FUNDAMENTAL OF

THERMODYNAMICS
Lecture 1
Dr/ Hagar Mahdy
Thermodynamics
Some major applications of thermodynamics

01 Chemical reaction processes and systems

Deals with heat and enrgy (work)

02 Human body (metabolism)

Focus on matter and system 03 power generation plants

04 automotive engines

0
pumps
5
0
Electrical equipments (cables
6 ,transformers .....)
 01 safe reliable operation,

02 an increase of the output,

Studying Thermodynamics helps us to

03 a reduction of the input

seek to achieve improved designs and
better performance as measured by
factors such as: 04 lesser environmental impact.

05 improve design
 Fuel Cells
Fuel cells have been developed during
the last three decades. The fuel and • Hydrogen Ionization:
oxidant react through a membrane and
an electrical energy is produced between
2H2 → 4H+ + 4e-
cathode and anode. Hydrogen is • Membrane Reaction:
commonly used in fuel cells and the
product of combustion is water vapor.
This means clean products of 4H+ + 4e- + O2 →
combustion. The chemical reaction is:
2H2O
Steam power Automotive
plant engine
Refrigeration
and Air
Conditioning
Systems
 Pumps Biological Systems
A person of 30 years old, 70 kg weight,
Pumps are used to increase the 1.8-m2 body surface area dissipates
liquid pressure. They are used in energy to the environment /
many applications, e.g. water pumps surrounding at a rate of 84 W, i.e. body
at home or for irrigation systems and converts chemical energy of food or of
oil pumps, and are usually driven by the body fat if the person has not
electrical motor or engine. eaten into thermal energy at a rate of
84 W
84 W means 84 joules of energy
every second.
 Biological Systems Biological Systems
Energy requirements of a body are
Two people doing heavy exercising in a
obtained by the food we eat. This
room may be supplying more energy to
energy is converted into mechanical
the room (depending on their activity
work (like engine) with an efficiency
level) than a 1000 Watt electric
of about 20 %. When the body does
resistance heater
not do work on the environment, the
entire energy is also converted to
heat. This like several engineering
During heavy exercise, one person systems which consumes electricity
can give off 500–1000 W or even must reject it to its environment at
more of heat the same rate in steady state
operation regardless on what goes
on in the set
 Examples of
Energy Systems
Input:
• Mass: food, drink, air
• Energy: heat radiation .. etc
Exit: mass and energy
Stored: mass and energy

Burning food and oxygen to generate

energy.....etc
 System
quantity of matter or region in space chosen
for study

surrounding
Fundamental the mass or region outside the system

Concepts and
Boundaries
Definitions the real or imaginary surface that seperate
system from its surrounding
 Types of Systems

Isolated closed Open

system system system
Closed System (Control Mass)

• Gas contained in a
balloon.
Fixed or moving boundary

• Fluid in piston cylinder arrangement Fixed or moving

boundary

• Lamp

• Fluid contained in rigid vessel

(volume is constant)
OPEN SYSTEM (CONTROL VOLUME)

•It is a control volume upon which attention is focused for study.

•The system is surrounded by a boundary called Control Surface.
•Mass crosses the system boundary (either in, out or both
together).
examples
·Filling or emptying a tank
·Pumps which are used to raise the water in
buildings
 MICROSCOPIC AND MACROSCOPIC
STUDY

🠶Microscopic Study ---->Means to study individuals inside the system.

🠶Macroscopic Study ---->Means to study the average behavior of all

homogeneous individuals inside the system.
• This is like the study of temperature change in a system.
• The system may be described by some properties, e.g. pressure,
temperature, specific volume, internal energy... etc.
 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
The thermodynamic system can be described by some properties.
Internal Properties External
Properties
are those observable are those observable
characteristics within the quantities that are
system in equilibrium. Those characteristics of either
may be classified as: the motion or location of
the system.
N.B. Specific (per unit
Intensive Extensive mass) extensive
property is an intensive
This type of properties is mass
This type of properties is mass property, e.g. specific
independent. Examples of these
dependent. e.g. size, length, volume (Volume/mass)
properties are: pressure,
volume...etc. Density (r): mass per unit
temperature, density ...... etc.
volume of a substance
Units
 Properties
• Mass Density: 
 = Lim m / V (kg/m3)
V 0
• Specific Volume: v Acceleration (a)
v = V/m m3/kg
• Specific weight:  • It is the rate of velocity change.
(It is a vector)
 =  g (N/m3)
• a = dV/dt m/s2
• Specific gravity: S
S =   water =  / water
Velocity (V)

• It is the rate of displacement change. (It is a vector)

• V = dx/dt m/s
 Force
• From Newton's law
• "force is proportional to the product of mass and acceleration in the direction of force”
• then F = m . a kg m/s2 (N)
• Based on the units of mass and acceleration, the force unit is called Newton “N”.
• The weight is defined as a force towards the earth center, it is equal to the mass
times the gravitational acceleration, g. In SI system the unit of the weight unit is also
Newton.
• Weight = m . g kg m/s2 (N)
• We often use the term “kg” as the unit for the weight, this is kg force and should be
written as “kgf” because “kg” is the unit of mass. The relation between “N” and “kgf” is:

• 1 kgf = 9.81 N
 Example 1.1
What is the weight of a person of 90 kg mass on earth where the gravitational acceleration, g, is 9.81
m/s2 and on the moon surface where the gravitational acceleration is one-sixth that on earth, write your
answer in “N” and “kgf”.

Solution
• The weight is the mass times the gravitational acceleration as:
• Weight = m . g kg m/s2 (N)
• Mass “m” = 90 kg
• On the earth surface:
• m = 90 kg, g = 9.81 m/s2
• Weight = m . g kg m/s2 (N)
• = 90 x 9.81 = 882.9 N
• Weight = m . g (N) / 9.81 (N/ kgf) [conversion factor 9.81 (N/ kgf)]
• = 90 x 9.81 N / 9.81 (N/ kgf)
• = 90 kgf
 Example 1.1
What is the weight of a person of 90 kg mass on earth where the gravitational acceleration, g, is 9.81
m/s2 and on the moon surface where the gravitational acceleration is one-sixth that on earth, write your
answer in “N” and “kgf”.

• On the moon surface:

• m = 90 kg, g = 9.81/6 = 1.635 m/s2
• Weight = m . g kg m/s2 (N)
• = 90 x 1.635 = 147.15 N
• Weight = m . g (N) / 9.81 (N/ kgf)
• = 90 x 1.635 N / 9.81 (N/ kgf) = 15 kgf

• NOTE: In this example it is clear that the weight in “kgf ” as a value is equal to the
mass in “kg” on earth at sea level because the conversion factor between N and
kgf is equal to the gravitational acceleration at this level.
 Mechanical Work

• It is force acting through a distance

• dW = F . dx Nm (joule, J)

Power

• It is the rate change of work

• P = Wo = dW/dt J/s (watt, W)
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy Chemical Energy
Energy
Internal Energy Work
Electrical Energy Heat Energy
Renewable
Nuclear Energy Atomic Energy Light Energy Energies: Solar –
Wind ….etc
Energy and Conservation of Energy
• The ability to do an action
For an isolated system
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can
only be transformed or transferred from one form to
another

Julius Mayer, German Scientist (German physician, chemist and physicist and
one of the founders of thermodynamics). 1814-1878
 Conservation of Mass

Mass can neither be created nor destroyed. The total mass remains
constant

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier was a French nobleman and chemist who

was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had a large
influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology. He
is widely considered in popular literature as the "father of modern
chemistry“
1743-1794
 Energy and Mass

Einstein’ Equation
E = m C2

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed

the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics. His
work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science.
1879-1955
 Energy--------→ Kinetic Energy It is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion.
Mohy
Mansour
K.E. = 1/2 m V 2 kg (m/s)2 (kg m/ s2 ) . m

N m = J

Specific kinetic energy k.e. : KE/m = 1/2 V 2 J/kg

• What is the change of the kinetic energy for a car of 2 ton

Example 1.2 mass if its velocity changes from 36 km/hr to 108 km/hr.
• Solution: 25

• The mass: m = 2 ton = 2000 kg

• The initial velocity: V1 = 36 km/hr x 1000 m/km / 3600 s/hr
= 10 m/s
• The final velocity:V2 = 108 km/hr x 1000 m/km / 3600 s/hr
= 30 m/s
 Example 1.2
What is the change of the kinetic energy for a car of 2 ton mass if its velocity
changes from 36 km/hr to 108 km/hr.

• Solution:
• The change in K.E.
•  K.E. = 1/2 m (V2 2 – V1 2)
• = ½ x 2000 x (302 – 102)
• = 8 x 105 J
• = 800 kJ
• Specific kinetic energy:
• k.e. = 1/2 (V2 2 – V1 2) J/kg
• = 0.4 J/kg
 Energy--------→ Potential Energy

It is ascribed to a body by virtue of its position, Z, in the earth's gravitational field.

P.E. = m g z kg m/s2 . m Specific potential energy p.e. : PE/m = gz J/kg

(kg m/ s2 ) . m
N m = J

Example 1.3 • Solution:

• The mass: m = 2 ton = 2000 kg
What is the potential energy for a • The change in P.E.
2 ton mass of water at a height of •  P.E. = m g z = 2000 x 9.81 x 182
182 m above sea level. • = 3.57 x 106 J = 3570.8 kJ
• Specific potential energy:
• p.e. = gz J/kg
• = 1.785 kJ/kg
 Energy------→ Chemical Energy
Mohy
Mansour It results from breaking of molecular bonds and making of new ones.

Energy------→ Atomic Energy

28

It is a result of the subatomic structure of matter that related the nucleus.

Energy------→ Electrical Energy

The electric power is equal to the product of the current I times the volt V. Then the electric energy is the
product of electric power times time, its units are kWhr.

Energy------→ Internal Energy(U)

It is the stored energy in a substance, which does not include the effects of electricity, magnetism, surface
tension, motion or gravity. “J”

Energy------→ Heat Energy(Q)

It is energy transfer across the boundary, without transfer of mass, due to temperature difference.
 Energy------→ Work(W)

It is energy transfer across the boundary,

without transfer of mass, (not due to
temperature difference).

Power :Rate of doing Work

 Pressure

• The pressure is created due to the

interactions between molecules within
a certain volume.
• The forces between the molecules
leads to a pressure effect.
• Increasing the number of molecules in
the same volume should lead to an
increase of pressure.
• Increasing the energy carried by the
molecules should also increase the
pressure, under certain conditions.
• The pressure is defined as the normal
component of force per unit area at a
point.
Gage pressure, vacuum pressure and absolute Pressure
• Pressure gage
• 0 means atmospheric pressure Patm
in most pressure gages
• (+) ve is called gage • (-) ve is called vacuum
this means pressure above Patm this means pressure below Patm

(A ) PA Gage Pressure (+ve) Pg

Pressure
31
Atmospheric Pressure Patm

Vacuum Pressure (- ve) Pv

(B ) PB

Zero Absolute
 Atmospheric Pressure
• Barometer: It is a device that reads atmospheric
pressure.
“Evangelista Torricelli” invented the mercury
barometer in 1643.

P = 0, F = 0 P=0

h h

Weight
mg

Patm
F = Patm A
 Atmospheric Pressure
•
Pressure at different levels

P1 A

1 P1 1

Weight h h
mg
2 2
P2
P2A
Hydrostatic Differential Equation

• dz is the positive vertical direction

• For positive dz (moving upward) the pressure decreases
• For negative dz (moving downward) the pressure
increases
• For zero dz (moving horizontal) the pressure is constant
Hydrostatic Equation

36
𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐 𝐏𝟑
+ 𝐳𝟏 = + 𝐳𝟐 = + 𝐳𝟑
𝛄 𝛄 𝛄

P + γz = Constant
U-Tube manometer

P1 A

1 P1 1

Weight h h
mg
2 2
P2
P2A
 Example 1.4
• In a piston-cylinder arrangement, as
shown below, the piston has an area of
500 mm2. What is the piston mass if it
exerts a pressure of 50 kPa above
atmospheric pressure on the gas
enclosed in the cylinder?
(Assume standard g = 9.81 m/s2.)
Solution
• Forces: PoA
• Weight: mg
• Force due to pressure inside
PA
• Force due to pressure outside mg PA
PoA
 Solution
• Balance of Forces:
Solution

PoA

mg PA
 Example 1.5

• Orifice meter is a device used to measure the air flow rate in a pipe by
measuring the pressure difference across an orifice, as shown in Fig. 2.3.
The pressure difference is measured using a mercury manometer. At high
level where the gravitational acceleration g = 9.75 m/s2, the manometer
reading is 300 mm of mercury (density of 13600 kg/m3). Calculate the
pressure difference. For the same pressure drop at sea level (g = 9.81
m/s2) what is the expected difference in height.
Example 1.5 Solution

 Orifice meter is a device used to measure the air flow rate in a pipe by measuring the pressure difference across an
orifice, as shown in Fig. 2.3. The pressure difference is measured using a mercury manometer. At high level where the
gravitational acceleration g = 9.75 m/s2, the manometer reading is 300 mm of mercury (density of 13600 kg/m3).
Calculate the pressure difference. For the same pressure drop at sea level (g = 9.81 m/s2) what is the expected
difference in height.

• The pressure drop measured by the U-tube manometer shown in Fig. 2.3 is
calculated as
• P = gh = 13600 x 9.75 x 0.3 = 39780 Pa
• For a constant pressure difference, then:
• P = gh)see level = gh)20000 m
∆𝑃 39780
• ℎ= = = 0.29817 𝑚 = 298.17 𝑚𝑚
𝜌𝑔 13600×9.81
 Example 1.6
• A gas is contained in two cylinders A and B, A
connected by a piston of two different diameters,
as shown below. The mass of the piston is 10 kg
and the gas pressure inside cylinder A is 200 kPa.
Calculate the gas pressure in cylinder B.
B
• DA = 100 mm
• DB = 25 mm
PAAA
• Forces:
Solution
• Weight = mg
• Force due to pressure in A = PAAA
Po (AA –AB)
• Force due to pressure in B = PBAB mg
• Force due to outside pressure
• = Po (AA – AB)
PB A B
• Balance of Forces:
 Example 1.7
• In the following hydraulic system the liquid
used is oil (density = 800 kg/m3). It is required
to lift 2 tons of mass at the upper piston.
Neglect the piston weight and calculate the
force required at the lower piston.
• Atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kPa.
Solution

• Forces at A DA = 50 cm
Po AA A
 = 800 kg/m3

h=5m

PA AA mg DB = 1 cm
B
• Forces at B
PoAB
PBAB F
 DA = 50 cm A
Solution
 = 800 kg/m3

h=5m

DB = 1 cm
B
• Balance of Forces at A
Po AA

PA AA mg
 DA = 50 cm A
Solution
 = 800 kg/m3

h=5m

DB = 1 cm
B
• Relation between PB and PA
• Apply the hydrostatic equation:
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
+ 𝑍𝐴 = + 𝑍𝐵
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = 𝛾 𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌𝑔 𝑍𝐴 − 𝑍𝐵 𝑍𝐵 = 0.0
𝑍𝐴 = ℎ
 DA = 50 cm A
Solution
 = 800 kg/m3

h=5m

DB = 1 cm
B
• Balance of Forces at B

PoAB
PBAB F
 Example 1.8

Light gases are often used to fill flying balloons because they help the balloons to
fly based on the buoyancy force. A 10 m diameter balloon is filled with Helium. If
the buoyancy force vector is upward and equal to the mass of air that would fill the
balloon times the gravitational acceleration, find the force required to hold the
balloon to the ground. If two persons of 70 kg each enters the cage of the balloon
which has a weight of 10 kg and the balloon is released, calculate the acceleration
of the balloon in the air.

Air density = 1.16 kg/m3, Helium density = 0.29 kg/m3, g = 9.81 m/s2.
 Solution
• The balloon if fixed to the ground by a rope. In this case ir V
the balloon is at rest and the Newton’s law is applied as:
•  Fz = m az = 0
• The forces applied on the balloon are:
• the weight of the balloon and the cage, WHe
• the buoyancy force upward,
• the weight of the helium in the balloon and
Wb
• the force required to hold the balloon (the tension in the
robe). (In this case we are neglecting the weight of the
rope.) Thus:

T
 Solution

• air V - mg - T - He V = 0
• Then:
• T = air V - mg - He V

• T = 1.16 x 9.81 x (4 x  5 3 /3) - 10 x 9.81 - 0.29 x 9.81 x (4 x  5 3 /3)

• T = 4372.46 N
 Solution

• In the second case:

• The forces applied are: ir V

• the weight of the balloon and the cage, a

• the buoyancy force upward,

• the weight of the helium in the balloon and the weight WHe

of the persons in the cage.

• In this case the balloon is moving with acceleration
“a”. Then,
Wb
• F=ma
Wp
Solution

ir V
• air V - mg - mp g - He V = (m + mp + He V) a
• Then:
• a = [airV - mg - mpg - HeV ]/ (m+mp+ He V)
WHe
• mp = 2 x 70 = 140 kg
• m = 10 kg
• a = 9.93 m/s2 .

Wb

Wp
 TEMPERATURE

• It is a measure of heat or internal energy contained in a body.

• Absolute scale Kelvin
• K = oC + 273.15
• Absolute zero: is the temperature of a body that is incapable of giving up any
thermal energy.
• Another unit of temperature is “oF” Fahrenheit.
• The relation between oF and oC is:
• oF = (9/5) oC + 32
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM

• If objects having different temperatures are placed in an insulated enclosure,

all objects eventually come to the same temperature after a certain period of
time.
FLOW WORK (FLOW ENERGY)

• It is the energy required for moving the fluid within the system
across the boundary (inward or outward) without changing its
internal properties.
 ENTHALPY (H)

• It is the sum of internal energy and flow work.

• H = U + PV J
• h = u + Pv J/kg
PROPERTY DIAGRAM

• It is a diagram used to describe a system status by means of two

independent property axes. Among those independent properties
are P-V, T-V, P-T (not during phase change), P-H ... etc.

X and Y are independent

X
 PROPERTY DIAGRAM
State
• It is the status of a system at equilibrium
as defined by its properties.

Y State 2 (X2, Y2)

State 1 (X1, Y1)

X and Y are independent X

 PROPERTY DIAGRAM
Process
• it is a path of a continuous sequence of
states, which has initial and final states of
the system.

Y State 2 (X2, Y2)

State 1 (X1, Y1)

X and Y are independent X

Types of processes:

1. Isocharic process:
–constant volume process V = c.
–Select P-V as the property diagram

P State b (Pb, Vb)

Va = Vb
State a (Pa, Va)

V
 Types of processes:

2. Isobaric process:
–constant pressure process P = c.
–Select P-V as the property diagram

P State c State d
(Pc, Vc) (Pd, Vd)
Pc = Pd

𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝑜 𝐴 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑚𝑔
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐴 V
 Types of processes:

3. Isothermal process:
–constant temperature process T = c.
–Select T-V as the property diagram

T State 1 State 2
(T1, V1) (T2, V2)
T1 = T2

V
Types of processes:

4. Adiabatic process:
–Adiabatic: no heat transfer Q = 0
 Types of processes:

5. Isentropic process:
–Adiabatic: no heat transfer Q = 0 + reversible
–constant entropy process s = c.
–Select T-s as the property diagram
S is a property called “Entropy” that is explained
in Chapter 5.
𝜸
𝑷 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 State 2
T
𝑪𝒑 (T2, s2)
𝜸= (for perfect gases)
𝑪𝒗
s1 = s 2
Cp: constant pressure specific heat, kJ/kg K State 1
Cv: constant volume specific heat, kJ/kg K (T1, s1)
Cp and Cv are explained in details in Chapter 3.
 = 1.4 for air s
 Types of processes:

5. Polytropic process: 𝑃 𝑉 𝑛
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
– n = ∞ Process 1 V = constant
–n = 0 Process 2 P = constant
–n = 1 Process 3 T = constant
–n=  Process 5 s = constant
 Reversible process

• It is an ideal process capable to restore both the system and the

surroundings to their initial states if it is returned to its initial state.

State 2 State 2

Irreversible Reversible
State 1 State 1
 Reversible process

The criteria of reversibility are as follows:

• The process must be frictionless.
• The difference in pressure between the fluid and its surroundings during the
process must be infinitely small.
• The difference in temperature between the fluid and its surroundings during the
process must be infinitely small.
 Cycle
• It is a continuous sequence of
processes that ends to its initial
state. So, its starting state is the
final state.
WORK FOR THERMODYNAMICS
WORK FOR
THERMODYNAMICS
 Example 1.9

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar

until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then
compressed reversibly according to a law PV = constant to a
pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly
according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally heated at
constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work
done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the
mass of the fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work
done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a
P-V diagram.
 Example 1.9 Solution
• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is
finally heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the
mass of the fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

1-2 The first process is a

constant pressure process. P
Heating at constant
pressure leads to an
increase in volume as 1.05 bar
shown in below. It should P=C
1 2
be mentioned that the first
state is not well defined.
Later this state can be v 0.1 m3/kg
P1 = P2 = 1.05 bar
defined. P = constant
 Example 1.9 Solution
• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is
finally heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the
mass of the fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

2-3 The second process is a

compression process that P 3
follow the law PV = C. Thus
the pressure increases and PV = C
the volume decreases, as
shown below: 1.05 bar

1 P=C
2
P2 V2 = P3 V3

v 0.1 m3/kg
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

3-4 The third process is an

expansion process that follows
the law PV1.5 = C. Thus the P 3

pressure decreases and the

PV = C
volume increases, as shown
below. The end state of this PV1.5 = C
process is unknown, whether 1.05 bar
above or under the line of the 1 P=C
2
first process. The final process
4
will define this state
P3 V31.5 = P4 V41.5
v 0.1 m3/kg
Example 1.9 Solution

4.5
3
4

3.5
Enclosed area
3 Net work
Pressure, P (bar)

2.5

2
PV = C

1.5
1 2
1 PV1.5 =C

0.5
4

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Specific volume, v (m^3/kg)
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

4-1 The fourth process is the final

one, which comes back to the initial
state. This process is constant volume P 3

process. So a vertical line can

PV = C
represent the process. Heating means
an increase in pressure and thus the PV1.5 = C
process is vertical upward. In this case 1.05 bar
state 4 should be under the line of 1 P=C
v=C 2
the first process and has the same
4
volume of state 1.
v1 = v4
v 0.1 m3/kg
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

State (1): The pressure is only given

as P1 = 1.05 bar. So this state is not Enclosed area, net
fully defined and we need another P 3
work
property.
PV = C
State (2): This state is fully defined
where the pressure and the specific PV1.5 = C
1.05 bar
volume are given.
1 P=C
 P2 = 1.05 bar, v2 = 0.1 m3/kg. v=C 2
4

v 0.1 m3/kg
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

State (3): The pressure given as P3 = 4.2

bar. So this state is not fully defined and Enclosed area, net
we need another property. P 3
work
 According to the relation between 2 PV = C
and 3 the specific volume at 3 can be
PV 1.5 = C
obtained as:
1.05 bar
 P2 V2 = P3 V3 or P2 v2 = P3 v3 P=C
1 2
then: v=C
4

v3 = v2 (P2 /P3) = 0.1 (1.05/4.2) = 0.025 m3/kg.

v 0.1 m3/kg
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

State (4): This state is not defined, but

its volume equals that of state 1. The Enclosed area, net
volume of state 1 can be obtained from P 3
work
the work given of the first process. This
PV = C
work equals:
PV1.5 = C
1.05 bar

1 P=C
v=C 2
4

v 0.1 m3/kg
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

2
Enclosed area, net
3
𝑊1−2 = න 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃1−2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 P work
1
𝑊1−2 𝑊1−2 PV = C
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 − = 𝑚 𝑣2 −
𝑃1−2 𝑃1−2
1.05 bar
𝑚3 515 𝑁. 𝑚
𝑉1 = 0.2 𝑘𝑔 × 0.1 − PV1.5 = C 1 P=C
2
𝑘𝑔 1.05 𝑏𝑎𝑟 v=C
𝑁5 4
5 5 2 10
1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 10 𝑃𝑎 = 10 𝑁/𝑚
𝑚2 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑉1 = 0.02𝑚3 −
515 𝑁. 𝑚 v 0.1 m3/k
5 𝑁 3
1.05 𝑏𝑎𝑟10 𝑉1 = 0.0151𝑚
𝑚2 𝑏𝑎𝑟
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

Enclosed area, net

3
The pressure can then be obtained from P work
the relation: PV1.3 = C
PV = C
i.e. P3 V31.5 = P4 V41.5.
Then, 1.05 bar
P4 = P3 (V3 / V4 )1.5 = P3 (v3 / v4 )1.5 PV1.5 = C P=C
1 2
= 4.2 ( 0.025 /0.0755) 1.5 v=C
4
P4 = 0.8 bar
v 0.1 m3/k
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

Enclosed area, net

3
P work

Specific PV = C
State Pressure Volume
bar m3/kg 1.05 bar
1 1.05 0.0755 P=C
PV1.5 = C 1 2
2 1.05 0.1 v=C
3 4.2 0.025 4
4 0.8 0.0755
v 0.1 m3/k
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

The net work Enclosed area, net

3
Process 1-2: W1-2 = 515 Nm P work
3
Process 2-3: 𝑊2−3 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 PV = C
2

PV = c P = c/V c = P3V3= P2V2 1.05 bar

3 PV1.5 = C 1 P=C
𝑐 𝑉3 𝑉3 v=C 2
𝑊2−3 = න 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐 ln = 𝑃2 𝑉2 ln
4
2 𝑉 𝑉2 𝑉2

𝑁 0.025 v 0.1 m3/k

3 5
𝑊2−3 = 1.05 𝑏𝑎𝑟 × 10 2 0.02 𝑚 ln
𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟 0.1 𝑊2−3 = −2911.11 𝑁. 𝑚
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

4
Process 3-4: 𝑊3−4 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 3
Enclosed area, net
3 P work
PV1.5 = c P = cV-1.5 PV = C
4
−1.5
𝑐 −0.5 −0.5
𝑊3−4 = න 𝑐𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉4 − 𝑉3
3 1 − 1.5 1.05 bar
PV1.5 = C P=C
𝑐= 𝑃3 𝑉31.5 = 𝑃4 𝑉41.5 1
v=C 2
1 4
𝑊3−4 = 𝑃4 𝑉41.5 𝑉4−0.5 − 𝑃3 𝑉31.5 𝑉3−0.5
1 − 1.5 v 0.1 m3/k
1
𝑊3−4 = 𝑃4 𝑉4 − 𝑃3 𝑉3
1 − 1.5
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

Process 3-4: 3
Enclosed area, net
1 P work
𝑊3−4 = 𝑃4 𝑉4 − 𝑃3 𝑉3
1 − 1.5 PV = C

1
𝑊3−4 = 𝑚 𝑃4 𝑣4 − 𝑃3 𝑣3 1.05 bar
1 − 1.5
PV1.5 = C 1 P=C
1 v=C 2
𝑊3−4 = 0.2𝑘𝑔 𝑃4 𝑣4 − 𝑃3 𝑣3 4
1 − 1.5
v 0.1 m3/k
1 5
𝑁 3 5
𝑁
𝑊3−4 = 0.2𝑘𝑔 0.8𝑏𝑎𝑟 × 10 2 × 0.0755𝑚 /𝑘𝑔 − 4.2𝑏𝑎𝑟 × 10 2 × 0.025𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
1 − 1.5 𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

Process 3-4: 3
Enclosed area, net
P work
𝑊3−4 = 1782.79 𝑁𝑚
PV = C
Process 4-1:
1
𝑊4−1 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑉=𝑐 1.05 bar
4 PV1.5 = C P=C
1 2
v=C
4

v 0.1 m3/k
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

Enclosed area, net

Net work P 3
work

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊1−2 + 𝑊2−3 + 𝑊3−4 + 𝑊4−1 PV = C

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 515 − 2911.11+1782.79+ 0 1.05 bar

PV1.5 = C 1 P=C
v=C 2
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −613.43 𝑁𝑚
4
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −613.43 𝐽
v 0.1 m3/k
− 𝑣𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒: 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Example 1.9 Solution

• A fluid is heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a specific volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly
according to a law PV = constant to a pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law PV1.5 = constant, and is finally
heated at constant volume back to the initial conditions. The work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the mass of the
fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the cycle and sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.

The net work Enclosed area, net

3
Process 1-2: W1-2 = 515 Nm P work
3
Process 2-3: 𝑊2−3 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 PV = C
2

PV = c P = c/V c = P3V3= P2V2

89
1.05 bar
3 PV1.5 = C 1 P=C
𝑐 𝑉3 𝑉3 v=C 2
𝑊2−3 = න 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐 ln = 𝑃2 𝑉2 ln
4
2 𝑉 𝑉2 𝑉2

𝑁 0.025 v 0.1 m3/k

3 5
𝑊2−3 = 1.05 𝑏𝑎𝑟 × 10 2 0.02 𝑚 ln
𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟 0.1 𝑊2−3 = −2911.11 𝑁. 𝑚
Example 1.10

• One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar

and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
• 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of
one-tenth the initial volume.
• 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
• 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
• 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
• Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.
 Example 1.10
Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.

1-2 The first process is

P
compression: PV = c
2
V2 = 0.1V1
P1V1= P2V2 PV = C
1.0 bar
P2 = P1 (V1 /V2) = 1 (1/0.1)
1
P2 = 10 bar
v3
0.86 m /kg
Example 1.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle. 60 bar
3

2-3 Constant volume

P
V = c
2
P3 = 60 bar
PV = C
1.0 bar

v3
0.86 m /kg
Example 1.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.

60 bar
3

3-4 Isentropic
P
PV1.4 = c
2
P4 = ?
V4 = ? PV = C
1.0 bar

v3
0.86 m /kg
Example 2.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle. 60 bar
4-1 constant volume 3
V = c
V4 = V1 P
Then state 4 is defined 2

where V4 = V1
PV = C
Calculate P4 as 4
1.0 bar
1.4 1.4
𝑃3 𝑉3 = 𝑃4 𝑉4 1
1.4
𝑉3 1.4
v3
𝑃4 = 𝑃3 = 60 0.1 = 2.389 𝑏𝑎𝑟 0.86 m /kg
 Example 1.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.

60 bar
3

P
2

PV = C 4
1.0 bar

v3
0.86 m /kg
 Example 1.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.

2 60 bar
The net work 𝑊1−2 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 3
1
PV = c P = c/V c = P1V1= P2V2
P
2
𝑐 𝑉2 𝑉2 2
𝑊1−1 = න 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐 ln = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln
1 𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1
2
𝑐 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊1−1 = න 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑐 ln = 𝑃1 𝑚𝑣1 ln PV = C 4
1 𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉1 1.0 bar
5
𝑁 3
𝑊1−2 = 1.0 𝑏𝑎𝑟 × 10 2 1𝑘𝑔 × 0.86 𝑚 /𝑘𝑔 ln 0.1 1
𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟
v3
𝑊1−2 = −198022.32 𝑁. 𝑚 = −198022.32 𝐽 0.86 m /kg
 Example 1.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.

60 bar
The net work 3
3
𝑊2−3 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑉=𝑐
2 P
2

PV = C 4
1.0 bar

v3
0.86 m /kg
 Example 1.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.

60 bar
The net work 4 3
𝑊3−4 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉
3
P
PV1.5 = c P = cV-1.5
4 2
−1.5
𝑐 −0.4 −0.4
𝑊3−4 = න 𝑐𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉4 − 𝑉3
3 1 − 1.4
1.4 1.4 PV = C 4
𝑐= 𝑃3 𝑉3 = 𝑃4 𝑉4
1.0 bar
1
𝑊3−4 = 𝑃4 𝑉41.4 𝑉4−0.4 − 𝑃3 𝑉31.4 𝑉3−0.4 1
1 − 1.4
1 𝑚
𝑊3−4 = 𝑃4 𝑉4 − 𝑃3 𝑉3 = 𝑃4 𝑣4 − 𝑃3 𝑣3 v3
1 − 1.4 1 − 1.4 0.86 m /kg
 Example 1.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.

60 bar
The net work 3

𝑚
𝑊3−4 =
1 − 1.1
𝑃4 𝑉4 − 𝑃3 𝑉3 P
𝑊3−4 = 776365 𝐽
2
𝑚
𝑊3−4 = 𝑃4 𝑣4 − 𝑃3 𝑣3
1 − 1.4
PV = C 4
1𝑘𝑔 1.0 bar
𝑊3−4 = 𝑃4 𝑣4 − 𝑃3 𝑣3
1 − 1.4
1
0.86 m3/kg v
1𝑘𝑔 5
𝑁 3 5
𝑁
𝑊3−4 = 2.389𝑏𝑎𝑟 × 10 2 × 0.86𝑚 /𝑘𝑔 − 60𝑏𝑎𝑟 × 10 2 × 0.086𝑚3 /𝑘𝑔
1 − 1.5 𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑟
 Example 1.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.

60 bar
The net work 3
1
𝑊4−1 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 0 𝑉=𝑐
4 P
2

PV = C 4
1.0 bar

v3
0.86 m /kg
 Example 1.10 Solution
 One kilogram of fluid is contained in a piston cylinder device at 1 bar and 0.86 m3/kg. The fluid undergoes the following reversible cycle:
 1-2 compression according to the law PV = constant, to a volume of one-tenth the initial volume.
 2-3 constant volume process to a pressure of 60 bar,
 3-4 isentropic expansion according to the law PV1.4 = constant.
 4-1 constant volume process back to the initial state
 Sketch the cycle on P-v diagram and calculate the net work of the cycle.

60 bar
The net work 3

P
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊1−2 + 𝑊2−3 + 𝑊3−4 + 𝑊4−1
2

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −198022.32+ 0+ 776365+ 0

PV = C 4
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 578345 𝐽 1.0 bar

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 578.345 𝑘𝐽 1

+ 𝑣𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒: 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 v3

0.86 m /kg
 Assignment 1

• 1.1 A mass of 10 kg is accelerated with a force of 1 kN. Calculate the acceleration.

(100 m/s2)
• 1.2 The "standard" acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s2. Calculate the force due to standard gravity on a
mass of 5 kg in Newton and kgf.
(49.05 N = 5 kgf)
• 1.3 Suppose that in an orbiting space station, rotating the station induces an artificial gravity of 2 m/s2. How
much would a 75 kg man weigh inside in Newton and kgf?
(150 N, 15.31kgf)
• 1.4 A manometer contains a fluid having a density of 800 kg/m3. The difference in height of the two columns is
300 mm. What pressure difference is indicated? What would the height difference be if the manometer
containing mercury (density 13600 kg/m3) had been used to measure this same pressure difference?
(2.345 kPa, 17.65 mm)
• 1.5 A vertical cylinder containing argon is fitted with a piston of 40 kg mass and cross-sectional area of 0.025
m2. The atmospheric pressure outside the cylinder is 95 kPa and the local gravitational acceleration is 9.79 m/s2.
What is the argon pressure inside?
(110.664 kPa)
• 1.6 An airtight box having a lid with an area of 75 cm2 is partially evacuated. If a force of 11 N is required to pull
the lid off the box, and the outside atmospheric pressure is 1 atm (101325 Pa), what was the pressure in the
box?
(99.858 kPa)
 Assignment

• 1.7 A piston of small cross-sectional area "a" is used in the hydraulic press to exert a small force "f" on the enclosed
liquid. A connecting pipe leads to a larger piston of cross-sectional area "A", see Fig. 2.6. (a) What force "F" will the
larger piston sustain, in terms of the force "f”, neglect the atmospheric pressure? (b) If the small piston has a diameter of
3.81 cm and the large piston one of 53.14 cm, what mass on the small piston will support 1960 kg on the large piston?
(10.08 kg)

Fig. 2.6

• 1.8 A certain fluid at 10 bar is contained in a cylinder behind a piston, the initial volume being 0.05 m3. Calculate the
work done by the fluid when it expands reversibly,
• (a) At constant pressure to a final volume of 0.2 m3.
• (b) According to a linear law to a final volume of 0.2 m3 and a final pressure of 2 bar.
• (c) According to the law PV = constant, to a final volume of 0.1 m3.
• (d) According to a law PV3 = constant, to a final volume of 0.06 m3.
• (e) According to a law P = (A/V2)-(B/V), to a final volume of 0.1 m3 and a final pressure of 1 bar. A and B are
constants. Sketch all processes on the P-V diagram.
(150000, 90000, 34657.36, 7638.89, 19205.58 Nm)
• 1.9 One kilogram of fluid is compressed reversibly according to a law PV = 0.25 where p is in bar and V is in m3/kg. The
final volume is 1/4 of the initial volume. Calculate the work done on the fluid and sketch the process on a P-V diagram.

(-34657 Nm)
 Assignment

• 1.10 One kg of a fluid expands reversibly according to a linear law from 4.2 bar to 1.4 bar. The
initial and the final volumes are 0.004 m3 and 0.02 m3, respectively. The fluid is then cooled
reversibly at constant pressure and finally compressed reversibly according to law PV =
constant, back to the initial conditions of 4.2 bar and 0.004 m3. Calculate the work done in
each process stating whether it is done on or by the fluid, and calculate the net work of the
cycle. Sketch the cycle on a P-V diagram.
(4480, 1120, 1845.7, 1514.3 Nm)
• 1.11 The level of water in an enclosed water tank is 40 m above ground level. The pressure in
the air space above the water is 120 kPa, and the density of the water is 1000 kg/m3. What is
the water pressure at ground level?
(512.4 kPa)
• 1.12 A 12 m diameter flying balloon is filled with Helium (density = 0.29 km/m3). Does the
balloon fly when 5 persons of 80 kg each are inside the cage of the balloon? Consider the
balloon and cage mass is 50 kg. The buoyancy force vector is upward and equals the weight of
air that would fill the balloon.
(Yes with acceleration 4.86 m/sec2)