9 Reliability Power outages disrupt more businesses than any other factor (see Figure 9.1). [lose two hours of work on the computer; Jane Doe gets stuck in an elevator; Intel loses a million dollars worth of computer chips; a refinery flames out, stopping production and spewing pollution into the air. End users expect good reliability, and expectations keep rising. Interruptions and voltage sags cause most disruptions. In this chapter we study “sustained” interruptions, long-duration interruptions generally defined as lasting longer than 1 to 5 min. We investigate momentary interruptions and voltage sags in the next chapter. Reliability statistics, based on long-duration inter- ruptions, are the primary benchmark used by utilities and regulators to identify service quality. Faults on the distribution system cause most long- duration interruptions; a fuse, breaker, recloser, or sectionalizer locks out the faulted section. Many utilities use reliability indices to track the performance of the utility or a region or a circuit. Regulators require most investor-owned utilities to report their reliability indices. The regulatory trend is moving to perfor- mance-based rates where performance is penalized or rewarded based on quantification by reliability indices. Some utilities also pay bonuses to man- agers or others based in part on indices. Some commercial and industrial customers ask utilities for their reliability indices when locating a facility. —— iii 9.1 Reliability Indices 9.1.1 Customer-Based Indices Utilities most commonly use two indices, SAIFI and SAIDI, to benchmark reliability. These characterize the frequency and duration of interruptions during the reporting period (usually years) (IEEE Std. 1366-2000). SAIFI, System average interruption frequency index (C) 2004 by CRC Press LLCPower outages Computer hardware problems Telecommunications problems Lightning storms Floods ions Fires/expl Hurricanes Earthquakes Violence/bombing/terrorism ‘ ° 20 40 60 Percent of businesses disrupted FIGURE 9.1 Percent of US. businesses disrupted by the given problem. (Data from [Rodentis, 1999].) Total number of customer interruptio SAIF] = Total number of customers served Typically, a utility’s customers average between one and two sustained interruptions per year. SAIFI is also the average failure rate, which is often labeled 2. Another useful measure is the mean time between failure (MTBF), which is the reciprocal of the failure rate: MTBF in years = 1/2 SAIDI, System average interruption duration frequency index _ Sum of all customer interruption durations SAIDI Total number of customers served SAIDI quantifies the average total duration of interruptions. SAIDI is cited in units of hours or minutes per year. Other common names for SAIDI are CMI and CMO, standing for customer minutes of interruption or outage. SAIFI and SAIDI are the most-used pair out of many reliability indices, which look like a wash of acronyms — most importantly, D for duration and F for frequency. Another related index is CAIDI: CAIDI, Customer average interruption duration frequency index SAIDI _ Sum ofall customer interruption durations CAIDI= SAIFI Total number of customer interruptions CAIDI is the “apparent” repair time (from the customers’ perspective). It is generally much shorter than the actual repair time because utilities nor- (C) 2004 by CRC Press LLCTABLE 9.1 Reliability Indices Found by Industry Surveys SAIFI, No. of SAIDI, h of Interruptions/Year jion/Year 25% 50% 75% 25% 50% 75% TEE Std. 1366-2000 090 110 145 089 150 230 EET (1999) [excludes storms] 092 132 17 116 174 223 EET (1999) [with storms] Lil 133 215 136 300 438 CEA (2001) [with storms] 103 195 316 073 226 3.28 PA Consulting (2001) [with storms] 155 305 8.35 IP&L Large City Comparison 072 095 115 102 16d 241 (indianapolis Power & Light, 2000) Note: 25%, 50%, and 75% represent the lower quartile, the median, and the upper quartile of utilities surveyed. mally sectionalize circuits to reenergize as many customers as possible before crews fix the actual damage. Also used in many other industries, the availability is quantified as ASAI, Average service availability index Customer hours service availability ‘Customer hours service demanded We can find ASIFI from SAIDI specified in hours as 8760 -SAIDI 8760 ASAI= (Use 8784 h/year for a leap year.) Survey results for SAIFI and SAIDI are shown in Table 9.1. Figure 9.2 shows the distribution of utility indices from the CEA survey. Much of this reliability index data is from Short (2002). Utility indices vary widely because of many differing factors, mainly * Weather * Physical environment (mainly the amount of tree coverage) * Load density * Distribution voltage © Age * Percent underground * Methods of recording interruptions Within a utility, performance of circuits varies widely for many of the same reasons causing the spread in utility indices: circuits have different lengths (C) 2004 by CRC Press LLC