1.

Introduction to Contouring
Contouring involves the depiction of the relief or topography of the earth's surface through
contour lines on a map. It transforms elevation data collected during surveys into a visual
representation that engineers use for design, planning, and analysis. In surveying, contouring
bridges fieldwork (data collection) and office work (map preparation), enabling the creation of
topographic maps that show not just horizontal positions but also vertical variations.

Historically, contouring has evolved with advancements in surveying instruments, from basic
leveling to modern digital terrain modeling (DTM) using total stations and GPS. It is crucial in
civil engineering applications such as site selection, route alignment, and earthwork calculations.

2. Definitions and Terminology

 Contour Line: An imaginary line on the ground surface that connects points of equal
elevation above a datum (typically mean sea level). It represents the intersection of a
horizontal plane with the terrain. For instance, the shoreline of a still lake at a specific
reduced level (RL) forms a natural contour line.
 Contouring: The process of determining and plotting contour lines to illustrate the
vertical configuration of the ground on a plan or map. It includes both field surveys for
elevation data and interpolation in the office.
 Contour Interval (CI): The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contour
lines. It is selected based on the map's scale and terrain type, typically ranging from 0.2 m
for flat areas to 20 m for large-scale hilly maps.
 Horizontal Equivalent (HE): The horizontal distance between two adjacent contour
lines. It varies with slope; steeper slopes have smaller HE for the same CI.
 Contour Gradient: A line on the ground maintaining a constant slope, often used in
alignment projects like roads or canals.
 Reduced Level (RL): The elevation of a point relative to the datum, used in calculations
for contour plotting.

3. Characteristics of Contour Lines

Contour lines have specific properties that reveal terrain features. Understanding these is key to
interpreting topographic maps:

1. Closure: All contour lines must close on themselves, either within the map boundaries or
outside, forming loops.
2. Spacing and Slope: Closely spaced contours indicate steep slopes, while widely spaced
ones show gentle or flat terrain. Uniform spacing suggests a constant slope.
3. Hills and Depressions: Concentric closed contours with increasing values inward
represent hills; decreasing values inward indicate depressions or ponds.
4. Ridges and Valleys: U-shaped contours (convexity toward lower ground) denote ridges;
V-shaped contours (convexity toward higher ground) denote valleys. Contours cross
these features at right angles.
5. Intersections: Contours do not generally intersect or merge, except in cases of vertical
cliffs (meeting) or overhanging features like caves (crossing).
6. Steepest Slope: The direction of the steepest slope is perpendicular to the contour line at
any point.
7. Irregularity: Irregular contours signify uneven or rugged terrain; smooth contours
indicate gradual changes.
8. Structures: Contours do not pass through permanent structures like buildings but may
bend around them.
Diagram Description: Standard diagrams often show ridge lines (U-shaped) and valley lines (V-
shaped), with arrows indicating flow directions in valleys. Hills appear as nested ovals with peak
elevations marked.

4. Factors Influencing Contour Interval

The choice of CI affects map clarity and detail:

 Map Scale: Smaller scales require larger CI to prevent overcrowding; e.g., 1:50,000
maps might use 20 m CI.
  Terrain Nature: Flat areas need smaller CI (0.5-2 m) to show subtle changes; steep areas
allow larger CI (5-10 m).
 Project Purpose: Detailed engineering (e.g., dam sites) demands small CI;
reconnaissance surveys use larger ones.
 Time and Resources: Limited resources favor larger CI for quicker surveys.
 Accuracy Requirements: High-precision projects (e.g., urban planning) use smaller
intervals.

5. Methods of Contouring
Contouring requires horizontal (plan position) and vertical (elevation) control. Methods are
classified as direct or indirect.

5.1 Direct Method

In this method, contour lines are traced directly in the field by locating points on a specific
elevation using leveling instruments.

 Procedure: Set up a level, calculate staff reading for the desired contour (e.g., for height
of instrument 100 m and contour 99 m, reading = 1 m). Move the staff until the reading
matches, mark the point, and repeat along the contour. Horizontal control uses chain,
compass, or plane table.
 Instruments: Dumpy level for accuracy; hand/Abney level for speed in small areas.
 Advantages: High accuracy for small, detailed areas.
 Disadvantages: Time-consuming and tedious for large areas.

5.2 Indirect Method

Elevations are measured at selected points first, then contours are interpolated. Suitable for large
areas.

 Grid/Square Method: Divide area into grids (5-20 m squares), take levels at
intersections, plot, and interpolate contours.
 Cross-Section Method: Run cross-sections at intervals (20-100 m), take elevations along
them (especially at breaks), plot profiles, and interpolate. Ideal for linear projects like
roads.
 Radial/Tacheometric Method: From a central point, take radial lines, measure distances
and elevations (using tacheometer or total station). Best for hilly terrain.

Comparison Table:

Aspect Direct Method Indirect Method

Accuracy High Moderate to high
Speed Slow Faster for large areas
Suitability Small, precise areas Large, varied terrain
 Aspect Direct Method Indirect Method
Instruments Level, staff Total station, theodolite
Field Effort Intensive tracing Point-based measurements

Modern approaches use DTMs from spot elevations and breaklines (e.g., road edges), connected
via triangular irregular networks (TIN) for automated contour generation.

6. Interpolation of Contours
Interpolation spaces contours between known points, assuming uniform slope.

6.1 By Estimation

Rough visual judgment to locate contour positions between two points. Fast but less accurate;
used for preliminary small-scale maps.

6.2 By Arithmetic Calculation

Precise method using proportions. For points A (RL 100 m) and B (RL 102 m), distance 50 m, to
find 101 m contour position: Distance from A = (101 - 100) / (102 - 100) * 50 = 25 m. Time-
consuming but accurate.

6.3 By Graphical Method

Uses tracing paper with parallel or radial lines scaled to CI.

 Parallel Line Method: Draw lines at CI intervals on transparent sheet, align with plotted
points, trace intersections.
 Radial Line Method: From a midpoint, draw radials dividing elevation differences; align
and trace.

Efficient for office work.

7. Uses of Contour Maps

Contour maps are indispensable in civil engineering:

1. Site Selection: Identify flat areas, slopes, or drainage patterns for projects like reservoirs
or buildings.
2. Route Alignment: Locate economical paths for roads, railways, or canals with minimal
cuts/fills.
3. Earthwork Calculations: Draw sections along lines, compute volumes using prismoidal
or trapezoidal formulas.
4. Intervisibility: Check line-of-sight between points for communication towers or surveys.
 5. Hydrology and Drainage: Trace watersheds, calculate catchment areas, or plan
irrigation.
6. Engineering Design: Support DTM for 3D modeling in software like AutoCAD or
MicroStation.

8. Additional Topics and Practical Tips

 Accuracy Standards: Horizontal ±10-30 mm, vertical ±7-30 mm, depending on surface
type.
 Breaklines: Critical lines where slope changes (e.g., stream beds); survey at 20 m
intervals to avoid contour errors.
 Field Sketches: Always prepare sketches to aid data interpretation.
 Common