked by peers
divorced, single-parent, or step-families
o Unpopular children can make friends but they tend
o Parent’s relationship, the quality of their parenting,
to have fewer friends and they prefer younger ones
and their ability to create a favorable family
o Instrumental Aggression – aimed at achieving an
atmosphere affect children’s adjustment more than
objective
their marital status does
▪ Proactive
▪ View force and coercion as effective ways to get
what they want
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o Hostile Aggression – intended to hurt another person o Sexual Orientation – whether the person is attracted
▪ Reactive to person of other sex (Heterosexual), same sex
o Hostile Attributional Bias – quickly conclude, in (Bisexual), or of both sexes (Bisexual)
ambiguous situations that others were acting with ill o Brains of gay men and straight women are more
intent and are likely to strike out in retaliation or self- symmetrical, whereas lesbians and straight men, the
defense right hemisphere is slightly larger
Adolescence o Transgender – biological sex at birth and gender
o Identity – coherent conception of the self, made up identity are not the same
of goals, values, and beliefs to which the person is o Transsexual – people who seek medical assistance
solidly committed to permanently transition to their preferred gender
▪ Forms as young people resolve three major o Two major concerns about adolescent sexual activity
issues: the choice of an occupation, the adoption are the risks of contracting STIs and pregnancy
of values to live by, and the development of a o Juvenile Delinquency – adolescent who breaks the
satisfying sexual identity law or engages in behavior considered as illegal
Approximate Crisis Virtue o Antisocial behaviors tends to run in families
Age Developed o Individuals who have low arousal levels may be
Adolescence Identity vs. Fidelity prone to antisocial behaviors as a form of sensation
(14-20 yrs) Identity/Role seeking to achieve arousal levels a normal person
Confusion experiences
o Adolescence is a time-out period (Psychosocial o An early onset type (beginning by age 11) tends to
Moratorium), which is the ideal for the lead to chronic juvenile delinquency in adolescence
development of identity, allowing young people the o Milder late onset type, tends to arise temporarily in
opportunity to search for commitments to which they adolescence
could be faithful o Parents of children who become chronically
o Fidelity – sustained loyalty, faith, or a sense of antisocial may have failed to reinforce good
belonging to a loved one, friends or companions behaviors in early childhood and may have been
▪ Identification with a set of values, an ideology, a harsh or inconsistent with their discipline
religion, a political movement, or an ethnic group Young Adulthood
▪ Inability to develop fidelity may have an unstable o Emerging adulthood offers Moratorium – time out
sense of self, insecure, and fail to plan for from developmental pressures and allow young
themselves and the future people the freedom to experiment various roles and
o A man is not capable of real intimacy until he has lifestyles
achieved a stable identity, whereas women define o Recentering – name for the process that underlies
themselves through marriage and motherhood the shift to an adult identity
o Crisis – a period of conscious decision-making Stage 1: Beginning
▪ Process of grappling with what to believe and Individual is still embedded in the family of origin, but
who to be (Erikson) expectations for self-reliance and self-directedness
o Commitment – a personal investment in an begin to increase
occupation or ideology Stage 2: During
o Maladaptive Tendency: Fanaticism – believes that Individual remains connected to but no longer
his “ways” are the only ways embedded within the family of origin
o Malignant Tendency: Repudiation – repudiate Stage 3: Usually by Age 30
their membership in the world of adults and, even Marked independence from the family of origin and
more, they repudiate their need for an identity commitment to a career, a partner, and possibly
o Sexual Identity – seeing oneself as a sexual being, children
recognizing one’s sexual orientation, and forming o Moratorium – self-conscious crisis that ideally
romantic or sexual attachments leads to a resolution and identity achievement status
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o Many young adults seem to do little active, conscious
deliberation, instead of taking passive approach or
taking the lead from the parents
o Positive parent-child relationships during early
adolescence predict warmer and less conflicted o Typological Approach – seeks to complement and
relationships with both parents when children reach expand trait research by looking at personality
age 26 functioning whole
o The view that these young adults who “fail to o Ego-Resilient – well-adjusted, self-confident,
launch” and do not move out of their parents’ homes articulate, attentive, helpful, Cooperative, task-
are selfish slackers who refuse to grow up is largely focused
inaccurate o Overcontrolled – shy, quiet, anxious, dependable,
o Normative-Stage Models – theoretical approaches tend to keep thoughts to themselves and withdraw
that hold that adults follow a basic sequence of age- from conflict, subject to depression
related psychosocial changes o Undercontrolled – active, energetic, impulsive,
Approximate Crisis Virtue stubborn, and easily distracted
Age Developed Three Attachment Styles
Young Intimacy vs. Love Secure – have positive views in relationships, find it
Adulthood (21- Isolation easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned
39 yrs) about romantic relationships
o According to Erikson, if adults cannot make deep Avoidant – hesitant about getting involved in romantic
personal commitments to others, they risk becoming relationships and once they do, they distance
overly isolated and self-absorbed themselves to their partners
o As young adults work to resolve conflicting demands Anxious – demand closeness, less trusting, more
for intimacy and competitiveness, they develop an emotional, jealous, and possessive
ethical sense, which Erikson considered a marker of Middle Adulthood
adulthood o 6 Emotional Stages of Retirement:
o Love – a mutual devotion between partners who have Pre-Retirement: Planning the retirement
chosen to share their lives and have children - Critical time for setting up for success in retirement
o Maladaptive Tendency: Promiscuity – tendency to - Imagining ideal retirement, take stock for health,
assess finances, building support network, decide when
become intimate too freely, too easily
to retire
o Malignant Tendency: Exclusion – tendency to
- begin to think seriously about the life they want for
isolate oneself from everyone themselves in retirement and whether they are
o Timing-of-Events Model – holds that the course of financially on track to achieve it
development depends on when certain events occur Retirement – makes the transition from full-time work
in people’s lives to retirement they’ve planned
o Normative Life Events (Normative Age-Graded Honeymoon Phase: Freedom
Events) – those typically happen at certain times of - Enjoy newfound freedom and retirement
life - positive phase when retirees get to enjoy the fruits of
o Social Clock – society’s norms for appropriate a lifetime of labor
timing of life events - Can also be a time of anxiety and uncertainty because
o Trait Models – psychological models that focus on they feel purposeless
the measurement and examination of different traits Disenchantment Phase: What to do next?
o McCrae’s Five-Factor Model – Openness, - Feel restless, aimless, and bored
- Feeling worn out because of aimlessly trying to fill
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness,
time with anything
Neuroticism
- Find clarity and do introspection work to connect with
o People’s personalities remain similar does not mean self and discover retirement purpose
no change occurs - Have realistic expectations, be proactive, and set life
goals
#BLEPP2023
- they may experience some of the emotional o According to Levinson, the transition to middle
downsides of retirements such as loneliness, adulthood lasts about five years and requires the
disillusionment, and a feeling of uselessness adult male to come to grips with the four major
Reorientation: The New You conflicts: (1) being young vs old; (2) being
- Redefining yourself and finding new purpose in destructive versus being constructive; (3) being
retirement masculine vs. feminine; (4) being attached to others
- Reassessing priorities vs. separated from them
- Great opportunity for self-discovery
o Midlife as a crisis, arguing that middle-aged adults is
people try to figure who they are and map their place in
the world as a retiree suspended between past and the future, trying to cope
Stability Phase: Retirement Routine with this gap that threatens life’s continuity
- Growth and contentment with new identity in o Midlife Crisis – changes in personality and lifestyle
retirement, and finding equilibrium during middle forties
- Settling into a new normal ▪ Many people realize that they will not be able to
- Accepted retirement identity and created a daily fulfill the dreams of their youth, or that
routine that works for them fulfillment of their own mortality
o In middle adulthood, conscientiousness is the highest ▪ People who do have crisis at midlife generally
maybe due to result of work experiences also have crises at other times in their lives as well
o However, unemployed ones will show decrease in ▪ Manifestation of a neurotic personality rather
agreeableness and conscientiousness than developmental phase
o Middle-aged men who remarry tend to become less o Turning Point – psychological transition that
neurotic, those who divorce decrease in extraversion involves significant change or transformation in the
o Generativity – involved finding meaning through perceived meaning, purpose, or direction of a
contributing to society and leaving a legacy for future person’s life
generations ▪ Triggered by major life events, normative
▪ Parenting, teaching, mentorship, productivity, changes, or a new understanding of past
self-generation or self-development experience
▪ “Maintenance of the work” o Midlife Review – involves recognizing the
▪ Associated with prosocial behaviors finiteness of life and can be a time of taking stock,
o Care – widening commitment to take care of discovering new insights about the self, and spurring
persons, products, and the ideas one has learned to midcourse corrections in the design and trajectory of
take care for one’s life
Approximate Crisis Virtue o Developmental Deadlines – time constraints on
Age Developed o Ego Resiliency – the ability to adapt flexibly and
Middle Generativity vs. Care resourcefully to potential source of stress
Adulthood (40- Stagnation o Identity Process Theory (IPT) – physical
65 yrs) characteristics, cognitive abilities, and personality
o People who do not find generativity run the risk of traits are incorporation into identity schemas (Susan
becoming self-absorbed, self-indulgent, and stagnant Krauss Whitbourne)
o Stagnation – disconnected from the communities ▪ Assimilation: interpretation of new information
because of their failure to contribute via existing cognitive structure
o Women report higher generativity than men ▪ Accommodation: involves changing cognitive
o For men, having a child early is associated with structures to more closely align with what is
greater generativity encountered
o Maladaptive Tendency: Overextension – they no ▪ Identity Assimilation: involves holding onto a
longer allow themselves to relax and rest consistent sense of self in the face of new
o Malignant Tendency: Rejectivity – no longer experiences that do not fit the current
participating or contributing in the society understanding of the self
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▪ Identity Accommodation: involves adjusting the need to evaluate and accept their lives so as to accept
identity schema to fit new experiences death
▪ Identity Balance: stable sense of self while Approximate Crisis Virtue
adjusting their self-schemas to incorporate new Age Developed
information Old Age (65- Ego Integrity vs. Wisdom
o Narrative Psychology – views the development of older) Despair
self as a continuous process of constructing one’s life o Wisdom – informed and detached concern with life
story itself in the face of death itself
o Generativity Scripts – feature redemption and ▪ Accepting one has lived, without major regrets
associated with psychological well-being o Maladaptive Tendency: Presumption – presumes
o Increase in positive emotions through early ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties
adulthood to old age of old age
o Empty Nest – occurs when the youngest child leaves o Malignant Tendency: Disdain – contempt of life,
home one’s own or anyone’s
o In a good marriage, departure of children generally o Stability declines in late adulthood
increases marital satisfaction o Increases in agreeableness, self-confidence, warmth,
o Revolving Door Syndrome or Boomerang emotional stability, and conscientiousness and
Phenomenon – returning to parent’s home, declines in neuroticism, social vitality, and openness
sometimes with their own families to experience
o Prolonged Parenting may lead to intergenerational o Why do people show normative changes in
tension when it contradicts parent’s normative personality characteristics? Some researchers argue
expectations that these processes are driven primarily by intrinsic
▪ Positive relationships with parents contribute to a genetic differences between people that unfold over
strong sense of self and to emotional well-being time
at midlife o Personality traits influence behavior, and behavior
▪ Filial Crisis: adults learn to balance love and duty influences health
to their parents with autonomy in a two-way o In general, older adults have fewer mental disorders
relationship and are happier and more satisfied with life than
▪ Sandwich Generation: caught in squeeze between younger adults
the competing needs of their own children and the o Happiness tends to be high in early adulthood,
emerging needs of their parents declines until people reach 50 years of age, and then
▪ Caregiver Burnout: a physical, mental, and tends to rise again until 85
emotional exhaustion that can affect adults who o As people get older, they tend to seek out activities
care for aged relatives and people that give them emotional gratification
▪ Respite Care: giving caregivers some time off o They are also better at regulating emotions
▪ Relationships with siblings who remain in contact Critical Issues concerning death and bereavement
can be central to psychological well-being in o Hospice Care – personal, patient- and family-
midlife centered, compassionate care for the terminally ill
o Grandmothers have closer, warmer, more o Palliative Care – includes relief of pain and
affectionate relationships with their suffering, controlling of symptoms, alleviation of
grandchildren stress, and attempts to maintain a satisfactory quality
o Kinship Care: grandparents that provides care but of life
don’t become foster parents or gain custody, have o Terminal Drop or Terminal Decline – specifically
no legal status and few rights to a widely observed decline in cognitive abilities
Late Adulthood shortly before death
o For Erik Erikson, the crowning achievement of late o Near-Death Experience – often involving a sense of
adulthood is Ego Integrity or integrity of the self – being out of the body or sucked into a tunnel and
visions of bright lights or mystical encounters
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▪ Linked to stimulation or damage of various brain ▪ Seeking comfort from loved ones is a common
areas, most notably in bilateral frontal and response in human undergoing threat and is a
occipital areas regulatory strategy to reduce anxiety
▪ Generally experienced as positive as a result of o Brain Death – neurological condition which states
the release of endorphins the person is brain dead when all electrical activity
o Grief – emotional response that generally follows of the brain has ceased for a specific period of time
closely on the heels of death ▪ Higher portions of the brains dies sooner than
o Bereavement – response to the loss of some whom lower parts which facilitates breathing and
a person feels close heartbeat
o Grief Work – working out of psychological issues ▪ That is why your brain could be dead but you still
connected with grief often takes the following path: have heartbeat for the mean time
1. Shock and Disbelief o Suicide – growing number of people consider a
2. Preoccupation with the memory of the dead mature adult’s deliberate choice of a time to end his
person or her life a rational decision and a right to be
3. Resolution defended
o Recovery Pattern – mourner goes high to low o Euthanasia – good death, intended to end suffering
distress or to allow terminally ill person to die with dignity
o Delayed Grief – moderate or elevated initial grief, ▪ Passive – involves withholding or discontinuing
and symptoms worsen over time treatment that might extend the life of a
o Chronic Grief – distressed for a long time terminally ill patient such as life support
o Resilience – the mourner shows a low and gradually ▪ Active – “mercy killing” involves action taken
diminishing level of grief in response to the death of directly or deliberate to shorten life
a loved one o Advance Directive – contains instructions for when
o By age 4, children build a partial understanding of and how to discontinue futile medical care
the biological nature of death ▪ Living will or a more formal legal document
o Adjusting to loss is more difficult if a child had a called a durable power of attorney
troubled relationship with the person who died ▪ Durable Power of Attorney – appoints another
o They do not understand death, but they understand person if the maker of the document becomes
loss incompetent to do so
o Often, teens turn to peers for support o Assisted Suicide – physician or someone else helps
o Young adults will find their entire world collapsing a person bring about a self-inflicted death
at once when they knew they are dying instead of o Life Review – a process of reminisce that enables a
dealing with other issues person to see the significance of his or her life
o Middle-Aged and Older adults are more prepared Expected Developmental Tasks during Childhood,
with death Adolescence, and Adulthood
o Terror Management Theory – human’s unique Infancy and Toddlerhood
understanding of death, in concern with self- o Reflex Behavior – automatic, innate response to
preservation needs and capacity for fear, results in stimulation which are controlled by the lower brain
common emotional and psychological responses centers that govern involuntary processes
when mortality, or thoughts of death are made salient o Primitive reflexes – includes sucking, rooting, and
▪ One common response to thoughts of death is to the Moro reflex are related to instinctive needs for
become more committed to a cultural worldview survival and protection or may support the early
▪ High self-esteem should buffer people against connection to the caregiver
anxiety and fear over death o Postural Reflexes – reactions to changes in position
▪ High self-esteem = reduced anxiety regarding or balance
death o Locomotor Reflex – resemble voluntary movements
that do not appear until months after the reflexes
have disappeared
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o Early Reflexes Disappear during the first 6-12 o At 4 months, infant’s brain responds preferentially to
months speech
Early Human Reflexes o Touch is the first sense to develop, the most mature
Moro Extend sensory system for the first several months
legs, arms, o Sense of smell and taste begin to develop in the
and fingers, womb
arches o Motor and Talking Development:
back, draws First Month
back head Infants can turn their Head from side to side
Darwinian Make Grasping Reflex
(Grasping) strong first Starts to coo and play with speech sounds
Second-Third Month
Babies can lift their heads
Can grasp moderate sized things until they will be able
to grasp one thing using right hand and transfer it to
their left hand
Tonic Fencer
Neck Position Babies can now hold their head still to find out whether
the object is moving
They can already match the voice to faces
Distinguish female and male
Babkin Mouth Discriminate between faces of their own ethnic group
opens, eyes and those of other groups
close, neck Size constancy
flexes, head Infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded
tilts objects are whole
forward Fourth Month
Babinski Toes fan Babies can keep their heads erect while being held or
out; foot supported in a sitting position
twist in Can now roll-over, accidentally
Begin to reach objects
Sixth Month
Babies cannot sit without support
Rooting Head turns, Can start creeping or crawling
mouth Could successfully reach for objects in the dark faster
opens, than they could in the light
sucking They can now localize or detect sounds from their
begins origins, recognizes sound patterns and phonemes
Walking Steplike Seventh Month
motions Pincer Grasps could already manifest
Can start standing
Can now sit independently
Start babbling
Eighth Month
Swimming Swimming Babies can assume sitting position without help
movements Infants can now learn to pull themselves up and hold
on to a chair
Tenth Month
They can now stand alone
First word
Eleventh Month
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Babies can let go and stand alone well o Sensorimotor Stage:
Single words Substages
Thirteenth Month 1. Use of Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month)
Toddlers can now pull a toy attached to a string and use Exercise their inborn reflexes and gain some control
their hands and legs to climb stairs over them
Use a lot of social gestures Practice their reflexes and control them (e.g., sucking
Eighteenth to Twenty-Fourth Month whenever they want to)
Toddlers can now walk quickly, run, and balance on 2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)
their feet in a squatting position Repeat pleasurable behaviors that first occur by chance
Can now talk in two words continuously learning new Begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp
words everyday objects
o Perceptual Constancy – sensory stimulation is They turn towards the sounds
changing but perception of the physical world 3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
remains constant Repeat actions that brings interesting results
▪ Allows infants to perceive that their world as Learns about causality
stable 4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8-12
▪ Size Constancy: recognition that an object months)
remains the same even though the retinal image Coordinate previously learned schemes and use
of the object changes as you move toward or previously learned behaviors to attain their goals
away from the object Can anticipate events
▪ Shape Constancy: an object remains the same 5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
Purposefully vary their actions to see results
shape even though its orientation changes
Actively explore the world
o Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development
Trial and error in solving problems
– developmental test designed to assess children
6. Mental Combinations
from 1 month to 3 ½ years
Can think about events and anticipate consequences
▪ Cognitive, Language, Motor, Social-Emotional, without always resorting action
and Adaptive Behavior Can use symbols such as gestures and words, and can
▪ Accompanied by Behavior Rating Scale taken pretend
from the caregiver Transition to Pre-operational stage
o Home Observation for Measurement of the Learns about numbers
Environment (HOME) – trained observers o Schemes – actions or mental representations that can
interview the primary caregiver and rate on a yes-or- be performed on objects
no checklist the intellectual stimulation and support o Assimilation – occurs when children use their
observed in a child’s home existing schemes to deal with new information
▪ Number of books and toys, parents involvement o Accommodation – occurs when children adjust their
with the child, parental emotional and verbal schemes to take new information and experiences
responsiveness, acceptance of the child’s into account
behavior, organization of the environment, and o Organization – grouping of isolated behaviors and
opportunities for daily and varied stimulation thoughts into higher-order system
o Early Intervention – systematic process of planning o Disequilibrium – cognitive conflict
and providing therapeutic and educational services o Children constantly assimilate and accommodate as
for families that need help in meeting infants’, they seek equilibrium
toddlers’, and pre-school children’s developmental o Equilibration – children shift from one stage of
needs thought to the next
o Representational Ability – the ability to mentally
represent objects and actions in memory, largely
through symbols such as words, numbers, and mental
picture
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o Infants develop the abilities to think and remember o During the second half of the first year, the prefrontal
o Visible Imitation that uses body parts that babies can cortex and associated circuitry develop the capacity
see develops first followed by Invisible Imitation of working memory (short-term storage of
(involves with parts of the body that babies cannot information the brain is actively processing)
see) o Working memory may be responsible for the slow
o Piaget believed that children under 18 months could development of object permanence
not engage in Deferred Imitation o Between 6-3 months, babies start cooing
▪ Reproduction of an observed behavior after the o By 6-10 months, they start babbling
passage of time o Infants start using gestures at about 7-15 months
▪ Children lacked the ability to retain mental o As early as 5 months, infants recognize their name
representations o Receptive Vocabulary – words that the child
o Infants under the age of about 8 months act as if an understand
object no longer exists once it is out other line of o Spoken Vocabulary – words the child
sight expresses/uses
o Object Permanence – the realization that something o Overextension – tendency to apply a word to objects
continues to exist when out of sight that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning by
o Until about 15 months, infants use their hands to going beyond the set of referents an adult would use
explore pictures as if they were objects (e.g. “Dada” not only for her Dad but also to other
o By 19 months, children are able to point at a picture male strangers)
of an object while saying its name, demonstrating an o Underextension – tendency to apply the word too
understanding that a picture is a symbol of something narrowly; occurs when children fail to use a word to
else name a relevant event or object
o Dual Representation Hypothesis – proposal that o Children between 18 to 24 months, speak in two-
children under age of 3 have difficulty grasping word utterances
spatial relationships because of the need to keep o Telegraphic Speech – the use of short and precise
more than one mental representation in mind at the words without grammatical markers such as articles,
same time etc. (“Momi give water”)
o Habituation – a type of learning in which repeated o Child-Directed Speech – language spoken with a
or continuous exposure to a stimulus, reduces higher-than-normal pitch, slower tempo, and
attention to that stimulus exaggerated intonation, with simple words and
▪ Familiarity breeds loss of interest sentences
o Dishabituation – if a new sight or sound is o Recasting – rephrasing something the child has said
presented, the baby’s attention is generally captured that might lack appropriate morphology
once again, and the baby will reorient toward the o Expanding – adding information to a child’s
interesting stimulus and once again sucking slows incomplete sentence
o Visual Preference – tendency to spend more time o Labeling – name objects that children
looking at one sight rather than another o Storybook reading especially benefits children
o Visual Recognition Memory – ability that depends Four Patterns of Crying of Infants
on the capacity to form and refer to mental Basic Hunger Cry – rhythmic pattern that usually
representations consist of cry, followed by a briefer silence
o Babies like to look at new things Angry Cry – more excess air is forced through vocal
o Senses are unconnected at birth and are only cords
gradually integrated through experience Pain Cry – sudden long, initial loud cry followed by
o Cross-Modal Transfer – the ability to use breath holding
information gained from one sense to guide another Frustration Cry – higher pitch an a more monotonic
vocalization is associated with autonomic system
– as when a person negotiates a dark room by feeling
activity during stressful procedures in infants
for the location of familiar objects
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o Social Smiling – newborn infants gaze and smile at Can descend a long stairway alternating feet if
their parents; smile that occurs in response to supported
external stimulus (2 months) Able to categorize objects to identify similarities and
o Reflexive Smile – a smile that does not occur in differences
response to external stimuli and appear during the Can tell the differences in size
first month after birth They conversate in sentences and may be declarative,
o Anticipatory Smiling – infants smile at an object negative, interrogative, or imperative
then gaze at an adult while continuing to smile Can recognize facial expressions, recognize emotions
o Self-Conscious emotions arise only after children thru vocal cues and body postures
5 years old
have developed self-awareness
Can start, turn, and stop effectively in games
o Altruistic Behavior – acting out of concern with no
Can descend a long stairway, unaided
expectation of reward
Run hard and enjoy races with each other
o Mirror Neurons – underlie empathy and altruism Hand, arm, and body move together under better
o Temperament – An early-appearing, biologically command of the eye
based tendency to respond to the environment in Can now count to 20 or more and know the relative
predictable ways sizes of the numbers 1 through 10
Easy Children – generally happy, rhythmic in Speech is quite adultlike
biological functioning, and accepting of new Children understand the public aspects of emotions
experiences (understand the things that causes others to be sad or
Difficult Children – more irritable and harder to please happy)
Slow-to-Warm-Up Children – mild but slow to adapt 6 years old
to new people and situations Brain is 90% of its peak volume
o Strong links between infant temperament and Permanent teeth begins to appear
childhood personality at age of 7 Has an expressive vocabulary of 2,600 words and
o Goodness of Fit – the match between a child’s understands more than 20,000
temperament and the environmental demands and 7 years old
constraints the child must deal with Children start to understand that mental states can drive
Early Childhood emotions
3 years old o Handedness – the preference of using one hand over
Children begin to lose their babyish roundness and take the other
on the slender, athletic appearance of childhood ▪ Left-handedness run in families
Brain is approximately 90% of adult weight o Preoperational Thought – beginning of the ability
Cannot turn or stop suddenly or quickly to reconstruct in thought what has been established
Can jump a distance of 15-24 inches in behavior
Can ascend a stairway unaided, alternating feet o Divided into Symbolic Function and Intuitive
Can hop Thought
Handedness is evident 1. Symbolic Function – being able to think about
All primary teeth are evident something in the absence of sensory or motor cues
Can now pick up tiny objects between their thumb and ▪ Can use symbols, or mental representations such
forefingers (tho still clumsy) as words, numbers, or images to which a person
Know the difference between reality and imagination has attached meaning
Can use 900 to 1000 words
▪ Deferred Imitation – children imitate an action
Typically begin to use plurals, possessives, and past
at some point after observing it
tense
▪ Pretend Play – fantasy play, dramatic play, or
4 years old
Peak of the density of synapses in the prefrontal cortex imaginary play; children use an object to
More effective control of stopping, starting, and turning represent something else
Can jump a distance of 24-33 inches ▪ The most extensive use of symbolic function is
language
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▪ Occurs between ages of 2 and 4 o Social Speech – speech intended to be understood by
2. Intuitive Thought – begin to use primitive reasoning a listener
and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions o Private Speech – talking aloud to oneself with no
▪ Occurs approx. 4-7 yrs of age intent to communicate with others (Egocentric
o Children also begin to able to understand the symbols Speech)
that describe physical spaces ▪ Immature (Piaget)
o Piaget believed that children cannot yet reason ▪ Learning Process (Vygotsky)
logically about causality o Emergent Literacy – development of fundamental
o Transduction – they mentally link two events, skills that eventually lead to being able to read
especially events close in time, whether or not here ▪ Social interaction promotes emergent literacy
is logically a causal relationship o Self-Concept – our total picture of our abilities and
o Identities – the concept that people and many things traits
are basically the same even if they change in outward o Children’s self-definition typically change between
form, size, or appearance ages 5 and 7
o Animism – tendency to attribute life to objects that o At about 7, children will be able to describe
are not alive themselves in terms of generalized traits
o Centration – the tendency to focus on one aspect of o Self-Esteem – self-evaluative part of the self-
a situation and neglect others concept, the judgement children make about their
▪ Children cannot Decenter (think about several overall worth
aspects of a situation at one time) ▪ Children’s self-esteem tends to be unidimensional
▪ Involves on focusing on one dimension while (either good or bad)
ignoring the other ▪ Children whose self-esteem is contingent on
▪ Irreversibility – failure to understand that an success tend to become demoralized when they
action can go in two or more directions fail
o Egocentrism – young children center so much on ▪ Children with noncontingent self-esteem tend to
their own point of view that they cannot take in attribute failure or disappointment to factors
another’s outside themselves or to the need to try harder
o Conservation – the fact that two things are equal o Emotional self-regulation helps children guide their
remain so if their appearance is altered, as long as behavior and adjust their responses to meet societal
nothing is added or taken away expectations
o Theory of Mind – the awareness of the broad range o Play is vitally important to development and has
of human mental states – beliefs, intents, desires, significant current and long-term functions
dreams, and so forth – and the understanding that o Enables children to engage with the world around
others have their own them, use imagination, to discover flexible ways to
▪ Allows us to understand and predict the behavior use objects and solve problems, and to prepare for
of others and makes the social world adult roles
understandable o Social Cognitive Theory – observation enables
o 3-5 yr old children are more proficient with language children to learn much about gender-typed behaviors
than younger children before performing them
o Fast Mapping – allows a child to pick up Cognitive Levels of Play
approximate meaning of a new word after hearing it Functional Play (Locomotor Play or Sensorimotor
only once or twice in conversation Play)– simplest level; begins during infancy, consisting
▪ Nouns are easier to fast map than verbs of repeated practice in large muscular movements
o Syntax – a concept and involves the rules for putting Constructive Play (Object Play or Practice Play) –
together sentences in a particular language use of objects or materials to make something
o Pragmatics – practical knowledge of how to use Dramatic Play (Pretend Play, Fantasy Play,
language to communicate Imaginative Play) – involves imaginary objects,
actions, or roles
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Formal Games – organized games with rules, behavior by settling limits, demonstrating logical
procedures, and penalties consequences of the action, explaining, discussing,
6 Types of Play by Parten (1932) etc.
Unoccupied Behavior – child does not seem to be ▪ To consider how her actions would affect others
playing but watches anything of momentary interest o Power Assertion – intended to stop or discourage
Onlooker Behavior – child spends most time watching undesirable behavior through physical or verbal
others play enforcement
Solitary Independent Play – child plays alone o Withdrawal of Love – include ignoring, isolating,
Parallel Play – plays beside the other children or showing dislike for a child
independently
o Self-concept, self-esteem, emotion regulation
Associative Play – children talk, borrow, and lend toys,
o Social emptions are usually attached to their parents
follow each other around and play similarly
Cooperative or Organized Supplementary Play – Middle and Late Childhood
child plays in a group organized for some goal – to o Faster and more efficient information processing and
make something, play formal game, or dramatize a an increased ability to ignore distractions
situation o The overall volume of gray matter (linked with IQ)
o Reticent Play – combination of Unoccupied and increases pre-puberty and declines post-puberty
Onlooker categories is often a manifestation of ▪ Decline is due to loss in the density of gray matter
shyness ▪ Gray matter volume peaks 1 to 2 years earlier in
o Social Play – involves interaction with peers girls than boys
o Constructive play – combines ▪ The loss in density of gray matter with age is
sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic balanced by another change – a steady increase in
representation white matter
o Games – activities that children engage in for o Motor Skills continue to improve in middle
pleasure and that have rules childhood
o Sex Segregation is common among preschoolers and ▪ Children play games during recess which usually
becomes more prevalent in middle childhood involves socialization
o Gender Segregation – a phenomenon wherein girls ▪ Boys typically play physically (running), whereas
tend to select other girls as playmates, and so boys girls loves games that involves verbal expression
o Discipline – refers to methods of molding character or counting out loud (jump rope, hopscotch)
and of teaching self-control and acceptable behavior ▪ Rough-And-Tumble Play – wrestling, kicking,
o External Reinforcements – may be tangible or tumbling, grappling, and chasing, accompanied
intangible; it must be seen as rewarding and received by laughing and screaming
fairly consistently after showing desired behavior ▪ 6-9 year olds need more flexible rules, shorter
o Internal Reinforcements – a sense of pleasure or instruction time, and more free time to practice
accomplishment than older children
o Punishment, if consistent, immediate, and clearly ▪ Older children are able to process instruction and
tied to the offense, may be effective learn team strategies
▪ Administered calmly, in private, and aimed at o Body Image (how one believes one looks) becomes
eliciting compliance not guilt important early in middle childhood, especially for
▪ Effective when accompanied with short girls, which could lead to eating disorders during
explanation adolescence (may be influenced by playing
▪ The desired behavior should be clear unrealistic dolls such as barbie)
▪ Corporal Punishment – the use of physical force o At about 7 years of age, children enter the stage of
with the intention of causing a child to experience Concrete Operations according to Jean Piaget
pain but not injury for the purpose of correction o Children can now think logically because they can
or control of the child’s behavior take multiple aspects of situations into account
o Inductive Techniques – designed to encourage o However, their thinking is still limited to real
desirable behavior or discourage undesirable situations in the here and now
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o Better understanding of: o Children who are disliked by their peers tend to do
✓ Spatial concepts – allows to interpret maps and poorly in school
navigate environment o Many educators argue that smaller classes benefit
✓ Causality – makes judgement about cause and effects students
✓ Categorization Adolescence
▪ Seriation – arranging objects in a series o A steady increase in white matter, nerve fibers that
according to one or more dimensions connect distant portions of the brain, permits faster
▪ Transitive Inferences/Transivity – e.g. A < B < information and better communication across
C hemispheres
▪ Class Inclusion – ability to see the relationship o Increase in white matter occurs early in women than
between a whole and its parts, and to understand men
categories within a whole o By mid- to late adolescence, young people have
✓ Inductive and Deductive reasoning fewer but stronger, smoother, and more effective
▪ Inductive Reasoning – involves making neuronal connections, making cognitive processing
observations about particular members of a class more efficient
of people, animals, objects, or events, and then o Development of the brain starts are the back and
drawing conclusions about the class as a whole moves forward
▪ Deductive Reasoning – starts with a general o The underdevelopment of frontal cortical systems by
statement about a class and applies it to particular comparison may help explain why adolescent tend to
members of the class seek thrills and novelty and why many of them find
▪ Piaget believed that children in the concrete it hard to focus on long-term goals
operations stage only used inductive reasoning o Peers tend to exert a stronger influence in
✓ Conservation adolescence in part because of a heightened
▪ Principle of Identity: still same object even tho neurobehavioral susceptibility to social reward cues
it has different appearance and concurrent immaturity in the cognitive control
▪ Principle of Reversibility: can picture what system
would happen if he tried to roll back the clay of o Adolescents enter what Piaget called the highest
snake level of cognitive development – Formal
▪ Decenter: ability to look at more than one aspect Operations
of the two objects at once o Adolescents move away from their reliance on
✓ Numbers concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the
o Children use increasingly precise verbs, simile and capacity for abstract thought
metaphor o Usually around 11 yrs old
o Rarely use passive voice o They can now use symbols to represent other
o Understanding of rules of syntax becomes more symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities,
sophisticated with age create hypotheses
o Sentence structure continue to become more o Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning – methodical,
elaborate scientific approach to problem solving, and it
o Boys tend to use more controlling statements, characterizes formal operations thinking
negative interruptions, and competitive statements ▪ Involves ability to develop, consider, and test
o Girls phrase their remarks in a more tentative, hypotheses
conciliatory way and are more polite and cooperative ▪ Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain
o Self-Efficacy – an individuals belief that they can maturation and expanding environmental
execute behaviors necessary to attain specific opportunities
performance o According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking
o Doing well in school increases self-efficacy of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and
o Girls tend to do better in school than boys their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped
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bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its ✓ Low teacher expectations
use ✓ Differential treatment
o Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at ✓ Less teacher support
the same time yet may lack effective strategies for ✓ Perceived irrelevance of the curriculum to
choosing them culturally under-represented groups
o Self-Consciousness – adolescents can think about o Self-Efficacy beliefs help shape the occupational
thinking – their own and the other people’s thoughts options students consider and the way they prepare
o Imaginary Audience – a conceptualized “observer” for careers
who is concerned with a young person’s thoughts and o Service Learning – form of education that promotes
behavior as he or she is social responsibility and service to the community
o Adolescents often assume everyone is thinking about Young Adulthood
the same thing they are thinking about: themselves o Stress may lead young adults to engage in risky
o Personal Fable – belief that they are special, their behaviors, eat unhealthily, have poor quality of sleep,
experience is unique, and they are not subject to the etc.
rules that govern the rest of the world o Emotion-Focused Coping – manage emotions by
▪ Underlies much risky, self-destructive behavior refusing to think about an issue or reframing the
▪ Brain immaturity biases adolescent toward risky event in the positive light
decision making o Problem-Focused Coping – involves addressing an
o Adolescents also become more skilled in social issue head-on and developing action-oriented ways
perspective-taking, the ability to tailor their speech of managing and changing a bad situation
to another person’s POV o Premenstrual Syndrome – disorder that produces
o Fuzzy-Trace Theory Dual-Process Model – physical discomfort and emotional tension for up to
decision making is influenced by two cognitive 2 weeks before menstrual period
systems: verbatim analytical and gist-intuitional, ▪ Response to monthly surges of female hormones
which operate in parallel ▪ More typical in women in their 30s or older
o School – offers opportunities to learn info, master ▪ Dysmenorrhea – caused by contractions of the
new skills, and sharpen old skills uterus which are set in motion by prostaglandin
o Educational Practices are based on the assumption o Infertility – inability to conceive a baby
that students are, or can be motivated to learn ▪ Common causes in women: failure to produce
o Boys are more likely to fail to achieve a baseline of ova, mucus in the cervix or disease of the uterine
proficiency in reading, mathematics, and science lining
o Girls do better on verbal tasks that involve writing o Reflective Thinking – active, persistent, and careful
and language usage consideration of information or beliefs
o Boys do better in activities that involve visual and ▪ Continually question facts, draw inferences, and
spatial functions helpful in math and science make connections
o Spillover – experiences in different contexts ▪ Frequently engage in critical thinking
influence each other ▪ At approx. 20-25 years of age, the brain forms
o A good middle or high school has an orderly, safe new neurons, synapses, and dendritic
environment, an adequate material resources, a connections, and the cortical regions that handle
stable teaching staff, and a positive sense of higher-level thinking become fully myelinated
community o Postformal Thought – characterized by the ability
o Adolescents are more satisfied with school if allowed to deal with inconsistency, contradiction, and
to participate in making rules, if they feel supported compromise
from teachers and other students, and if the ▪ Draws on intuition and emotion as well as logic
curriculum and instruction are meaningful and to help people cope with situations such as social
appropriately challenging and fit their interests, skill dilemmas
level, and needs
o Dropout reasons:
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▪ Acknowledges that there may be more than one o Culture affects the understanding of morality
valid way of viewing an issue and that the world o As students gain more experience and think more
is made up of shades of gray deeply, they begin to realize that much knowledge
o Schaie: A lifespan Model of Cognitive and many values are somewhat relative
Development o Commitment within Relativism – students decide
Acquisitive Stage (Childhood and Adolescence) for themselves, ideally, what they want to believe
Children acquire info and skills mainly for their own o Whether a person completes college may depend not
sake or as preparation in society only on motivation, academic aptitude, and
Achieving Stage (Late teens or early twenties to preparation, and ability to work independently, but
thirties) also on social integration and social support
They use what they know to pursue goals o People seem to grow in challenging jobs
Responsible Stage (Late 30s to early 60s) o Substantive Complexity – the degree of thought and
Use their minds to solve practical problems associated independent judgement it requires – and a person’s
with responsibilities to others flexibility in coping with cognitive demands
Executive Stage (30s or 40s through middle age)
o Spillover Hypothesis – cognitive gains from work
Responsible for societal systems or social movements
carry over to nonworking hours
Reorganizational Stage (end of middle age,
o Intimate relationship requires self-awareness,
beginning of late adulthood)
Enter retirement reorganize their lives and intellectual empathy, the ability to communicate emotions,
energies around meaningful pursuits that take place of resolve conflict, and sustain commitments
paid work o Friendships during young adulthood are much less
Reintegrative Stage (Late Adulthood) stable because people relocate more frequently
Focus on the purpose of what they do and concentrate o They tend to center on work, sharing confidence and
on tasks that have most meaning for them advice
Legacy-Creating Stage (advanced old age) o Women have more intimate friendships than men
Older people may create instructions for the disposition o Men are more likely to share information and
of prized possessions, make funeral arrangements, activities
provide oral histories, or write their life stories as o Fictive Kin – treated as family members despite a
legacy for their loved ones lack of blood relationship
o Componential Knowledge – analytical abilities o Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love – the way
o Experiential Intelligence – original thinking, love develops is a story. The loves are its authors, and
experience-based the story they create reflects their personalities and
o Contextual Intelligence – knowing your way their conceptions of love.
around o Three elements of love:
o Tacit Knowledge – inside information, know-how, a. Intimacy – emotional element, involves self-
“hacks”, not formally taught or openly expressed; disclosure, which leads to connection, warmth,
commonsense knowledge of how to get aged and trust
▪ Includes self-management, management of tasks, b. Passion – motivational element, based on inner
and management of others drives that translate physiological arousal into
o Emotional Intelligence – refers to four related sexual desire
skills: the abilities to perceive, use, understand, and c. Commitment – cognitive element, the decision
manage or regulate emotions to achieve goals to love and make the relationship work (exclusive
(Salovey & Mayer, 1990) or marry)
▪ Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Nonlove
Test) No intimacy, passion, nor commitment
o In Kohlberg’s Postconventional Morality, people Casual Interactions
became more capable of fully principled moral e.g., friends, acquaintances
reasoning, and that they made moral decisions on the Liking
basis of universal principles of justice Intimacy present
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There is closeness, understanding, emotional support, o Sex impacts relationship quality
affection, bondedness, and warmth o Women tend to place more importance on emotional
e.g., ka-talking stage mo na ayaw makipag-meet up at expressiveness than men do
walang label Middle Adulthood
Infatuation o Middle-Aged people are in their prime
Passion present o Individuals who scored the highest in the study of
Strong physical attraction Schaie tended to have high educational levels,
e.g., crushes, someone na naka-salubong mo sa kanto flexible personalities, intact families, pursue
tapos crush mo agad cognitively complex occupations and other
Empty Love
activities, to be married to someone more cognitively
Commitment only
advanced, to be satisfied with their accomplishments
Found in long-term relationship that have lost both
o Fluid Intelligence – ability to solve novel problems,
intimacy and passion
e.g., arranged marriage (justin-hailey charot) such as problems that require little or no previous
Companionate Love knowledge
Intimacy and Commitment present ▪ Peak in young adulthood
Long-term, committed friendship, no physical ▪ Many older adults perform in the real world at
attraction high levels despite declines in fluid intelligence
e.g., Couple with no sex life charot, BESTIEEEEES o Crystallized Intelligence – ability to remember and
Fatuous Love use information acquired over a lifetime, such as
Passion and Commitment only academics
Couple makes commitment without allowing ▪ Increase through middle age and often until the
themselves to develop intimacy end of life
e.g., Fuck Buddies o Mature adults show increasing competence in
Consummate Love solving problems in their chosen field
All three components completed ▪ Specialized Knowledge or Expertise – form of
e.g., SANA ALL crystallized intelligence that is related to the
o Some young adults stay single because they have not process of encapsulation
found the right mate, some are single by choice ▪ Adults do not usually depend on the brain’s
o Friends With Benefits – relationships of friendships information-processing-machinery because some
blended with physical intimacy, but little adult’s fluid intelligence becomes encapsulated
commitment (dedicated in handling specific kinds of
o Gay and Lesbian relationships mirror heterosexual knowledge)
relationships ▪ Expert thinking often seems automatic and
▪ More likely to negotiate household chores on a intuitive
more egalitarian basis ▪ Such intuitive, experience-based thinking is also
▪ Resolve conflicts in more positive ways a characteristic of Postformal Thought
▪ Less stable o An important feature of postformal thought is its
▪ Lesbian couples are more likely to divorce than integrative nature – adults interpret what they read,
gay couples (AAAAWWW see, or hear in terms of its meaning for them
CALZONAAAAAAAA) o Phased Retirement – people reduce works hours or
o Cohabitation – unmarried couple involved in sexual days, gradually moving into retirement over a
relationship live together number of years
o Most young adults plan to marry, but only when they o Bridge Employment – switching to another
feel ready, and they see getting on their feet company or new line of work
financially and establishing themselves in a stable o If work, both on job and home, could be made
jobs or careers meaningful and challenging, more adults might
o Married people tend to be happier than unmarried retain or improve cognitive abilities
people
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o Employers see benefits of workplace education in o Viktor Frankl said that the three most distinct human
improved morale, increased quality of work, better qualities are spirituality, freedom, and responsibility
teamwork and problem solving, and greater ability to ▪ Spirituality, in his view, refers to a human being’s
cope with new technology and other changes in uniqueness of spirit, philosophy, and mind
workplace ▪ Having a sense of meaning in life can lead to
o Literacy – fundamental requisite for participation clearer guidelines for living one’s life and
not only in the workplace but in all facets of a enhanced motivation to take care of oneself and
modern, information-driven society reach goals
o 5 Emotional Stages of Retirement: ▪ Four main needs for meaning that guide how
1. Pre-Retirement: Planning the retirement people try to make sense of their lives:
▪ Critical time for setting up for success in i. Need for Purpose – goals and fulfillments
retirement ii. Need for Values – enable people to decide
▪ Imagining ideal retirement, take stock for health, whether certain acts are right or wrong
assess finances, building support network, decide iii. Need for a sense of efficacy – belief that they can
when to retire control their environment
2. Honeymoon Phase: Freedom iv. Need for Self-Worth
▪ Enjoy newfound freedom and retirement o Generativity – involved finding meaning through
▪ Can also be a time of anxiety and uncertainty contributing to society and leaving a legacy for future
because they feel purposeless generations
3. Disenchantment Phase: What to do next? ▪ Parenting, teaching, mentorship, productivity,
▪ Feel restless, aimless, and bored self-generation or self-development
▪ Feeling worn out because of aimlessly trying to ▪ “Maintenance of the work”
fill time with anything ▪ Associated with prosocial behaviors
▪ Find clarity and do introspection work to connect o Midlife Review – involves recognizing the
with self and discover retirement purpose finiteness of life and can be a time of taking stock,
▪ Have realistic expectations, be proactive, and set discovering new insights about the self, and spurring
life goals midcourse corrections in the design and trajectory of
4. Reorientation: The New You one’s life
▪ Redefining yourself and finding new purpose in Old Age
retirement o Lifelong program of exercise may prevent many
▪ Reassessing priorities physical changes once associated with normal aging
▪ Great opportunity for self-discovery o Inactivity contributes to heart disease, diabetes,
5. Stability Phase: Retirement Routine colon cancer, and high blood pressure
▪ Growth and contentment with new identity in o Wisdom – exceptional breadth and depth of
retirement, and finding equilibrium knowledge about the conditions of life and human
▪ Settling into a new normal affects and reflective judgement about the
▪ Accepted retirement identity and created a daily application of knowledge
routine that works for them ▪ May involve the lead to transcendence,
o Religion – organized set of beliefs, practices, rituals, detachment from preoccupation with the self
and symbols that increases an individual’s ▪ The ability to navigate the messiness of life
connection to a sacred or transcendent other ▪ Older adults tend to make the most of their
o Religiousness – degree of affiliation with an abilities, often exploiting gains in one area to
organized religion, participation in its rituals and offset declines in another
practices Developmental Challenges and Milestones
o Spirituality – involves experiencing something Challenges during Prenatal and Childhood
beyond oneself in transcendent manner Prenatal
o Women have consistently shown stronger interest in - Women of normal weight are less likely to have birth
religion and spirituality than men complications
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- Overweight women have risk of having longer - Babies who fathers had diagnostic x-rays within the
deliveries, need more health care services, gestational year prior to conception or had a high lead exposure at
diabetes, cesarean delivery, birth defects etc. work tends to have low birth weight and slowed fetal
- Malnutrition results to fetal growth restriction and low growth
birth weight - Older fathers may be significant source of birth
- Thalidomide: caused stunted limbs, facial defects due to damaged or deteriorated sperm such as
deformities, and defective organs dwarfism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, ASD
- Another set of drugs that are harmful for pregnant - Breech Position: baby’s buttocks are the first part to
women: Antibiotics, certain Barbiturates, Opiates, emerge from the vagina which can cause respiratory
Acutane problems
- Opioids are associated with small babies, fetal death, - Complications: bleeding, infection, damage to pelvic
preterm labor, and aspiration of meconium organs, post-operative pains, riskier future pregnancies
- Babies born with drug-addicted mothers tend to - APGAR Scale: widely used to assess the health of
experience withdrawal once they are born and no newborns at 1-5 mins after birth
longer receive drugs ▪ 7-10, condition is good
- Neonate Abstinence Syndrome: sleep disturbance, ▪ 5, developmental difficulties
tremors, difficulty regulating the body, irritability, ▪ 3 or below, emergency and the baby might not
crying and etc. survive
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: characterized by a ▪ 9-10 score, risk of developing ADHD in
combination of retarded growth, face and body childhood
malformations, and disorders of the central nervous - Anoxia: lack of oxygen
system - Hypoxia: reduced oxygen supply
- Maternal smoking was identified to be the most - Anoxia or Hypoxia may occur during delivery as a
important factor for low-birth weight babies result of repeated compression of the placenta and
- Tobacco also increases the risks of miscarriage, umbilical cord that could leave permanent brain
growth retardation, stillbirth, SIDS, etc. damage, mental retardation, behavior problems or even
- Caffeine has slightly increased risk for miscarriage, death
stillbirth, and low birth weight babies - Meconium: stringy, greenish-black waste matter
- Rubella almost certain to cause deafness and heart formed in the fetal intestinal tract
defects to babies - Neonatal Jaundice: skin and eyeballs look yellow
- Toxoplasmosis: caused by parasite in the bodies of caused by immaturity of the liver
cattle, sheep, and pigs, and in the intestinal tracts of cats - Low Birth Weight Infants: weigh less than 5 pounds
that causes fetal brain damage, severely impaired and 8 ounces at birth
eyesight, seizures, miscarriage, etc. ▪ Very Low birth Weight: less than 3 pounds 4
- Diabetic mothers are most likely to have babies that ounces
have heart and neural tube defects ▪ Extremely Low Birth: less than 2 pounds
- Stress and anxiety has been associated with more - Pre-term Infants: born three weeks or more before
irritable and active temperament in newborns pregnancy reach full term (before the completion of 37
- Chronic stress can result in preterm delivery weeks of gestation)
- Depression may cause premature birth or - Small for Date Infants (Small for Gestational Age
developmental delays Infants): those whose birth weight is below normal
- Chance of miscarriage or stillbirth rises with maternal when the length of pregnancy is considered
age - Progestin: might help in reducing preterm birth
- Adolescent Mothers tend to have premature or - Extremely Preterm: born less than 28 weeks gestation
underweight babies - Very Preterm: less than 33 weeks
- Fetal exposure to low level of environmental toxins - Kangaroo Care: involves skin-to-skin contact in
may result to asthma, allergies, lupus which the baby, wearing only diaper, is held upright
- X-Rays could triple the risk of having full-term, low- against the parent’s bare chest to help stabilize the
birth weight babies preterm’s heartbeat, temp, and breathing
- Exposure to lead, marijuana, tobacco, radiation, Infancy & Toddlerhood
pesticides, etc may result in abnormal or poor quality - Nonorganic Failure to thrive: slowed or arrested
sperm physical growth with no known medical cause,
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accompanied by poor developmental and emotional 1. Physical Abuse – infliction of physical injury
functioning 2. Child Neglect – failure to provide child’s basic
- Shaken Baby Syndrome: baby has a weak neck needs
muscles, and a large, heavy head, shaking makes the 3. Sexual Abuse
brain bounce back and forth inside the skull 4. Emotional Abuse – acts or omissions by parents or
- One condition commonly faced by preterm babies is other caregivers that have caused or could cause,
Respiratory Distress Syndrome – wherein there is a serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
lack of surfactant (lung-coating substance) that keeps Middle and Late Childhood
air sacs from collapsing - Tooth decay remains one of the most common chronic
- Postmature Babies: tend to be long and this because untreated conditions
they have kept growing in the womb but have had an - Access to proper dental care is important for young
insufficient blood supply toward the end of gestation children
- Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: crib death; sudden - Recommended calories per day for schoolchildren 9
death of an infant under age 1 which cause of death to 13 years of range from 1,400 to 2,600 depending on
remains unexplained gender and activity level
Early Childhood - Sleep: average of 10 hrs a day
- Sleep problems are occasional and usually outgrown - Factors that affect children’s sleep:
- Many of sleep problems issues are the result of ▪ Exposure to media screens
ineffective parenting ▪ Physical inactivity
- Persistent sleep problems may indicate emotional, ▪ Secondhand smoke
physiological, or neurological condition that needs to ▪ Poor housing
be examines ▪ Vandalism
- Night terrors generally peach at about 1 ½ years and ▪ Lack of parks and playgrounds
are common between 2 ½ and 4 years of age - Persistent snoring, at least 3x a week, may indicate a
- Sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and night terrors are child has sleep-disordered breathing, which is linked to
common when children are sleep deprived, have fever behavioral and learning difficulties
or on medications, or when conditions are noisy - Body Image (how one believes one looks) becomes
- Nightmares are common during early childhood important early in middle childhood, especially for
- Enuresis: repeated involuntary urination at night by girls, which could lead to eating disorders during
children old enough to have bladder control adolescence (may be influenced by playing unrealistic
- Motor coordination in childhood tends to be relatively dolls such as barbie)
stable over time - Causes of obesity:
- Handedness: the preference of using one hand over ▪ Overweight parents or other relatives
the other ▪ Poor nutrition
- 41 million children under age 5 were obese in 2016 ▪ Eating fast food
- Stunted Children: normal weight but shorter than they ▪ Sugar
should for their age and may have cognitive and ▪ Inactivity
physical deficiencies, visible in developing countries - Acute Medical Conditions: occasional, short-term
- Food Allergies are more prevalent in children than in conditions, such as infections and warts
adults and most of them outgrow their allergies - Chronic Medical Conditions: physical,
- Car accidents are the most commonly reported cause developmental, behavioral, or emotional conditions
of accidental death for children over the age of 4 that persists 3 months or more such as asthma and
- Children exposed to tobacco smoke are more likely to diabetes
develop wheezing symptoms and asthma, and have a - Asthma: chronic, allergy-based respiratory disease
higher risk for high-blood pressure characterized by sudden attacks of coughing,
- Other common causes of death in early childhood: wheezing, and difficulty breathing
cancer, congenital abnormalities, and chromosomal - Caused by genetics, smoke exposure, low levels of
disorders, assault, heart disease, respiratory disease and vitamin D
septicemia - Diabetes: one of the most common diseases in school-
- Contextual factors such as poverty and parenting aged children
quality are linked to the development of the brain
Types of Child Maltreatment
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- Characterized by high levels of glucose in the blood - Relational Aggression: more subtle; indirect social
as a result of defective insulin production, ineffective aggression
insulin action, or both Challenges during Adolescence and Adulthood
- Hypertension: high blood pressure; children with Adolescence
hypertension are more likely to have learning - Secular Trend: children may be starting puberty
disabilities and may have problems with executive earlier but spending more time to reach full sexual
functioning maturity
- Accidental Injuries are the leading cause of accidental - May be due to higher standard of living,
death among school-age US Children undernutrition, health, exposure to endocrine-
- Intellectual Disability: significantly subnormal disrupting chemicals
cognitive functioning - May also because they were firstborn, being born to a
- Intervention programs have helped many of those single mother and harsh maternal parenting practices
mildly or moderately disabled and those considered - However, it was concluded that children who are
borderline to hold jobs, live in the community, and exposed to high stress when young tend to reach
function in society pubertal milestone earlier than those who are not
- Learning Disabilities: difficulty in learning that - Early maturation has been liked to adult health issues
involves understanding or using spoken or written such as cancers, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease
language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, - Early puberty can be a predictor of adult obesity and
thinking, reading, writing, and spelling polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) – disorder
▪ Dyslexia: most commonly diagnosed LD; causing acne, irregular periods, excess hair growth, and
severe impairment in their ability to read and the growth of cysts on ovaries
spell - Effects of early or late maturation are most likely to
▪ Dysgraphia: difficulty in handwriting be negative when adolescents are much more or less
▪ Dyscalculia: developmental arithmetic developed than peers
disorder - The underdevelopment of frontal cortical systems by
- ADHD: most common mental disorder in childhood comparison may help explain why adolescent tend to
- Autism Spectrum Disorder: Pervasive Developmental seek thrills and novelty and why many of them find it
Disorder hard to focus on long-term goals
▪ Autistic Disorder: severe developmental ASD - Peers tend to exert a stronger influence in adolescence
that has onset during the first 3 yrs of life in part because of a heightened neurobehavioral
▪ Asperger Syndrome: mild ASD susceptibility to social reward cues and concurrent
- Bullying: aggression that is deliberately, persistently immaturity in the cognitive control system
directed against a particular target - A sedentary lifestyle may result in increased risk of
Parenting Styles poor mental health, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and an
1.Authoritarian – emphasizes control and increased likelihood of heart disease and cancer in
unquestioning obedience, high control, low adulthood
responsiveness - Children generally go to sleep later and sleep less on
2. Permissive/Indulgent – make few demands, warm, school days the older they get
noncontrolling, low control, high responsiveness - Sleep deprivation can sap motivation and cause
3. Authoritative – emphasizes child’s individuality but irritability, and concentration and school performance
also stress limits, high control, high responsiveness can suffer
4. Neglectful or Uninvolved – parents neglect - After puberty, the secretion of melatonin takes place
children; low control, low responsiveness later at night, making it difficult for adolescent to go to
- Altruism: motivation to help another person with no bed early
expectation of reward - Overweight teenagers tend to be in poorer health than
- Prosocial Behavior: voluntary, positive actions to their peers and are more likely have difficulty attending
help others school or engaging in strenuous activity
- Instrumental Aggression: used aggression as a tool to - Body Image: one’s perception, thoughts, and feelings
gain access to a wanted object about one’s body
- Overt (Direct) Aggression: boys; tend to openly direct - Girls tend to express the highest level of body
aggressive acts at a target satisfaction when underweight, some dissatisfaction
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when average weight, and the most dissatisfaction high-fat diets, and sedentary recreational pursuits
when overweight explains obesity epidemic
- Anorexia Nervosa: distorted body image, severely - Bariatric Surgery: any surgery that is carried out to
underweight, may be withdrawn or depressed, and induce weight loss, and it generally involves rerouting
afraid of losing control and becoming overweight or removing parts of the stomach or small intestine
- Bulimia Nervosa: short-lived binge eating and then - The most common eating disorders in Young
purging by self-induced vomiting, strict dieting, Adulthood are Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
excessive exercise, etc. - People who are physically active maintain healthy
- Binge-eating disorder: binging without purging of body weight, builds muscles, strengthen heart and
food lungs, lowers blood pressure, protects against heart
- A recent trend is the abuse of nonprescription cough disease, etc.
and cold meds (dextromethorphan) - High levels of chronic stress are related to a host of
- Binge Drinking: consuming five or more drinks on physical and immunological impairments
one occasion - Stress may lead young adults to engage in risky
- When the brain is undergoing significant structural behaviors, eat unhealthily, have poor quality of sleep,
and functional change, might be a period of the life etc.
span during which teens should be particularly - Emotion-Focused Coping: manage emotions by
sensitive to environmental influences refusing to think about an issue or reframing the event
- Alcohol interacts with inhibitory and excitatory in the positive light
receptor systems that are developing in adolescence, - Problem-Focused Coping: involves addressing an
making them more sensitive to rewarding effects of issue head-on and developing action-oriented ways of
alcohol and less sensitive to its negative features managing and changing a bad situation
- Those who drink show changes in key prefrontal - College-age women more likely to use emotion-
areas, including middle frontal gyrus, superior frontal focused strategies
gyrus, left frontal cortex, frontal pole, and left frontal - Among college students, family stress, academic
gyrus – all areas involved in executive control stress, is associated with high levels of insomnia
- Being female is a risk factor for depression - Sleep Deprivation affects not only the physical health
- This may be due to biological changes associated with but also cognitive, emotional, and social functioning as
puberty well
- Motor Vehicle collisions are the leading cause of - Primary cognitive consequence is impaired attention
accidental deaths among US teenagers and vigilance
- Homicides are the third leading cause - Chronic sleep deprivation can seriously worsen
- Suicide is the second cause of death cognitive performance
- Young people who consider or attempt suicide tend to - Sleep deprivation has been linked to depression and
have histories of emotional illness insomnia and sleep disturbances also are related to the
Young Adulthood risk of postpartum depression
- The habits that young adults develop during this time - Smoking is the leading preventable cause of death,
in the life span tend to become ingrained over time and illness and impoverishment worldwide
are highly predictive of the likelihood they will - A tendency to addiction may be genetic
experience good health at older ages - College students tend to drink more frequently and
- Genes affect the action of the hormone receptors, more heavily than their noncollegiate peers
stress response systems, and synaptic plasticity may - Risky Drinking: consuming more than 14 drinks a
influence a person’s ability to respond adaptively to week or 4 drinks on any single day for men and more
stressful events than 7 drinks a week or 3 days on any single day for
- Poor diets and lack of physical activity are among the women
leading causes of preventable diseases, overweight, and - Social Integration: active engagement in a broad
obesity range of social relationships, activities, and roles
- WHO recommends Mediterranean-style diet rich in - Social Support: refers to material information, and
fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and unsaturated fats psychological resources derived from the social
- Increase snacking, availability of inexpensive fast network on which a person can rely for help in coping
foods, supersized portions, labor-saving technologies, with stress
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- Alcoholism: long term physical condition - Combining work and family roles is good for both
characterized by compulsive drinking that a person is men’s and women’s mental and physical health and has
unable to control positive effects on the strength of their relationship
- The most common habit-forming drugs include - The most cited reasons are incompatibility, lack of
marijuana and prescription painkillers, followed by emotional support, lack of career support, abuse,
cocaine and heroin premarital cohabitation, and infidelity
- Adolescence and emerging adulthood appear to be - Couples are more likely to stay married if they have
sensitive periods for the onset of depressive disorders children. However, it can create more conflict and does
- Adolescents who are depressed and who depression greater damage
carries over into adulthood, tend to have had significant - Adults with divorced parents are more likely to expect
childhood risk factors, such as neurological or that their marriage will not last (commitment issues)
developmental disorders, dysfunctional or unstable - Divorce tends to reduce long-term well-being
families, and childhood behavioral disorders - People who were thought they were happily married
- Adult-onset group tend to have had low levels of tend to react more negatively and adapt more slowly to
childhood risk factors and to possess more resources to divorce
deal with the challenges of emerging adulthood - Remarriage is the triumph of hope over experience
- Pre-marital sex has been increasing for adults over 18 - Families in which both parents bring children into
- Acceptability of homosexual unions is growing, marriage are marked by higher levels of conflict
especially in younger cohorts and in women - Remarriages are more likely to end in divorce than
- Sexual Script: stereotyped pattern of role second marriage
prescriptions for how individuals should behave Middle Adulthood
sexually - Age-related visual problems occur mainly in five
- Emerging adults tend to have more sexual partners areas: near vision, dynamic vision, sensitivity to light,
than in older age groups, but they have sex less visual search, and speed of processing visual
frequently information
- The most common contraceptive are the birth control - Presbyopia: – difficulty focusing on near objects
pills, female sterilization, and condoms - Myopia: nearsightedness
- Casual Sex is fairly common - Presbycusis: gradual hearing loss
- However, Sexual assaults are problem - Men experience hearing loss quickly than women
- Rape: forcible sexual intercourse - Noise experienced at the work site
- Date or Acquaintance Rape: coercive sexual activity - Sensitivity to taste and smell also declines in midlife
directed at someone with whom the perpetrator is at - Some loss of muscle strength is usually noticeable by
least casually acquainted age of 45
- Most lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender persons - Basal Metabolism: minimum amount of energy that
are clear about their sexual identity your body needs to maintain vital functions while
- Premenstrual Syndrome: disorder that produces resting
physical discomfort and emotional tension for up to 2 - Manual Dexterity generally becomes less efficient
weeks before menstrual period with age
- Response to monthly surges of female hormones - Aging brain works more slowly and have difficulty
- More typical in women in their 30s or older juggling multiple tasks
- Dysmenorrhea: caused by contractions of the uterus - The ability to ignore distractions declines with age
which are set in motion by prostaglandin - Decrease in the volume of gray matter and myelin
- Infertility: inability to conceive a baby begins to break down with age
- Common causes in women: failure to produce ova, - Physical activity and fitness are associated with
mucus in the cervix or disease of the uterine lining higher white and gray matter volume
- Marital satisfaction typically declines during the - Meditation affords cognitive benefits to middle aged
child-raising years, and the more children, the greater adults and may help offset declines
decline - Skin may become less taut and smooth as the layer of
- Many couples find their relationship becoming more fat below the surface becomes thinner, collagen
traditional following the birth of a child, with the molecules more rigid, and elastin fibers more brittle
woman often engaging in the bulk of caregiving and
housekeeping
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- Middle-aged people tend to gain weight as a result of - Good lifestyle habits can reduce risk, if started early
accumulation of body fat and lose height due to in life
shrinkage of the intervertebral disks - Breast cancer is responsible for the largest number of
- Vital Capacity: the maximum volume of air the lungs cancer-related deaths among women
can draw in and expel – may begin to diminish at about - Risks: overweight, alcoholism, early menarche and
age of 40 late menopause, history of breast cancer in the family,
- Middle-aged adults are less likely to fall asleep at no children, did not breast-feed, or late pregnancy
daytime, need less sleep to maintain alertness, and slow - Treated by removal of part or all breast and
reductions in slow wave sleeps at night chemotherapy
- Menopause: when a woman permanently stop - Mammography: diagnostic x-ray of the breasts
ovulating and menstruating and can no longer conceive - The most troublesome physical effects of menopause
a child are linked to reduce levels of estrogen and hormone
- One year after the last menstrual period therapy
- Perimenopause (Climacteric): beginning of - Hormone Therapy: treatment with artificial estrogen
menopause; woman’s production of mature ova begins - Stress: the damage that occurs when perceived
to decline, and the ovaries produce less estrogen environmental demands or stressors exceed a person’s
- Hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, sleep capacity to cope with them
disturbances, mood disturbances, urinary incontinence, - Stress in midlife may come from role changes, career
cognitive disturbances, somatic symptoms, sexual transitions, grown children leaving home, and the
dysfunction renegotiation of family relationships
- Menopause Hormone Therapy and SSRIs - Women experience more stress than men and to be
- At age 30, men’s testosterone levels, sperm count, more concerned about stress
genetic quality declines - The classic stress response – fight or flight – may be
- Men at this age also experiences sexual dysfunction more characteristic of men, activated in part by
due to diabetes, obesity, hypertension, depression, etc. testosterone
- Hypertension: high blood pressure, increasing - The brain interacts with all of the body’s biological
important concern from midlife and the world’s leading systems, feelings and beliefs affect bodily functions,
preventable cause of early death including the functioning of the immune system
- Cancer has replaced heath disease as the leading cause - Midlife Crisis: changes in personality and lifestyle
of death between ages 45 and 64 during middle forties
- Type 2 Diabetes: mature onset, the most common - Many people realize that they will not be able to fulfill
type; develops after age 30; glucose levels rise because the dreams of their youth, or that fulfillment of their
the cells lose their ability to use insulin own mortality
- Type 1 Diabetes: juvenile-onset, or insulin-dependent, - People who do have crisis at midlife generally also
in which the levels of blood sugar rises because the have crises at other times in their lives as well
body does not produce enough insulin - Manifestation of a neurotic personality rather than
- Excess weight in middle age increases the risk of developmental phase
impaired health and death - Turning Point: psychological transition that involves
- People with low socioeconomic status tend to have significant change or transformation in the perceived
poorer health, shorter life expectancy, more activity meaning, purpose, or direction of a person’s life
limitations due to chronic disease, and lower well- - Triggered by major life events, normative changes, or
being than people with higher SES a new understanding of past experience
- Women have a higher life expectancy than men and - The most common pattern for marriages was for
lower death rates, may be due to genetic protection marriages to be broken by death and for survivors to
given by the second X chromosome and before remarry
menopause, to beneficial effects of estrogen on both - Marriages generally follow a developmental
cardiovascular and cognitive health sequence, with initial sharp declines in marriage
- However, women report being in fair or poor health satisfaction followed by a plateau, then further, slower
than men declines over the longer term
- Osteoporosis: bones become thin and brittle as a - One of the negative impact of marital satisfaction is
result of calcium depletion (due to falling of estrogen the birth of a child
levels)
#BLEPP2023
- Couples who are sexually satisfied are generally - Wear-and-Tear Theory: cells and tissues have vital
satisfied with their marriages parts that wear out
- When older adults cohabitate, their relationships are - Free-Radical Theory: Accumulated damage from
more stable than those of younger cohabiting adults oxygen radicals causes cells and eventually organs to
- Higher divorce rates at middle age stop functioning
- Divorce is associated with elevated chance of chronic - Rate-of-Living Theory: the greater an organism’s rate
health conditions and mortality in both sexes, but of metabolism, the shorter its life span
specially in men - Autoimmune Theory: Immune system becomes
- Long-standing marriages may be less likely to break confused and attacks its own body cells
up than more recent ones - Survival Curve: represents the percentage of people
- Marital Capital: the longer a couple is married, the or animals alive at various age
more likely they are to have built up joint financial - The most fruitful area for longevity interventions
assets, to share the same friends, to go through should be focused on risk reduction and living a healthy
important experiences together, and to get used to the lifestyle
emotional benefits that marriage can provide - Older skin tends to become paler and less elastic,
- Marriage is associated with encouragement of health- varicose veins appears in legs
promoting behaviors - They become shorter due to disks between spinal
- One factor that seems to affect relationship quality in vertebrae atrophy
gays and lesbians is whether or one they have - Lungs become less effective because of reductions in
internalized society’s negative views on homosexuality Lung volume, atrophy in muscles involve in breathing,
- The quality of midlife friendships often makes up for and reductions in the ability of cilia
what they lack in quantity of time spent - Elderly adults are more likely to suffer from
- Empty Nest: occurs when the youngest child leaves Arrythmia (irregular heartbeat), the muscle walls
home thicken, and the valves that control the flow of blood in
- In a good marriage, departure of children generally and out of the heart may no longer open completely
increases marital satisfaction - Reserve Capacity: backup capacity that helps body
- Revolving Door Syndrome or Boomerang system function to their utmost limits in times of stress
Phenomenon: returning to parent’s home, sometimes - In late adulthood, the brain gradually diminishes in
with their own families volume and weight, particularly in the frontal and
- Prolonged Parenting may lead to intergenerational temporal regions
tension when it contradicts parent’s normative - Hippocampus (memory area) also shrinks
expectations - Decrease in the number of dopamine
Old Age neurotransmitters due to losses of synapses
- Women live longer and have lower mortality rates at - Older eyes need more light to see, are more sensitive
all ages than men to glare, and may have trouble locating and reading
- Women’s longer lives also have been attributed to signs
their greater tendency to take care of themselves and to - Cataracts: cloudy or opaque areas in the lends of the
seek medical care, the higher level of social support eyes, are common in older adults
they enjoy, and the rise in women’s socioeconomic - Age-Related Macular Degeneration: leading cause of
status in recent decades visual impairment in older adults; the retinal cells in the
- Endocrine Theory: biological clocks act through macula degenerate over time, and the center of the
hormones to control the pace of aging retina gradually loses the ability to sharply distinguish
- Immunological Theory: programmed decline in fine details
immune system functions leads to increased - Glaucoma: irreversible damage to the optic nerve
vulnerability to infectious disease and thus to aging and caused by increased pressure in the eye
death - Loss of strength is greater for lower than for upper
- Evolutionary Theory: Aging is an evolved trait thus limbs
genes that promote reproduction are selected at higher - Falls, the most common cause of fracturs, become
rates than genes that extend lives increasingly common with age
- Variable-Rate Theories: aging is the results of random - Functional Fitness: exercises or activities that
processes that vary from person to person (Error improve daily activity
theories)
#BLEPP2023
- Older people tend to sleep and dream less than before Identifying the challenges with Death
driven by the normative changes in circadian rhythms o Terminal Drop or Terminal Decline – specifically
- Men typically take longer to develop erection and to to a widely observed decline in cognitive abilities
ejaculate, may need more manual stimulation, may shortly before death
experience longer intervals between erections or may o Near-Death Experience – often involving a sense of
have difficulty doing it being out of the body or sucked into a tunnel and
- Women have difficulty in arousal, orgasm, etc.
visions of bright lights or mystical encounters
- Lifelong program of exercise may prevent many
▪ Linked to stimulation or damage of various brain
physical changes once associated with normal aging
- Inactivity contributes to heart disease, diabetes, colon areas, most notably in bilateral frontal and
cancer, and high blood pressure occipital areas
- Dementia: the general term for physiologically ▪ Generally experienced as positive as a result of
caused cognitive and behavioral decline sufficient to the release of endorphins
interfere with daily activities o Five Stages of Death
- Alzheimer’s: most common type, caused by specific 1. Denial
changes in the brain (abnormal build up of 2. Anger
neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaque in the brain) 3. Bargain
(Amnesia, Aphasia, Agnosia, Apraxia, Anomia) 4. Depression
- Vascular: caused by strokes or other issues of blood 5. Acceptance
flow in the brain; may be due to diabetes and high o Grief – emotional response that generally follows
cholesterol; have strokes like episodes
closely on the heels of death
- Lewy Bodies: have movement or balance (stiffness or
o Bereavement – response to the loss of some whom
trembling); daytime sleepiness, confusion, or staring;
trouble sleeping at night and visual hallucinations a person feels close
- Frontotemporal: leads to personality and behavior o Grief Work – working out of psychological issues
changes and problems in language skills connected with grief often takes the following path:
- Huntington’s: resulted from gene mutation which 4. Shock and Disbelief
impacts movement, behavior, and cognition; 5. Preoccupation with the memory of the dead
personality also changes, loss of coordination, person
difficulty in swallowing and speaking 6. Resolution
- Parkinson’s: uncontrollable movements, tremor, o Recovery Pattern – mourner goes high to low
stiffness, slow movement, prevalent in men than distress
women; nerve cells in basal ganglia become impaired; o Delayed Grief – moderate or elevated initial grief,
L-Dopa as treatment and symptoms worsen over time
- Language problems are probably results of the
o Chronic Grief – distressed for a long time
problems accessing and retrieving information from the
memory o Resilience – the mourner shows a low and gradually
- Dysfunction in frontal lobes and hippocampus may diminishing level of grief in response to the death of
cause false memories a loved one
- Older adults seems to have difficulty encoding new o By age 4, children build a partial understanding of
episodic memories because of difficulties in forming the biological nature of death
and later recalling a coherent and cohesive episode o Adjusting to loss is more difficult if a child had a
- Storage also deteriorate to the point retrieval becomes troubled relationship with the person who died
difficult o They do not understand death, but they understand
- Terminal Drop: rapid decline in well-being and life loss
satisfaction approx. 3-5 yrs before death o Often, teens turn to peers for support
- Close marital relationship can moderate the negative o Young adults will find their entire world collapsing
psychological effects of functional disabilities by
at once when they knew they are dying instead of
reducing psychological distress
dealing with other issues
- Widowhood has been increasingly associated with
increased mortality, with sharpest declines seen in the o Middle-Aged and Older adults are more prepared
first 6 months following the death of a spouse with death
#BLEPP2023
o Terror Management Theory – human’s unique - can now learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a
understanding of death, in concern with self- chair
preservation needs and capacity for fear, results in 10th month:
common emotional and psychological responses - can now stand alone
when mortality, or thoughts of death are made salient - babbling
Expected Developmental Milestones during 11th month:
- babies can let go and stand alone well
Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood
- can now anticipate events
Infancy
Toddlerhood
1st Month:
- early reflexes disappears
- infants can turn their head from side to side
- potty training
- grasping reflex
- can now pull a toy attached to a string and use their
- practice reflexes and control them
hands and legs to climb stairs
- cries when they are unhappy and become quiet at the
- can now walk quickly, run, and balance on their feet
sound of human voice or when they are picked up
in a squatting position
2nd – 3rd Month:
- purposefully vary their actions to see results
- babies can now lift their heads
- explores the world and trial and errors
- can grasp moderate sized things until they will be able
- can now think about events and anticipate
to grasp one thing using right hand and transfer it to
consequences without always resorting to action
their left hand
- learns numbers
- can now hold their head still to find out whether the
- can now use symbols such as gestures of words
object is moving
- can now point at a picture of an object while saying
- can already match the voice to faces
its name, demonstrating an understanding that a picture
- distinguish male and female
is a symbol of something else
- size constancy
- speak in two-word utterances (telegraphic speech)
- infants develop the ability to perceive that occluded
- social emotions towards self and others
objects are whole
(embarrassment, pride, guilt, empathy etc.)
- social smiling
Early Childhood
4th Month:
- babies can keep their heads erect while being - can now engage to deferred imitation
supported in a sitting position - primary teeth is evident
- can now roll-over, accidentally - can now pick up tiny objects using thumb and
- begin to reach objects forefingers
- know the difference between reality and imagination
- begin to coordinate sensory information and grasp
objects - begin to use plurals, possessives, and past tense
- turn toward sounds - can now control movements such as stopping, turning,
6th Month: jumping
- babies cannot sit without support - can categorize objects and identify similarities and
- can start creeping or crawling differences
- can now conversate in sentences and may be
- could successfully reach for objects in the dark faster
than they could in the light declarative, negative, interrogative, or imperative
- they can now localize or detect sounds from their - can recognize facial expressions
origins - speech is quite adultlike
- repeat actions that brings interesting results - can understand the public aspects of emotions
- permanent teeth begins to appear
- cooing
- they can now recognize their name Middle and Late Childhood
7th Month: - gains skills for team sports
- pincer grasps could already manifest - loses baby teeth
- can start standing - motor skills improved: they play which usually have
- can now sit independently socialization involved
8th Month: - rough-and-tumble play
- babies can now sit without help
#BLEPP2023
- need more flexible rules, shorter instruction time, and - Boys are more likely to fail to achieve a baseline of
more free time to practice those older children proficiency in reading, mathematics, and science
- better understanding of spatial concepts, causality, - Girls do better on verbal tasks that involve writing and
categorization, inductive and deductive reasoning, language usage
conservation, numbers - Boys do better in activities that involve visual and
- starts to develop the ability to mentally juggle more spatial functions helpful in math and science
concepts at the same time Young Adulthood
- development of the ability to regulate attention and - Acceptability of homosexual unions is growing,
can now concentrate longer especially in younger cohorts and in women
- can now use selective attention and inhibitory control - Emerging adults tend to have more sexual partners
- Children use increasingly precise verbs, simile and than in older age groups, but they have sex less
metaphor frequently
- Rarely use passive voice - Reflective Thinking: active, persistent, and careful
- Understanding of rules of syntax becomes more consideration of information or beliefs
sophisticated with age - Continually question facts, draw inferences, and make
- Sentence structure continue to become more elaborate connections
- Boys tend to use more controlling statements, - Frequently engage in critical thinking
negative interruptions, and competitive statements - At approx. 20-25 years of age, the brain forms new
- Girls phrase their remarks in a more tentative, neurons, synapses, and dendritic connections, and the
conciliatory way and are more polite and cooperative cortical regions that handle higher-level thinking
Adolescence become fully myelinated
- Adult height, weight, and sexual maturity - Postformal Thought: characterized by the ability to
- growth of secondary sexual characteristics deal with inconsistency, contradiction, and
- menstrual period for women compromise
- peer acceptance - Draws on intuition and emotion as well as logic to
- understanding of abstract concepts help people cope with situations such as social
- growth spurt dilemmas
- A steady increase in white matter, nerve fibers that - Acknowledges that there may be more than one valid
connect distant portions of the brain, permits faster way of viewing an issue and that the world is made up
information and better communication across of shades of gray
hemispheres - Traditionally, adulthood was defined by markers such
- Adolescents move away from their reliance on as moving out of the family home, marriage, children,
concrete, real-world stimuli, and develop the capacity full-time employment, or establishment of career
for abstract thought - Early marriage and family formation are associated
- They can now use symbols to represent other with poverty and substance use
symbols, hidden messages, imagine possibilities, create - Emerging adults with the highest well-being were
hypotheses those who were not yet married, had no children, attend
- Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning: methodical, college, and lived away from their childhood home
scientific approach to problem solving, and it Middle Adulthood
characterizes formal operations thinking - Middle-Aged people are in their prime
- Involves ability to develop, consider, and test - Individuals who scored the highest in the study of
hypotheses Schaie tended to have high educational levels, flexible
- Piaget attributed it to a combination of brain personalities, intact families, pursue cognitively
maturation and expanding environmental opportunities complex occupations and other activities, to be married
- According to David Elkind, the new way of thinking to someone more cognitively advanced, to be satisfied
of adolescents, the way they look at themselves and with their accomplishments
their world, is as unfamiliar to them as their reshaped - Crystallized Intelligence increase through middle age
bodies, and they sometimes feel just awkward in its use and often until the end of life
- Adolescents can keep many alternatives in mind at the - Mature adults show increasing competence in solving
same time yet may lack effective strategies for problems in their chosen field
choosing them
#BLEPP2023
- Specialized Knowledge or Expertise: form of ▪ Living will or a more formal legal document
crystallized intelligence that is related to the process of called a durable power of attorney
encapsulation ▪ Durable Power of Attorney: – appoints another
- Adults do not usually depend on the brain’s person if the maker of the document becomes
information-processing-machinery because some incompetent to do so
adult’s fluid intelligence becomes encapsulated o Assisted Suicide – physician or someone else helps
(dedicated in handling specific kinds of knowledge)
a person bring about a self-inflicted death
- Expert thinking often seems automatic and intuitive
o Suicide – self-inflicted death in which the person
- Such intuitive, experience-based thinking is also a
acts intentionally, directly, and consciously
characteristic of Postformal Thought
o Death Seekers – clearly intend to end their lives at
- An important feature of postformal thought is its
the time they attempt suicide
integrative nature – adults interpret what they read, see,
▪ May last only a short time
or hear in terms of its meaning for them
o Death Initiators – clearly intent to end their lives,
- conscientiousness is the highest maybe due to result
but they act out of a belief that the process is already
of work experiences
under the way and that they are simply hastening the
Old Age
process
- Older adults tend to make the most of their abilities, o Death Ignorers – do not believe that their self-
often exploiting gains in one area to offset declines in
inflicted death will mean the end of their existence
another o Death Darers – experience mixed feelings, or
- Increases in agreeableness, self-confidence, warmth, ambivalence, about their intent to die, even at the
emotional stability, and conscientiousness and declines moment of their attempt, and they show this
in neuroticism, social vitality, and openness to ambivalence in the act itself
experience ▪ Their risk-taking behavior does not guarantee
- they tend to seek out activities and people that give death
them emotional gratification o Subintentional Death – a death in which the victim
- Older adults tend to use more emotion-focused coping plays an indirect, hidden, partial, or unconscious role
than younger people o Suicide is officially the 11th cause of death in US
- Older adults are more religious than younger adults
o Suicidal Ideation – thinking seriously about suicide
- Older adults conserve resources by selecting o Suicidal Plans – formulation of a specific method
meaningful goals, optimizing the resources they have for killing oneself
to achieve it, and compensating for the losses by using o Suicidal Attempts – the person survives from
resources in alternative ways to achieve their goals attempts
Issues involved in decisions about Death o Emile Durkheim’s Suicide Types:
o Brain Death – neurological condition which states Altruistic – formalized suicides; dishonor to self,
the person is brain dead when all electrical activity family, or society
of the brain has ceased for a specific period of time Egoistic – loss of social supports as an important
▪ Higher portions of the brains dies sooner than provocation for suicide
lower parts which facilitates breathing and Anomic – result of marked disruptions, such as sudden
heartbeat loss of job
▪ That is why your brain could be dead but you still Fatalistic – loss of control over one’s own destiny
have heartbeat for the mean time o Freud believed that suicide indicated unconscious
o Euthanasia – good death, intended to end suffering hostility directed inward to the self rather than
or to allow terminally ill person to die with dignity outward to the person or situation causing the anger
▪ Passive: involves withholding or discontinuing o If a family member committed a suicide, there is an
treatment that might extend the life of a increased risk that someone else will also
o Low levels of serotonin is associated with suicide
terminally ill patient such as life support
and with violent suicide attempts (low levels of
▪ Active: “mercy killing” involves action taken
serotonin is linked with impulsivity, instability, and
directly or deliberate to shorten life the tendency to overreact to situation)
o Advance Directive – contains instructions for when o The stress of a friend’s suicide or some other major
and how to discontinue futile medical care stress may affect several individuals who are
#BLEPP2023
vulnerable because of existing psychological
disorders
o Hopelessness – pessimistic belief that one’s present
circumstances, problems, or mood will not change
o Dichotomous Thinking – viewing problems and
solutions in rigid either/or terms
o Common triggering factors:
✓ Stressful events
✓ Mood and thought changes
✓ Alcohol and other drug use
✓ Mental disorders
✓ Modeling
end
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Developmental Psychology

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one day, we will be remembered.

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