CONTOUR LINES

• A contour is a line connecting points of equal elevation. Since water assumes

a level surface, the shoreline of a lake is a visible contour, but in general,
contours cannot be seen in nature.
• On maps, contours represent the planimetric locations of the traces of level
surfaces for different elevations (see the plan view of Figure).
• Contours are drawn on maps by interpolating between points whose
positions and elevations have been observed and plotted.
• As noted earlier, computerized mapping and contouring systems are
replacing manual plotting methods, but the principles of plotting terrain
points and of interpolating contours are still basically the same in either
method.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
• Although each contour line in nature has a unique shape, all contours
adhere to a set of general characteristics. Important ones,
fundamental to their proper field location and correct plotting, are
listed.
• 1. Contour lines must close on themselves, either on or off a map.They cannot
dead end.
• 2. Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
• 3. The slope between adjacent contour lines is assumed to be uniform. (Thus,
it is necessary that breaks (changes) in grade be located in topographic
surveys.)
• 4. The distance between contours indicates the steepness of a slope.Wide
separation denotes gentle slopes; close spacing, steep slopes; even and
parallel spacing, uniform slope.
• 5. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged country. Smooth lines imply more
uniformly rolling terrain.
• 6. Concentric closed contours that increase in elevation represent
hills.A contour forming a closed loop around lower ground is called a
depression contour (Spot elevations and hachures inside the lowest
contour and pointing to the bottom of a hole or sink with no outlet
make map reading easier.)
• 7. Contours of different elevations never meet except on a vertical
surface such as a wall, cliff, or natural bridge. They cross only in the
rare case of a cave or overhanging shelf. Knife-edge conditions are
never found in natural formations.
• 8. A contour cannot branch into two contours of the same elevation.
• 9. Contour lines crossing a stream point upstream and form V’s; they
point down the ridge and form U’s when crossing a ridge crest.
• 10. Contour lines go in pairs up valleys and along the sides of ridge tops.
• 11. A single contour of a given elevation cannot exist between two equal
height contours of higher or lower elevation. For example, an 82-m
contour cannot exist alone between two 81- or two 83-m contours.
• 12. Cuts and fills for earth dams, levees, highways, railroads, canals, etc.,
produce straight or geometrically curved contour lines with uniform, or
uniformly graduated spacing. Contours cross sloping or crowned streets
in typical V- or U-shaped lines.
• Keeping these characteristics in mind will
(1) make it easier to visualize contours when looking at an area,
(2) assist in selecting the best array of points to locate in the field
when conducting a topographic survey, and
(3) prevent serious mistakes in drawing contours.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

1. A series of 80
closed 75
contour lines 70
on the map 65
represent a 60
HILL
60
hill , if the 65
higher values 70
75
are inside 80

A HILL
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
80

75
2. A series of
DEPRESSION
closed contour 70

lines on the 65

map indicate a 60
depression if
the higher
values are 70

outside 60
65
70
75
80

A DEPRESSION
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
3. Contour line cross ridge or valley line at
right angles.
100
If the higher
90
values are
80 inside the bend
70
or loop in the
60
50
contour, it
indicates a
Ridge.

RIDGE LINE
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
4. Contour line cross ridge or valley line at
right angles.
If the higher
100
values are
90
outside the
80 bend, it
70 represents
60 a Valley
50

VALLEY LINE
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

5. Contours cannot end anywhere but close

on themselves either within or outside the
limits of the map.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
6.
Contour lines 40
cannot merge or 30
cross one another
20
on map except in 10
the case of an
overhanging cliff.
40 30 20 10

OVERHANGING CLIFF
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
7. Contour lines 50
never run into
40
one another
VERTICAL
30
except in the CLIFF

case of a vertical 20

cliff. In this 10

case ,several
contours coincide
50
and the 10 20 30 40 50

horizontal
equivalent OVERHANGING CLIFF
becomes zero.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
8. Depressions
between summits
is called a saddle.
It is represented
by four sets of 70 SADDLE 70
80
80
contours as shown. 90 90
90
It represents a dip 100
in a ridge or the 110

junction of two
ridges. And in the Line passing through the
case of a mountain saddles and summits
range ,it takes the gives water shed line.
form of a pass .
METHODS OF CONTOURING

Direct Method:
•This method is most accurate but very
slow and tedious as a lot of time is wasted
in searching points of the same elevation
for a contour.
•This is suitable for small area and where
great accuracy is required
Procedure: To start with, a temporary B.M is
established near the area to be surveyed
with reference to a permanent B.M by fly
leveling. The level is then set up in such a
position so that the maximum number of
points can be commanded from the
instrument station. The height of instrument
is determined by taking a back sight on the
B.M. and adding it to the R.L. of bench mark.
The staff reading required to fix points on
the various contours is determined by
subtracting the R.L. of each of the contours
from the height of instrument.
Example:
If the height of instrument is 82.48m.,
then the staff readings required to locate
82, 81 and 80m contours are 0.48, 1.48 and
2.48m respectively. The staff is held on an
approximate position of point and then
moved up and down the slope until the
desired reading is obtained. The point is
marked with a peg.
Example(contd.):

Similarly various other points are

marked on each contour. The line
joining all these points give the
required contour. It may be noted that
one contour is located at a time. Having
fixed the contours within the range of
the instrument, the level is shifted and
set up in a new position.
 Procedure (Contd…..)
The new height of instrument and
the required staff readings are then
calculated in a similar manner and the
process repeated till all the contours are
located. The positions of the contour points
are located suitably either simultaneous
with levelling or afterwards. A theodolite
, a compass or a plane table traversing is
usually adopted for locating these points.
The points are then plotted on the plan
and the contours drawn by joining the
corresponding points by dotted curved
2. Indirect Method:
In this method the points located and surveyed
are not necessarily on the contour lines but the
spot levels are taken along the series of lines laid
out over the area .The spot levels of the several
representative points representing hills,
depressions, ridge and valley lines and the
changes in the slope all over the area to be
contoured are also observed. Their positions are
then plotted on the plan and the contours drawn
by interpolation. This method of contouring is also
known as contouring by spot levels.
SQUARE METHOD
 This method is commonly employed in all
kinds of surveys as this is cheaper, quicker
and less tedious as compared to direct
method. There are mainly three method of
contouring in indirect method:
(i) By Squares. In this method, the whole
area is divided into number of squares, the
side of which may vary from 5m to 30m
depending upon the nature of the ground
and the contour interval. The square need
not be of the same size throughout.
2. Indirect Method: (Square Method)
The corners of the squares are pegged
out and the reduced levels of these points are
determined with a level.
100.4 97.60 96.05 94.40

13 14 15 16
98.00 98.00
98,00
97.45 99.25 98.75 99.40
9 10 11 12

98.65 99.60 97.80 89.55

5 6 7 8 98.0
99.0 99.0

100.90 99.70 99.85 98.45

1 2 3 4
SQURES LAID ON GROUND CONTOURS INTERPOLATED
 2. Indirect Method: (Square Method)
The important
points within the
squares may be
taken when required
and located by 100.4 97.60 96.05 94.40

measurements from 98.00

98.00
the corners. The 98,00
97.45 99.25 98.75 99.40
squares are plotted
and the reduced
levels of the corners 98.65 99.60
98.0
97.80 89.55

are written on the 99.0 99.0

plan. 100.90 99.70 99.85 98.45

SQUARE METHOD
2. Indirect Method:
By Cross- Sections: This method is most suitable for
the survey of long narrow strips such as a road,
railway or canal etc.
70
RD 580 70.6 70 69.1 69 68.8 69 69.1 70.8

RD 560 70.8 70.2 69.1 70.4

70.5

71

ON
RD 540
71.2 70.8 66.3 SSI 70.6
70.8 PRE
67
DE 71
68
69

70
RD 520 71.6 71.2 70.6 72.4 71.7
71 71
Fig. X-Section Method
2. Indirect Method:
By Cross- Sections: This method is most suitable
for the surveys of long narrow strips such as a
road, railway or canal etc. Cross sections are
run transverse to the centre line of the work and
representative points are marked along the lines
of cross-section. The cross-section lines need not
necessarily be at right angles to the centre line
of the work. This may be inclined at any angle
to the centre line if necessary. The spacing of the
cross-sections depends upon the topography of
the country and the nature of the survey.
2. Indirect Method:

By Cross- Sections:

The common value is 20 to 30 m in

hilly country and 100m in flat country. The
levels of the points along the section lines are
plotted on the plan and the contours are then
interpolated as usual as shown in the fig.
2. Indirect Method:

Fig. Stadia Wires at Diaphragm

(iii) By Tacheometric method:
A techeometer is a transit theodolite having a
diaphragm fitted with two stadia wires, one above
and other below the central wire. The horizontal
distance between the instrument and staff station
may be determined by multiplying the difference of
the staff readings of the upper and lower stadia wires
with the stadia constant of the instrument, which is
usually 100.Thus the techeometer is used for both the
vertical as well as horizontal measurements.
2. Indirect Method:
iii) By Tacheometric method (contd…):

This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the

number of stations which can be commanded by a
techeometer is far more than those by a level and thus
the number of instrument settings are considerably
reduced. A number of radial lines are laid out at a
known angular interval and representative points are
marked by pegs along these radial lines. Their
elevations and distances are then calculated and plotted
on the plan and the contour lines are then interpolated.
INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
The process of spacing the
contours proportionally between the plotted
ground – points is termed as interpolation
of contours .
This becomes necessary in the case
of indirect contouring as only the spot
levels are taken in this method.
While interpolation of contours the ground
between any two points is assumed to be
uniformly sloping.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
There are three main methods of interpolation:
i) By Estimation: The position of the contour
points between ground - points are
estimated roughly and the contours are then
drawn through these points. This is a rough
method and is suitable for small scale maps.
ii) By arithmetical calculation: This is very
tedious but accurate method and is used for
small areas where accurate results are
necessary. The contours are interpolated as
under:
INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

ii) By arithmetical calculation:

Suppose A and B are two points at a distance
of 30 m and the reduced level of A and B are 25.45m and
27.54m respectively .Taking the contour interval as 1m,
26 and 27 m contours may be interpolated in between A
and B. The difference of level between A and B is
2.09m.the difference of level between A and 26m,and A
and 27m is 0.55mand 1.55 m respectively.
Therefore the horizontal distance between A and 26 m
contour =0.55/2.09 x 30m and
Between A and 27 m contour =1.55/2.09 x 30m.
These distances are then plotted to scale on the map.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
Graphical method of (iii) By Graphical method:
interpolation is 65

simpler as compared B
to arithmetical 62.5m

method and also the 60

2
60m

results obtained are

accurate. Out of
several graphical 55 1
55m
methods, the most
common is as given
below: 50
A 51.5m
Graphical method:

As shown in the fig. suppose the

contour interval is 5m, then on a piece of
tracing cloth, a number of parallel lines
spaced at 0.5 m (usually 1/10th of the
contour interval) are drawn. Every tenth
line being made thick.
Suppose it is required to interpolate
contours between two points A and B of
elevation 51.5m and 62.5m respectively.
INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
(iii) By Graphical method:
If the bottom line represents an
elevation of 50m. Then the successive thick lines
will represent 55m, 60m and 65m, etc. Place the
tracing cloth so that the point A is on the third
line from the bottom, now move the tracing cloth
until B is on the fifth line above the 60m thick
line. The intersection of the thick lines 1 and 2
representing elevations of 55m and 60 m and the
line AB give the position of the points on the 55m
and 60m contours respectively and are pricked
through on the plan with a pin.
DRAWING THE CONTOUR LINES
Contour lines are drawn as fine and smooth free
hand curved lines. Sometimes they are represented by
broken lines .They are inked in either in black or brown
colour. A drawing pen gives a better line than a writing
pen and French curves should be used as much as
possible .Every fifth contour is made thicker than the
rest.
The elevation of contours must be written in a
uniform manner, either on the higher side or in a gap left
in the line .When the contour lines are very long, their
elevations are written at two or three places along the
contour .In the case of small scale maps, it is sufficient to
figure every fifth contour.
 USES OF CONTOUR MAP
(i) A contour map furnishes information regarding the features
of the ground , whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
(ii) From a contour map , sections may be easily drawn in any
direction
(iii) Intervisibility between two ground points plotted on map
can be ascertained
(iv) It enables an engineer to approximately select the most
economical or suitable site for an engineering project such as
a road, a railway, a canal or a pipe line etc.
(v) A route of a given grade can be traced on the map.
(vi) Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be
determined from the contour map.
(vii) Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of
earth work.
CALCULATE AND DRAW THE CONTOURS