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1. INTRODUCTION
Power system protection is an important factor of consideration in all sectors of a power system
during both planning and operation stages. This is because any loss of component leads to
transient instability of the system and can be checked immediately by the help of protective
devices put in place. As we propose and source new sources of power in order to meet up the
Nigeria energy demand, it is important to access the security level of the existing grid in order
to devise a more defensive approach of operation.
Currently, the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCM), projected to have the capacity to
deliver about 12,500 MW in 2013, has the capacity of delivering 4800 MW of electricity.
Nigeria has a generating capacity of 5,228 MW but with peak production of 4500 MW against
a peak demand forecast of 10,200MW. This shows that if the generation sector is to run at full
production, the transmission grid will not have the capacity to handle the produced power
reliably [7]. This goes a long way to tell that the 330 KV transmission system is not running
effectively as expected. Therefore to maintain and ensure a secure operation of this delicate
system, the need for contingency analysis cannot be over emphasized.
Contingencies are defined as potentially harmful disturbances that occur during the steady state
operation of a power system [1] Contingencies can lead to some abnormalities such as over
voltage at some buses, over loading on the lines, which if are unchecked, can lead to total
system collapse.
Power system engineers use contingency analysis to predict the effect of any component
failure. Periodically, maintenance operation are carried out on generating units or transmission
lines. During this, a unit is taken offline for servicing. The effect of this forced outage on other
parts of the system can be observed using contingency analysis.
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As demand for power increases, more generating units are installed in Nigeria with no
corresponding increase in transmission capacity. This makes the transmission lines run at their
maximum power capacity which is very dangerous as there is too much power in the system at
any moment. This power will be shifted to any available portion of the transmission system in
case of any contingency thereby overloading the available portion. This effect can be analysed
by the calculation of Line Outage Distribution Factor (LODF). Also, the overloading index of
the remaining lines will can be obtained equally.
There are various methods of contingency analysis which include the following:
a. AC Load flow method
b. DC Load flow method
c. Z-Matrix method
d. Performance Index method
Of all the above listed methods, methods based on AC power flow calculations are considered
to be deterministic methods which are accurate compared to DC power flow methods. In
deterministic methods line outages are simulated by actual removal of lines instead of
modelling. AC power flow methods are accurate but they are computationally expensive and
excessively demanding of computational time. Because contingency analysis is the only tool
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for detecting possible overloading conditions requiring the study by the power system planner
computational speed and ease of detection are paramount considerations. [1]
Results of contingency analysis are usually ranked based on some indices calculated during the
analysis. The choice of performance index to calculate depends on the engineer. In a
deregulated power system, a discernibly purely profit driven, economic operation is of utmost
importance hence Available Transfer Capability (ATC) is normally calculated to ascertain the
available transfer capability of the system in case of any contingency. Other Indices include
Voltage Stability Index (VSI), Active Power Loading Performance Index (APLPI), Line
Outage Distribution Factor (LODF), Line loadability, etc.
Generally, once the current working state of a system is known, contingency analysis can be
broken down into the following steps:
a. Contingency definition
b. Contingency selection
c. Contingency evaluation
Contingency definition involves preparing a list of probable contingencies. This typically
includes line outages and generator outages.
Contingency selection process consists of selecting the set of most probable contingencies;
they need to be evaluated in terms of potential risk to the system. Usually, fast power flow
solution techniques such as DC power flow are used to quickly evaluate the risks associated
with each contingency. But in this work, the Newton-Raphson load flow method will be used
to ensure higher accuracy.
Finally, the selected contingencies are ranked in order of their security, till no violation of
operating limits is observed.
The algorithm for a typical contingency analysis is shown in Figure 1.
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2.2 LINE LOADABILITY
Line Loadability can be defined as Transmission-line voltages decrease when heavily loaded
and increase when lightly loaded. When voltages on EHV lines are maintained within ±5% of
rated voltage, corresponding to about 10% voltage regulation, unusual operating problems are
not encountered. Ten percent voltage regulation for lower voltage lines including transformer-
voltage drops is also considered good operating practice.
In addition to voltage regulation, line loadability is an important issue. Three major line-loading
limits are:
The maximum temperature of a conductor determines its thermal limit. Conductor temperature
affects the conductor sag between towers and the loss of conductor tensile strength due to
annealing. If the temperature is too high, prescribed conductor-to-ground clearances may not
be met, or the elastic limit of the conductor may be exceeded such that it cannot shrink to its
original length when cooled.
Conductor temperature depends on the current magnitude and its time duration, as well as on
ambient temperature, wind velocity, and conductor surface conditions.
The loadability of short transmission lines (less than 80 km in length) is usually determined by
the conductor thermal limit or by ratings of line terminal equipment such as circuit breakers.
For longer line lengths (up to 300 km), line loadability is often determined by the voltage-drop
limit. Although more severe voltage drops may be tolerated in some cases, a heavily loaded
line with VR/VS ≥ 0.95 is usually considered safe operating practice. For line lengths over 300
km, steady-state stability becomes a limiting factor [4].
3. METHODOLOGY
In this paper, the AC load flow method of contingency analysis was adopted. The Newton-
Raphson load flow algorithm, an algorithm under the AC load flow method, was used to solve
the power flow problems during the analysis using MATLAB. This is because the NRLF
method has more accuracy than other AC Load flow methods and converges faster. Newton-
Raphon’s Load flow method is discussed more in [3, 4].
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𝑉 𝑘
𝑆𝐿𝑂𝐼 = 1 − [min (𝑉𝑅 )] (1)
𝑆
where
VR, VS are the receiving end and sending end voltages respectively, and
k the number of lines whose VR/VS < 0.95
The Nigerian transmission grid is shown in Figure 2 with the single line diagram shown in
Figure 3.
Figure 2: the Nigerian power system. Blue lines indicate the 330-KV lines
(Source: Nigeria System Operator)
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The network parameters – generator data, load data, and line & transformer data, of the Nigeria
power system as used in this work were collated from [8, 9, 10] and are shown in tables 1, 2,
and 3 respectively.
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3.1 Simulation of Line Outage
Simulation of transmission line outage is carried out by the formulation of the corresponding
admittance matrix [5]. For instance, after outage of a line connecting bus ‘a’ and ‘b’, the
components of the Y bus that will be affected are Yaa, Ybb, Yab, and Yba. For a ‘π-modelled’
transmission line, the admittance values after this outage is obtained by subtracting the
admittance of the line a-b and the shunt susceptance jbab/2 and jbba/2 from Yaa and Ybb.
Line outages was simulated by simply removing the line information from the line data matrix.
This is similar to the line not existing initially as the information no longer exists.
where
P’gm: Active power generated at bus m after the outage
Pgm: Active power generated at bus m before the outage
n: Number of outage generation units in the station
Pgm/g: Active power generated at bus m per generator unit
In this work, generator outages were not simulated as only the effect of line outages were
desired.
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The result as shown in Table 4 contains the SLOI values of the different lines for line outages.
It has been organised in the order in descending order.
This shows that the outage of line 11 to 14 (Oshogbo to Aiyede) will have the most critical
effect on the system followed by 11 – 15, 16 – 20, 20 – 24, 25 – 16. These lines have been
shown to pose serious danger on the system stability if they fail, and therefore should be
secured defensively to avoid the level of system instability caused by the outage of any of the
lines.
5. Conclusion
From this study, it is has been shown with values, the importance of operating the transmission
system defensively to avoid system collapse due to overloading. Also, the writer suggests that
the Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) should adopts the (Flexible AC Transmission),
FACT devices as they can improve the lines active power capability in any contingency event
as have faster switching than the traditional compensation devices. Also additional lines should
be used to connect Oshogbo to Aiyede through different routes to create more links for power
to be transmitted through to Lagos area in order to reduce the SLOI value of Oshogbo to Aiyede
line.
References
[1] Chary, D. M., “Contingency Analysis in Power Systems, Transfer Capability
Computation and Enhancement Using Facts Devices in Deregulated Power System.”
Ph.D. diss., Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, 2011
[2] Wood, A. J.; Wallenberg, B. F., “Power Generation, Operation and Control”. 2nd ed.,
New York/USA: John Wiley& Sons, 1996, pp. 410-432.]
[3] Saadat, H., Power System Analysis, New Delhi: McGraw Hill, 2002, pp 189 – 256.
[4] Glover, J. D., Sarma, M. S., Overbye, T. J., Power System Analysis and Design, 5h ed.
Stamford: Cengage Learning, 2012.
[5] Nara, K.,Tanaka,K., Kodama, H., Shoults, R. R., Chen, M. S., Olinda, P. V. and
Bertagnolli, D., “On-Line Contingency Selection for voltage Security Analysis”, ibid, Vol.
PAS – 104, pp. 847-856, April 1985.
[6] Mohamed, S. E. G., Mohamed, A. Y., and Abdelrahim, Y. H., “Power System
Contingency Analysis to detect Network Weaknesses”, Zaytoonah University
International Engineering Conference on Design and Innovation in Infrastructure, Amman,
Jordan, pp. I3-4 Jun., 2012.
[7] “Nigeria's Power Generation hits 5,228 Mega Watt”, Nigeria Compass, May 4, 2013.
[Online]. Available: http://www.compassnewspaper.org/index.php/special-desk/business-
news/12769-nigerias-power-generation-hits-5228-megawatts [Accessed July 15, 2013].
[8] Ogbuefi, U. C., “A Powerflow Analysis of Niegria Power System with Compensation on
Some Buses”,PhD thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria, 2013.
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[9] Nigeria System Operator, “Profile of Transmission”, 2011. [Online]. Available:
http://nigeriasystemoperator.org/spread/profile/ [Accessed: July 15, 2013].
[10] Onohaebi, O. S., “Power Outages in Nigeria Transmission Grid,” Research Journal of
Applied Science, vol. 4, Issue 1, pp 1- 9, 2009.