THE GUNITE TECHNIQUE

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praying can perhaps be most accurately defined as the pneumatic application of a finely-graded cement mortar or concrete. The object is to force the mix onto a surface so that it will adhere firmly and harden to maximum density. This is achieved by literally shooting a jet of the mix through a nozzle at considerable force. The earliest known use of sprayed concrete dates back to 1910. At that time compressed-air methods for handling and applying mortars and concretes were being experimented with and exploited by the Bureau of Reclamation and similar organizations. It was not until 1925, however, when many older reinforced-concrete structures had begun to show signs of serious deterioration, that the technique began to receive widespread acceptance. These early structures were spalling due to rusting of the reinforcement. This rusting, in turn, could be traced to either lack of adequate cover or porous concrete. Sometimes both factors were to blame. Repairs necessitated by these causes, when carried out by local patching, proved to be both difficult and largely ineffective. High-pressure spraying was therefore seen to provide a satisfactory solution to the problem. Today spraying is in regular use both for reconditioning weathered concrete and for building up new structures. For most mortar applications, a mix consisting of 1 part portland cement to 312 parts of fine aggregate, by volume, is normally used. For interior work where strength and permeability may be less important a 1: 4 mix is permissible but mixes richer than 1: 3 are generally undesirable for any work. The aggregate is washed sand, graded evenly from fine to not larger than 3/8-inch diameter. It needs to be hard, dense, durable, clean and sharp for maximum effectiveness. The sand must also be free of organic matter and a top limit of 5 percent is usually set for loam or clay. When suitable equipment is used, a concrete mix containing 6 to 7 bags (564 to 658 pounds) of cement per cubic yard and up to 50 percent large aggregate with a maximum size of 3/4 inch can also be placed successfully by pneumatic techniques.

Operation
There are various pieces of equipment available for spraying mortars and concrete, but all of them work essentially on the same broad principles. Two main methods can be distinguished: the original dry-mix method, and the less common wet-mix method. The wet-mix method was not developed until 1950; its main advantage is that it allows mixes to be gunned into place with a composition more closely resembling that of conventional concrete. With both methods the gun is the complete unit at the end of the supply hose in which the dry materials are proportioned into the air/water stream. From this gun projects the nozzle through which the materials are shot. Two types of nozzle are in general use: the hamm nozzle which provides a self-mixing action, and a tapered nozzle which is used where the materials are particularly sticky and have a tendency to build up or bind together before ejection. Both types consist of a metal outside frame, with a replaceable internal rubber liner.

The principle of the dry-mix method is simply to use compressed air to drive unhydrated cement and sand, mixed with the fine aggregate, through a hose. Water is added only when the mixture reaches the nozzle. The amount of water added can be regulated by the gun operator, and it is here that real skill in spraying concrete shows up. In order to ensure a continuous flow through the gun, the equipment is normally designed as a container with a working chamber and a material lock through which the dry mix is introduced. The working chamber is continually under pressure, and both compartments are fitted with ball or similar valves. These are cycled either automatically or by hand so that the pressure throughout the container can be equalized. Usually a feed-wheel at the bottom of the working chamber ensures that the mix is supplied continuously to the hose leading to the nozzle. The mix itself can be premixed by hand or machine, or the mixer may be a part of the spraying equipment. In either case, all lumps or foreign matter too large for handling by the gun must be sieved out by passing the mix through a screen. Compressed air can be supplied by a built-in compressor or from an independent source. Depending upon the placing capacity of the gun, an air supply ranging from 60 to 900 cubic feet of free air per minute will be required. Pressure requirement will vary from 30 to 60 psi. This will depend upon the height at which the gun is being used and the length of the supply hose. The equipment must be of such a quality that air pressures remain uniform during delivery. Fluctuating pressures will invariably lead to application troubles and an unsatisfactory product. The nature of the job will also influence the degree of working pressure needed. Higher pressures (that is, greater air volumes) increase capacity and permit more rapid application and, in consequence, greater economy. Most guns will operate best when the hose length ranges from 50 to 150 feet. A gun can be used, however, over distances up to 500 feet horizontally and 300 feet vertically. But whenever the hose length runs over 100 feet a significant increase in pressure (around 5 psi per 50 feet of line) will be required. Theoretically, when operating at correct pressures, wear on the inner surface of the hose is negligible whatever length of feed, because the materials flow in a dry state and literally float in the stream of air. In practice, however, a special hose with a thick gum-rubber lining should be used for maximum durability, to resist sudden pressure changes and the use of improper pressure. Ordinary air hose or sand-blast hose will prove much less satisfactory in use. The normal crew requirements for the dry-mix method consist of: a hopper man to charge the mixer and to transfer the mix to the gun hopper; the gun operator who controls pressures and feed cycles as necessary; the nozzle man who does the actual placing, including regulating the water supply, by directing the moving stream of material where required; and finally, a

hose man, who keeps the hoses in their proper position and performs general duties. The pressures needed for operation are closely dependent on the speed of the air passing through the hose (that is, the volume of air provided to transport the dry materials). Normally a nozzle velocity of 400 feet per second is recommended for the speed of the air. Basically about 100 parts of air are needed to move one part of material; to achieve successful placing the pressure, at the nozzle, should remain somewhere in the 35 to 50 psi range, and preferably at 40 or 45 psi. To increase capacity, the speed of air (that is, the volume passing) must be increased; this means that beyond a certain limit, it will become necessary to increase the size of the hose, and possibly also of the air compressor. Water is usually fed to the mix as a specially designed annular spray surrounding the nozzle through which the dry ingredients are carried by the air. Definite values for the pressure of the water are difficult to establish, since they depend greatly on the mix and placing conditions. The pressure must, however, be sufficient to guarantee proper hydration of the cement present in the mix. As a good general rule it can be accepted that the water should be pressurized at least 15 psi greater than the air pressure. Under ordinary conditions the operator can work with a very low water content since the pressure at the nozzle is sufficient to ensure a dense concrete and the question of workability does not arise. Too wet a mix will sag or fall from vertical or inclined surfaces or separate in horizontal work, and too dry a mix will fail to adhere satisfactorily. Atmospheric conditions have some effect on water requirements, but this will be felt and allowed for by the operator. Normally, water content will not exceed 3 to 3 1 2 gallons per sack (94 pounds) of cement, including any moisture present in the aggregate. The mix proportions used and the type and characteristics of the aggregate will naturally influence this requirement somewhat, but it is generally accepted that most satisfactory results are obtained if the aggregate has a moisture content on mixing of not less than 3 percent or greater than 5 percent. At a 6 percent content the mix will already show a tendency to bulk and cause blockages, although, because of its design, one type of equipment available can handle aggregate moisture contents up to 9 percent without trouble. Water should, of course, be clean and in the fitfor-drinking category. Of the several types of equipment available for spraying concrete by the wet-mix method, the commonest is the pneumatic-feed machine. This comprises dual pressurized mixing chambers, from which the ingredients of the mix are delivered in the wet state to the discharge nozzle by air pressure. Thorough mixing is achieved by paddles; while one of the dual chambers is being loaded and mixed the other is discharging, which ensures continuous operation. Air pressure to transport the wet mix is applied either to the sump or the discharge opening of the mixing chamber. At the nozzle a

In the construction of a wall, the nozzleman applies the concrete while a helper blows out rebound.

Concrete surface is then rodded; high areas are thus leveled off and low areas are exposed.

Finishing may be done with a wood float or a rubber float. Curing follows, by water spray or a curing compound.

supplementary supply of air is then added through an annular ring to give better spray control and patterns, and the necessary high velocity of discharge. A second type of wet-mix equipment which has proved satisfactory under certain conditions uses what is known as the positive-displacement system. With this type the premixed concrete, with a relatively high slump, is forced through the delivery hose by the action of a piston or rotary pump, in much the same way as with normal pumping practice. Air is again added at the nozzle to increase velocity, but even so, operating distances are severely limited.

Technique
A surface which is to be sprayed with concrete must be thoroughly cleaned of all dirt, oil or other foreign matter. All loose or weakened material must be hacked or chipped away and preliminary sandblasting can do much to improve bond. All spray guns of the dry-mix type can be effectively used for sandblasting if desired. Although not so efficient as proper sandblasting equipment, the result will be perfectly satisfactory. If standing or running water is present on the surface it must be removed before application can begin. Similarly, concrete should never be sprayed over a surface containing frost or ice. When a surface is to be built up to a desired thickness by spraying, it is essential to wash each layer down thoroughly with water after it has hardened. This washing should be followed by an airblast to remove any loose material. If air is not available, a stiff jet of water can be used for cleaning down. For sloping or vertical surfaces the sprayed concrete should be brought to full thickness in one pass. For most repair jobs a mesh of reinforcement should be placed over the surface, both to increase the strength of the finished job and to provide the necessary degree of support for the mix. The size and extent of this rein-

forcement depends on the nature of the job, or more precisely on the thickness of cover needed. For repair work the most commonly used material is a 4-inch by 4inch mesh and 3-inch by 6-inch mesh of 8-gauge or 9gauge wire. Galvanized, welded-wire fabric should be used when constructing a sprayed concrete wall. The wire in the fabric should be spaced not more than 3 inches apart in each direction. Alternatively, galvanized, expanded metal with openings not greater than 2 1/4 by 6 inches can be used. For design purposes, it is generally accepted that the cross-sectional area per foot of mesh in each direction should be not less than 0.4 percent of the cross-sectional area per foot of wall. When spraying horizontal surfaces such as floor and roof slabs the galvanized mesh must have sufficient cross-sectional area to carry the static and impact loads to which the slab may be subjected. Adjacent sheets of reinforcement must be lapped at sides and ends and must be held securely in position so as not to be nearer than 34 inch to any exposed surface. Fireproofing of structural steel is frequently done by spraying a cover of concrete in position. For this application the reinforcing cages needed to surround a column or beam should be fabricated from 12-gauge wire spaced 2 inches in each direction, or 10-gauge wire spaced 3 inches in each direction. If expanded metal is used, openings should not be less than 2 inches. These cages need to be secured to the steel members through holes on approximately 3foot centers. Rods not less than 14 inch in diameter are used for the fastening, to which the mesh is tied by means of 14-gauge black, annealed wire, preferably at a spacing of 12 inches, and not greater than 18 inches. The mesh should be held 12 inch from the face of the steel and adjacent sheets should lap by not less than 4 inches. Care should also be taken that the ends of the tie wires are furred back so that they will be at least 34 inch from the finished surface. Experience has shown that the best technique for ap-

plying sprayed concrete is to hold the nozzle perpendicular to the surface to be sprayed and about 3 to 4 feet from the surface. To ensure that reinforcement is firmly embedded, however, it is advisable to tilt the nozzle slightly so that the concrete is forced behind the steel alternately from both sides. The concrete should be applied over large surfaces by moving the nozzle uniformly over quite a narrow range so that the spreading effect is limited to a small area. On a vertical or overhead surface the limit to the thickness which can be built up is reached when the concrete starts to sag or separate; this will usually occur at between 1 and 112 inches. On horizontal surfaces the limit is reached when the concrete begins to spatter or show other signs of too much moisture. When spraying overhead the limiting thickness of a layer is about 1 inch. Obviously as the gun is moved more rapidly the concrete will not be built up as thick in a single layer. At the same time the longer the interval between applications while the concrete is still fresh, the greater the thickness which can be applied without separation. Rebound can be a problem if the air pressure is too great or if the nozzle is held too close to the surface. Other rebound problems are caused by a lack of water pressure and poor mixing quality. Basically, rebound occurs when either the surface or the granule does not have a proper sticky coating of cement on it. When the two sticky substances get together, there will be a minimum of rebound; however, if one of these surfaces is not sticky, the other one will not stick and will rebound. For this reason, when shooting against an old surface, more rebound will occur than after a slight coating has been applied. As the material rebounds, it shakes its coating of cement onto the original surface and this soon becomes sticky so that the build-up process will begin. Any rebound material which does not fall clear of the work, or which collects on horizontal surfaces, must be blown off from time to time to avoid forming porous pockets within the thickness. The temptation to feed rebound material back into the mixer should be resisted since it is seldom sufficiently well graded for respraying. When a construction joint is necessary the concrete should be sprayed off to slope down to a thin edge. A square joint is not satisfactory. Before beginning to spray the adjacent section, the sloped portion should then be thoroughly cleaned off and wetted.

The following table gives an indication of the minimum coverage in square feet which can be expected per bag (94 pounds) of cement: Vertical Horizontal 1 Mix 1:3 2 1:4 1:3 1:312 1:4 Thickness 12 inch 34 37 40 40 45 50 Thickness 1 inch 20 22 24 22 25 28 Thickness 2 inch 10 11 12 11 13 14 Thickness 3 inch 7 8 9 8 9 10 Guns currently available on the market can place up to 3,250 square feet of 1-inch thick concrete in an hour. Layers less than 1 12 inches thick should generally be confined to internal work. The life of a coating is roughly proportional to the cover given to the reinforcing steel, so that a 112-inch layer should give a minimum of 34 inch cover, and a 2-inch layer about 114 inches cover. For fireproofing, the general requirement for cover over the structural steel is 2 inches. This can, howe ve r, be reduced in certain non-critical areas according to the provision of the local building code. When spraying a new vertical surface, a backing panel should be provided against which the concrete can be sprayed. This panel can be made of tarred felt, metal or wood and it can be either a temporary or a permanent installation. Using this method, the formwork can be stripped at a very early age since sprayed concrete hardens much more rapidly than does concrete placed by conventional methods. When constructing a new wall the concrete should be sprayed over the reinforcing mesh and backing in one or more layers to within approximately 14 inch of the finished surface. This surface is then shaped to true lines using a flat, steel-edged screed. The final layer is sprayed after the tooled surface has hardened and has been thoroughly cleaned and washed down with water and compressed air. Finishing can be by brushing or troweling. Horizontal slabs should be built up in two or more sprayed layers, according to the final thickness desired. The final finishing layer should be 12 inch thick and the same technique should be followed as for a vertical surface. There is, incidentally, no reason why this finishing layer could not be pigmented for decorative purposes. Moist curing of sprayed concrete is essential; the duration of the curing should be the same as for concrete placed conventionally.

PUBLICATION #C650411
Copyright 1965, The Aberdeen Group All rights reserved