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Abstract: Power system loads have a significant impact on the dynamic behavior of the system. Therefore the
reliable determination of load characteristics becomes an important engineering task. In some cases, it is more
practical to aggregate several loads to an equivalent aggregate load model. Several aggregate load models
have been in use for quite some time now; however, no systematic effort has been made to develop an algorithm
to analyse stability of large amount of distributed generation in power system.ETAP was used in the modelling
of the power network system with its fault analysed. The impact of distributed generation on faults on the system
was also analysed and the results showedDG has much potential to improve distribution system performance,
the addition of DG units reduces the magnitude of the maximum power angle deviation, and Distribution
generation units improved significantly the transient stability of the system. The increase of the penetration level
of DG units within power systems provided the opportunity to handle larger disturbances. In some critical
situations like more severe faults, the use of DG units will help to maintain synchronism due to the reduction of
the maximum power-angle deviation.
Keywords: Transient, Distributed, Power, Network, Load
I. Introduction
The impact of distributed generation (DG) on the electricity industry is always assessed in planning by
carrying out load flow computations, since the penetration ratios are still relatively small. However, as the
installed capacity of DG increases, its impact on the power system behavior becomes more expressed and will
eventually require full-scale detailed dynamic analysis and simulations to ensure a proper and reliable operation
of the power system with large amounts of DG. Though quite a number of models of the distributed generators
were created in recent years [2]. However, no analytic investigations of the dynamic properties of the power
system with large amount of DG using Nigerian power system as a case study has been done. The number of
case studies that can be found in literatures on DG focus mainly on numerical experiments using existing or
artificial networks. While the numerical experiments are of paramount importance to a better understanding of
the mechanisms which causes interaction between DG and the utility, the development of appropriate analytical
tools for stability will open a very new perspective for dynamic security assessment of the power system and the
design of control system for the large DG in the Nigerian network.
In this paper, a systematic method shall be used to analyze the transient stability of a large-scale
asynchronous generator driven distributed generation.Another important aspect of this paper is the analysis of
voltage collapse of power systems with large amount of intermittent power generators. It is well known that the
majority of available tools for voltage collapse analysis make use of implicit assumption that the power system
parameters are deterministic. While this is a valid engineering approximation for conventional power systems
with negligibly small uncertainties, it might become an over simplification in power systems with large
penetration ratios of DG.
The distribution system, fed from the distribution transformer stations, supplies power to the domestic,
or industrial andcommercial consumers. Thus, the power system operates at various voltage levels separated by
transformers.
Electricity plays a major role in the economy and the daily lives of Nigerians. There is no substitute for
this essential commodity. Unlike most commodities, electricity cannot easily be stored, so it must be produced
(by the Generating Plants using any of the available energy resources –Coal, Gas, Oil, Hydro, Solar, Wind or
Nuclear) at the same instant that it is consumed.
The electricity delivery system (i.e. Transmission and Distribution networks) must therefore be robust
and flexible enough, every second of the day and every day of the year, to accommodate the nation’s demand
for electricity and deliver regular, reliable and affordable electricity especially in our production economy.
2.1.4 Using Runge Kutta Method to Determine Time Response of Nigeria Power System.
The differential equations that are normally solved in power system stability analysis are non-linear
ordinary differential equations with known initial values.
The second-order R-K formula for the value of 𝑥 at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜 + ∆𝑡 is
𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑜 + ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + … … … (2)
2
Where
𝑘1 = 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑡0 )∆𝑡
𝑘2 = 𝑓(𝑥0 + 𝑘1 , 𝑡0 + ∆𝑡)∆𝑡
A general formula giving the value of x for the (n+1) step is
𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 + ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑛 + … … … (3)
2
Applying this formula to power system we have the general formula as:
𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝛿𝑛+1 = 𝛿𝑛 + ∆𝛿 = 𝛿𝑛 + … … … (4)
2
where
𝑘1 = 𝑓(𝛿𝑛 , 𝑡𝑛 )∆𝑡
𝑘2 = 𝑓(𝛿𝑛 + 𝑘1 , 𝑡𝑛 + ∆𝑡)∆𝑡
This is called second order Runge Kutta Method because it is equivalent to first and second derivative terms
ofthe Taylor series.
For the fourth order Runge Kutta method the general formula is
1
𝛿𝑛+1 = 𝛿𝑛 + 𝑘 + 2𝑘2 + 2𝑘3 + 𝑘4 … … … (5)
6 1
where
𝑘1 = 𝑓(𝛿𝑛 , 𝑡𝑛 )∆𝑡
𝑘1 ∆𝑡
𝑘2 = 𝑓(𝛿𝑛 + , 𝑡𝑛 + )∆𝑡
2 2
𝑘2 ∆𝑡
𝑘3 = 𝑓(𝛿𝑛 + , 𝑡𝑛 + )∆𝑡
2 2
𝑘4 = 𝑓(𝛿𝑛 + 𝑘3 , 𝑡𝑛 + ∆𝑡)∆𝑡
The physical interpretation of the above solution is as follows
𝑘1 = (slope at the beginning of time step) ∆𝑡
𝑘2 = (First approximation to slope at mid-step)∆𝑡
𝑘3 = (Second approximation to slope at mid step)∆𝑡
𝑘4 = (Slopeat the end ofstep)∆𝑡
1
∆𝛿 = 6 𝑘1 + 2𝑘2 + 2𝑘3 + 𝑘4 wheren = number of iterations
This method is equivalent to considering up to fourth derivative terms in the Taylor series expansion. It has an
error on the order of ∆𝑡5. [1].
2.1.5 Using EqualArea Criterion to Determine Time Response of Nigeria Power System
Information regarding the maximum angle excursion of rotor angle of the generators used in electric
power system like that of Nigeria system can be obtained graphically by using power angle diagram instead of
the swing equation to determine if the rotor angle increases indefinitely or oscillates about an equilibrium
position (figure 1).
P
Pe = Pmax sind δ
Pe = Pmax
c
Area 1
Pm1 Area 2 d
P b
●
Pm0 a
δ0 δ1 δm δmax
The speed deviation 𝑑𝛿 𝑑𝑡 is initially zero. It will change when the system is subjected to
disturbances.To maintain stable operation, the deviation of angle 𝛿 must be bounded. This will require the speed
deviation 𝑑𝛿 𝑑𝑡 to become zero after some time again after the disturbance. Therefore, from equation 9, as a
criterion for stability, we may write
𝛿𝑚
𝜔0 (𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 )
𝑑𝛿 = 0 … … … (10)
𝛿0 𝐻
Where 𝛿0 𝑖𝑠the initial rotor angle and 𝛿𝑚 is the maximum rotor angle.
Thus the area under the function 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 plotted against 𝛿 must be zero if the system is to be stable [1].
In figure 1, this is satisfied when area A1 is equal to area A2.The kinetic energygained by the rotor during
acceleration when 𝛿 changes from 𝛿0 to 𝛿1 is given by :
𝛿1
𝐸1 = (𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑒 )𝑑𝛿 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴1 … … … (11)
𝛿0
The energy lost during deceleration when 𝛿 changes from 𝛿1 to 𝛿𝑚 is
𝛿𝑚
𝐸2 = (𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑚 )𝑑𝛿 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝐴2 … … … (12)
𝛿1
Let us assume there are no losses, the energy gained is equal to the energy lost; therefore, area A1 is
equal to𝐴2 .This forms the basis for the equal area criterion. It helps us to determine the maximum swing of𝛿
and the stability of the system without computing the time response through formal solution for the swing
equation.
A1 =A2
Pe Pe -prefault
(e)
(d)
A2 Pe -postfault
Pm (a)
A1
(c)
A1>A2
Pe Pe = prefault
Pe = postfault
Pm A2
● ●
A1
(c)
Pe = during fault
(b)
δ0 δc2 δ
Figures2 and 3 show𝑃𝑒 -𝛿 plot for three network conditions on Nigeria power system; (1) prefault, (ii)
during three-phase short circuit fault and (iii) post fault. In both cases, let us assume the input power 𝑃𝑚 is
constant. Initially, in the stable case of figure 2, the system is operating with 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃𝑚 and𝛿 = 𝛿0. When fault
occurs, the operating point changes suddenly from a tob. Due to inertia, angle 𝛿 cannot change instantly. 𝑃𝑚 is
now greater than 𝑃𝑒 , the rotor accelerates until the operating point reachesc, when the fault is cleared by
isolating the faulty circuit from the system. The operating point now suddenly moves to d. Now𝑃𝑒 is greater
than𝑃𝑚 , causing deceleration of the rotor. Since the rotor speed is greater than synchronous speed𝑤0 , 𝛿
continues to increase until the kinetic energy gained during the period of acceleration represented by A1 is
expended by transferring the energy to the system. The operating point moves from d to e, such that the area A2
is equal to A1. At operating point e, the speed is equal to synchronous speed 𝑤0 and has reached its maximum
value 𝛿𝑚 . Since 𝑃𝑒 is still greater than𝑃𝑚 , the rotor continues to retard, with the speed dropping below
synchronous speed. The rotor angle 𝛿 decreases, and the operating point retraces the path from e to d and
follows the 𝑃𝑒 -𝛿 curve for the post fault system farther down. The minimum value of 𝛿 is such that it satisfies
the equal-area criterion for the postfault system. In the absence of any such of damping, the rotor continues to
oscillate with constant amplitude.
With a delayed fault clearing in figure 3, area A2above𝑃𝑚 is less than A1. When the operating point
reaches e, the kinetic energy gained during the accelerating period has not yet been completely expended;
consequently, the speed is still greater than synchronous speed and 𝛿 continues to increase. Beyond point e, 𝑃𝑒 is
less than𝑃𝑚 , and the rotor begins to accelerate again. The rotor speed and angle continue to increase, leading to
loss of synchronism.
The fault was applied at 0.5secs and cleared at 0.6secs. Figure 6 shows the power angle variation as a
result of the fault without the addition of DG in the system. Figure 7 shows the variation with the addition of
DG attached to the load buses.
of the system. This also shows that the increase of the penetration level of DG units within power systems
provides the opportunity to handle larger disturbances. In some critical situations like more severe faults, the use
of DG units will help to maintain synchronism due to the reduction of the maximum power-angle deviation.
V. Recommendation
The simulations used in this thesis were performed using synchronous generators. Same thing could be
done using induction generator and inverter type DG to carry out investigation of the impact of DG on power
system stability.Study should be carried out to determine the effect of Distributed Generation on power system
protection.
References
[1]. Kundur P. (1994): Power System Stability and Control,Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi: 94-102.
[2]. Akhmatov, V. and. Knudsen, H. (2002): Advanced simulation of windmills in the electric power supply. International Journal of
Electrical Power and Energy Systems, 22 (6): 421-434.
[3]. Operation Technology Inc, (2001): Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP)