MANICALAND STATE UNIVERSITY

OF

APPLIED SCIENCES

Stair Guthrie Road P. Bag 7001

Mutare Mutare

Zimbabwe Tel: +263(20)2067572

FACULTY OF AGRIBUSINESS AND COMMERCE

Department of Tourism & Hospitality Management

TOPIC: An assessment of the economic impacts of CAMPFIRE among rural

households in Chipinge, Case of Machenye.

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Bachelor of Commerce

Honours Degree in Tourism and Hospitality Management

Supervisor: Dr Baipai
RELEASE FORM

MANICALAND STATE UNIVERSITY

OF

APPLIED SCIENCES

Stair Guthrie Road P. Bag 7001

Mutare Mutare

Zimbabwe Tel: +263(20)2067572

FACULTY OF AGRIBUSINESS AND COMMERCE
Department of Tourism & Hospitality Management
NAME OF STUDENT: ALLEN GOPITO

DEGREE TITLE: Bachelor of Commerce Honours Degree in Tourism & Hospitality

Management.

Permission is hereby granted to the Manicaland State University Library to produce single
copies for private scholarly or scientific research purpose only. The author does not reserve
other publication rights and neither the dissertation nor extracts from it be printed or
otherwise reproduced without university’s written permission.

PERMANENT ADRESS: 1183 CHIKANGA 1

CONTACT NUMBER: +263778718060

SIGNED …ALLEN GOPITO…

DATE …………………………………………
APPROVAL FORM

MANICALAND STATE UNIVERSITY

OF

APPLIED SCIENCES

Stair Guthrie Road P. Bag 7001

Mutare Mutare

Zimbabwe Tel: +263(20)2067572

FACULTY OF AGRIBUSINESS AND COMMERCE

Department of Tourism & Hospitality Management

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to the Manicaland State
University of Applied Sciences for acceptance, a dissertation entitled, “An assessment of the
economic impacts of CAMPFIRE among rural households in Chipinge, Case of
Machenye.” submitted by ALLEN GOPITO in fulfilment of the Bachelor of Commerce
Honours Degree In Tourism And Hospitality Management.

SUPERVISOR………………………………………

Signed…………………………….Date……………………………

Chairperson………………………………………………………..

Signed…………………………….Date…………………………….

EXTERNAL EXAMINER Signed ………………….Date……………..

DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my supporting parents and all my family members
for all the inspiration and motivation which they directed towards me.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I gratefully need to thank God for the strength, wisdom and all the potential that He
gave me throughout the project.

Secondly, worth mentioning is my supervisor, Dr Vengesai for all the efforts she put in
assisting me wherever possible to bring out results of the study.

I would like to give a token of appreciation to my parents and siblings for their unwavering
contribution that strengthened me to move on towards the study. More so, I would like to
thank my fellow church members (Alpha and Omega Apostolic Church) for their continuous
support towards my education. They could support me with inspirational prayers which I
believe, helped me a lot.

Lastly, it is my pleasure to express my sincere gratitude towards my institution, Manicaland

State University and its Tourism and Hospitality department for imparting knowledge as well
as skills which secured my professional development. Would like to thank the likes of Dr
Makandwa, Dr Mzite, Mr Basera, Dr Baipai to mention just a few for mentoring me to be a
successful student.
ABSTRACT
The research sought to outline economic impacts of CAMPFIRE program on rural
households in Mahenye communal area in Chipinge district. The researcher therefore used
Mudavanhu and Tongogara villages as well as Chipinge rural district council for data
collection. The research was aimed at outlining economic impacts of the project in the area of
study to see its significance to the local people. The study population were the households,
village heads, ward councillor as well as council officials. Data was collected through
questionnaires and face to face interviews. There were 4 officials interviewed as key
informants and Using mixed a mixed methods approach, data was collected by conducting
face to face interviews and through questionnaires with 94 house heads. The study went well
as there was a positive response as the rate was 96%. Findings showed that not all local
people benefit from the project and there are some leakages. The study design was a case
study which used a combination of both quantitative and qualitative analysis. Also, it has
been noted that due to lack of uniform in CBT models people lack knowledge pertaining the
project. Lack of financial resources and some conflicts act as barriers to the project to be a
successful one. However, there are some benefits obtained from the project which are
employment, education infrastructure cover and cash dividends just to mention just a few.
The study also highlights the importance of community based natural resource management.
The researcher recommended that there should be a uniform CBT model in the country, full
participation of local people in the project, government intervention, and full role of ZTA in
funding as well as educating local people on the benefits of the project.
 ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS
CBT: Community based tourism
CBNRM: Community Based Natural Resources Management
CAMPFIRE: Communal Area Management Program for Indigenous Resources
MSUAS: Manicaland State University of Applied Sciences
UNWTO: United Nations World Tourism Organization
ZTA: Zimbabwe Tourism Authority
ZNPWMA: Zimbabwe National Parks Wildlife Management Authority
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RELEASE FORM.....................................................................................................................II

APPROVAL FORM.................................................................................................................III

DEDICATION..........................................................................................................................IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................................V

ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................VI

ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS.........................................................................................VII

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES......................................................................................XIII

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................1

1.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................1

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY..................................................................................1

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM.................................................................................2

1.4 STUDY OBJECTIVES....................................................................................................3

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.............................................................................................3

1.6 RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS........................................................................................3

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY...................................................................................4

1.7.1 TO THE LOCAL COMMUNITY................................................................................4

1.7.2 SIGNIFICANCE TO THE UNIVERSITY...................................................................4

1.7.3 SIGNIFICANCE TO THE STUDENT.......................................................................4

1.8 DELIMITATIONS............................................................................................................5

1.9 LIMITATIONS.................................................................................................................5

1.10 LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................5

1.11 METHODOLOGY.........................................................................................................6

1.12 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS...........................................................................................6

1.13 CHAPTER SUMMARY.................................................................................................6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.....................................................................................7

2.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................7

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK......................................................................................7

2.3.2.3 INFRASTRUCTURE...............................................................................................12
 2.3.2.4 CASH DIVIDENDS.................................................................................................13

2.4 IMPLICATIONS OF LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................14

2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY.................................................................................................14

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY........................................................................15

3.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................15

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN...................................................................................................15

3.4 APPROACH TO METHODOLOGY..............................................................................16

3.5 POPULATION..............................................................................................................16

3.6 SAMPLING PROCEDURE...........................................................................................16

3.6.1 SAMPLING FRAME...............................................................................................17

3.6.2 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE......................................................................................17

3.7 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS.......................................................................................17

3.7.1 INTERVIEWS.........................................................................................................17

3.7.2 QUESTIONNAIRES...............................................................................................18

3.7.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY.............................................................................18

3.8 DATA ANALYSIS.........................................................................................................19

3.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS.....................................................................................19

3.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY...............................................................................................20

CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS.......................................................21

4.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................21

4.2 RESPONSE RATE.......................................................................................................21

4.3 DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION................................................................................22

4.3.1 RESPONDENTS DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION.............................................22

4.3.2 AGE GROUPS OF RESPONDENTS....................................................................23

4.4 STUDY FINDINGS.......................................................................................................24

4.5 DISCUSSIONS.............................................................................................................34

4.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY.................................................................................................35

5.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................36

5.2 ACHIEVEMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES.........................................................36

 5.2.1 TO IDENTIFY THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS...........................................................36

5.2.2 TO EXAMINE THE INFLUENCE OF THE CAMPFIRE ECONOMIC IMPACT ON

RURAL LIVELIHOODS...................................................................................................36

5.2.3 TO RECOMMEND WAYS OF IMPROVING ECONOMIC GAINS DERIVED FROM

THE CAMPFIRE PROGRAM..........................................................................................37

5.3 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH........................................................................................37

5.4 CONCLUSIONS...........................................................................................................37

5.5 CONTRIBUTIONS (THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS)

TO THE STUDY.................................................................................................................38

5.6 RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................39

REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................41

APPENDICES........................................................................................................................46
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Fig 4.1: Response Rate..................................................................................................................
Fig 4.2: Respondents gender presentation.....................................................................................
Table 4.1 age group of respondents...............................................................................................
Table 4.2 Economic impacts.........................................................................................................
Table 4.2: Chilo safari lodges part time........................................................................................
Table 4.3 Other Campfire employment opportunity.....................................................................

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This chapter introduces the study which was therefore conducted to determine the impact
associated with the Communal Area Management Program for Indigenous Resources
(CAMPFIRE) program to the local community in the study area and it provides research
background with its significance, statement of the problem as well as study objectives. It also
gives research questions, importance of the research, methods used in conducting the
research, delimitations and limitations of the study, definition of key terms and lastly,
summary of the chapter.

1.2 Background of the study

Globally, community-based tourism (CBT) especially in the developed countries for

example, the United States of America and China, is seen as a potential industry that can play
a key role in providing some key economic benefits in both rural and remote areas to
advantaged and disadvantaged communities, contributing to development of tourism without
external support (Spencely A, 2012). There are several benefits being enjoyed by the host
communities where CBT is being practiced. These include employment creation, increase in
the number of tourists which boosts revenue, female empowerment, support of aqua
ecosystem and local livelihoods, encouraging sustainable wildlife interactions and
conservation (Marsh J, 2022).

In the SADC region, there are conservation efforts on CBTs. CBT has been shown to provide
sufficient economic benefits to all stakeholders in the tourism industry, with an
environmental development management plan and consensus-based decision-making (Sebele
L, 2010). Example of communities involved in CBT in the region are Kompise in Victoria
Falls, Thakadu River camp and Madikwe game reserve just mentioning a few (Spenceley A,
2012). Also the positive state of CBT in the region is reflected in the interaction of various
structural elements including policies, organizational and institutional planning, quality of
tourism products and access to regional resources (Lapeyre R, 2010; Sebele L, 2010) for
example, Victoria Falls on the Zambia-Zimbabwe border. CBT has been seen as a successful
career in Zimbabwe especially Ko Mpise in Victoria Falls where the economic benefits
derived by the host community include guaranteed business to the community-based tourism
project, increase in revenue and employment benefits (Runyowa, 2017). In this area,
government is noted for having a keen interest for the development of community-based
tourism projects, strongly believed to be an important tool in fighting poverty in rural areas
and marginalized communities (National Tourism Policy, 2014). The people of the
community have benefited much from this project as the local authorities were determined to
find out what could be the key to success in making this project a success over a long span
(Gandiwa et al, 2011).

This differs on the case of Mahenye where CAMPFIRE is being practiced. There are several
researches on the case of Mahenye. It has been noted that Mahenye has managed to stand still
on challenges affecting the project which include socio-political and environmental changes
that have resulted in ecotourism facing so many challenges (Mudzengi et al, 2021). It has
also been noted that there are factors that has made Mahenye to be a successful in the
management of the project including resource attractiveness, product diversification, socio
energy and risk management (Mudzengi et al, 2021). However, these studies or researches
has not put much attention on how this management impact the rural livelihoods
economically tracing how these benefits are monitored. There is a need for developing
entrepreneurs to participate in the area in the tourism industry to benefit local communities
economically. The CBT models in the country are not the same (not uniform) and should
continue since the communities become involved in the daily business of CBT, an inactive
model where communities are not involved in making decisions but receive fixed
assignments (Nyaruwata S, 2011).

This study was undertaken to come up with adequate information regarding the concept of
CAMPFIRE program in Mahenye. It was to dig out the extent on which all indigenous
resources and their utilization benefit the intended households. In addition, the study
determined positive and also negative impacts of the program to the local community in the
study area. The program was adopted to promote sustainability of natural resources whilst
encouraging the local people to benefit from utilizing these resources wisely. Therefore, the
study was done to dig out the significance of the program towards those who should benefit
from it.

1.3 Statement of the problem

Despite the introduction of the CAMPFIRE program in the Mahenye community, the locals
have remained poor and impoverished as evidenced by (Zunza E, 2012). Numerous
researches have focused on community participation, socio impacts of the program, political
impacts and other impacts of the program as well as ecotourism resilience in the area and
overlooked the economic impacts of the CAMPFIRE on the local people at household level.
Many studies have been conducted to evaluate the benefits of CAMPFIRE in the area
especially at the ward level but forget to focus on the local level. Therefore this research
seeks to look deep into the economic benefits of the program to the local residents of
Mahenye.

1.4 Study objectives

The following are the objectives of the study:

• To identify the economic impacts of CAMPFIRE in the area of study.

• To examine the influence of economic impacts of CAMPFIRE to the livelihoods

of host community.

• To recommend ways of improving economic gains derived from the CAMPFIRE

program by the host community.

1.5 Research questions

1. What are the economic benefits of CAMPFIRE in Chipinge?

2. What are the negative effects of CAMPFIRE on Chipinge homes?

3. What impact does CAMPFIRE have on Chipinge rural communities?

1.6 Research assumptions

The research is based on assumptions that:

1. Respondents will be honest and trustworthy as confidentiality will be guaranteed.

2. The same pattern of information from respondents because they live in the same area and
deal with the same problems and common issues.

3. The survey will be completed on time due to full compliance by respondents.

4. The responsible authorities will give permission for the study to be conducted locally.

5. The expected result will be consistent with a definite hypothesis.

1.7 Significance of the study

1.7.1 To the local community

The study aims to determine effects of Campfire's economic benefits among rural families in
the area. In other words, it is very important to find out if rural families really benefit from
the project in their own homes and how they perceive the project. There is depth and
discovery of what the community really benefits from this program and the negative impact
of this project. In addition, research is available to find and provide solutions to existing
problems that impede the continuation of the project. The findings of the study will assist the
tourism industry in successfully supporting the program as well as local communities to
participate constructively in the program. Currently due to the economic crisis that has hit the
country, many people see this program as unimportant. Therefore, this study will help to
strengthen this program for the people as the most important thing that every citizen should
benefit from and reduce the fingerprinting of those who authorize this program. In other
words, the study will strengthen the economic effectiveness of the program in homes in the
study area and around the world.

1.7.2 Significance to the university

The study will present a positive image of the institution to every citizen. The study is
expected to assist other students with sufficient information whenever they need to conduct
additional studies in the future. In addition, new information will be opened and the road to
further education will be paved for future students.

1.7.3 Significance to the student

Research is very important to the student as it helps to meet the requirements of the degree
program. Research is very important for the student as it exists to inform information that
works outside the research domain. It is also important as the research results may have an
impact on policy and future project implementation. It also promotes critical thinking and
provides analytical skills especially in the hands of learning. Research is important as it
expands the knowledge base of the selected field and beyond. Also, it builds community and
peers, with intelligence and many organizations. The student's ability to apply the lessons
learned at the institute will be improved in solving the problems he encounters in everyday
life.

1.8 Delimitations

The scope of the study was to determine the economic impacts of CAMPFIRE on the local
communities and the study was conducted in Mudavanhu and Tongogara A villages under
chief Mahenye in Chipinge district (Dunham et al, 2010). The research was conducted in the
area between 2021 and 2022. The target population of the area included household heads,
traditional leaders and local administrative officials.

1.9 Limitations

The major limitation faced during the study period was that the research is a case study. This
means that the results do not cover a wide range of area but limited to Mahenye communal
area. In this case, it means that the study lacks external validity. There has been a limitation
or minimized time frame due to the covid-19 pandemic which hit the country not forgetting
the whole globe. This has reduced enough time for gathering maximum primary data which
was supposed to overcome the limitation. The researcher had to ask for a period of time to
carry out the study at the same time at work to come up with money for all educational fees.
Since finance was needed for the study to be done, it became a constraint to the researcher
especially to travel from one point to the other when administering questionnaires and
interviews. This became a great challenge and to overcome this, the researcher had to borrow
from friends as well as applying for loan from microfinance firm. By so doing, this was to
ensure a smooth flow of the study.

1.10 Literature review

CAMPFIRE plays a strategic role in both local, regional as well as in international debates
concerning wildlife conservation and management. One of the objectives of this paper is to
show that the situation is actually more complex and also the successfulness of CAMPFIRE
more questionable. There are many debates created among citizens in the area which seeks to
be addressed as some find the program as of great importance whilst others see the other side.

1.11 Methodology

The chapter was created in order to array some various methods which were used to obtain
this research. These included the research that was adopted, research design, sample size,
population, sampling procedures, sampling frame and sampling technique as well as research
instruments used to gather relevant data. Also, data analysis, validation and ethical
considerations were also outlined when the research was carried out.

1.12 Definitions of terms

Community: It can be defined as a geographical location, place of similar interest, affiliation

or identity (Cavaye J, 2007).

Community-based tourism: According to Rest (2010), “community based tourism is one

type of tourism that take into account the environment, social and cultural sustainability into
which is managed by local residents and allows visitors to come and learn issues about the
community and its local lifestyles.”

Tourism: according to UNWTO (2010), it is the activities of tourists travelling to and

staying in places outside their usual environment for not less than twenty-four hours and not
more than one consecutive year. It can be either for business, leisure or other purposes not
remunerated for.
1.13 Chapter summary

The chapter provided an insight on what motivated the researcher to participate in the
research presented on the background information. Also covered in this chapter are the
research purpose, objectives, problem statement, research questions, delimitation and
definition of keywords. In addition, the importance of the research is given in the chapter and
also the relevance of the research into understanding the economic challenges of CAMPFIRE
in the Mahenye communities in Chipinge.
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter focused on literature review with a main focus on economic impacts of the
program on rural livelihoods in the community. This is a vital component of the study as it
gives the researcher a better understanding of the subject under the study. The study gave
literature on various credible sources for important information. The primary objective was to
search what other authors said about CBTs and its economic impacts on communities where
it is being practiced. This chapter therefore consists of theoretical framework on economic
impacts of CBTs, implications of literature review and chapter summary.
2.2 Theoretical framework

2.2.1 Sustainable development theory

Theoretical framework that guided this research was premised on the Sustainable
Development Theory. This theory was formulated by the Brundtland commission in the late
1980s (Stoddart, 2011). This theory was developed with an idea that human societies must
live and meet their needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet own
needs as purported by Stoddart (2011). This theory is supported by Sustainable development
Goals (SGD 2030’s) with an objective of ensuring equitable as well as utilization of natural
resources in local communities. Upon its inversion, there were some agreements of preamble
variables that seeks better standards of living, to live in full harmony, improvement of living
standards and the sustainability of the resources being surrounded by residents for future
generations (UNWTO, 2011). According to Stoddart (2011), the theory had a key principle as
a concept which stood on the link between the economic issues which have impact to the
residents and the environment in which they survive in. in other words, the theory was
adopted with a vision of organizing a society to exist for a long period of time. Therefore, the
theory stood as a pillar for the research in addressing economic impacts of CAMPFIRE
program in the area of study.

The researcher was guided by the theory in assessing the economic impacts of the
CAMPFIRE program to the rural livelihoods of Mahenye communal area in Chipinge. It
helped in assessing the economic impacts on those being involved in the project whether they
really benefited from it as it is always said and whether it is not so. In addition, the theory
helped to see whether the local residents are the intended beneficiaries of utilizing the natural
resources in the area hence useful. The research objectives together with the SGD goals
formulated the research as it postulates that local communities possess great roles in the use
of the natural resources they live in for their own consumption. For the rural residents to
achieve their quest of consumption of the resources, they should however make sure that
there is a sustainability of the resources so that the future generations also benefit from them
as supported by Stoddart (2011). When the communities benefit from the resources
economically such as getting access to education, employment benefits, cash dividends and
infrastructure, it means a great appreciation that theory is applicable in the research as was
conducted by the researcher.
In addition to the use of the sustainable development theory, it guided the study as it dwelt
much on the sustainability of the resources whilst the local communities benefited from the
utilization of the resources. It has been noted that the theory identified CBTs as economic
enhancer which local communities can rely on for their day to day life as it also improves the
ways of living in a sustainable manner which again the communities has the role of
conserving the environment for future generations (Stoddart, 2011). The theory have 3 pillars
which are economic, social and environment and the researcher focused much on the first
pillar which focus on economic status of communities (Stoddart, 2011).

The economic theory helped the researcher to come up with valid information. According to
Stoddart (2011), the economic pillar of the theory “entails a realignment of the inhibitions
that prevents communities to reach their full economic growth as well as potential with much
emphasis on a sustainable developmental growth which is projected and planned to take
place”. Simpson (2008) noted that the development of tourism bring about economic benefits
such as education and employment to the local residents where it is practiced. This will
ensure productivity of the communities as they become able to sustain themselves since they
get educated and employed through various tourism ventures. Employment benefits that can
arise from tourism sector include managerial roles, housekeepers, front office personnel as
well as other professionals which related to the tourism industry.

2.2.2 Applicability of the Sustainable Development Theory

The theory is much applicable as it ensure that local residents should have equal opportunities
to the resources in the area in which they live in such as employment opportunities, education
as well as many other economic benefits. It is also applicable as it suggested that in order to
end poverty in rural areas, the local residents need to get engaged in different tourism
activities such as tour guide, fishing, boat cruising as well as getting employed in the sector
(Stoddart, 2011). The applicability of the theory is also outlined by UN (2010) as they
pointed out that by the end of 2030, half of the proportion of male and females of all ages
who are affected by poverty threat will be definitely be reduced. The theory therefore
suggests that through having tourism to the host communities, residents can manage to secure
income and able to improve livelihoods at household level. The theory suggests that as
residents are fully employed, they get reward for their services which contributes towards
economic prosperity which again promotes sustainability of the resources. This reduces
threats of unemployment which help the communities to benefit much.

2.3 Community based tourism

The concept of CBT around the globe has been presented as an “alternative means to
traditional mass tourism in developing countries and was developed as a community
development tool that aided communities in taking control over tourism management and
development and delivering some benefits to host communities” (Trejos and Chiang, 2009).
This form of tourism was developed in trying to help communities in empowering them
through assistance in tourism resource management as well as participation by residents
(Travel, 2009).

2.3.1 Importance of CBT

CBT was formulated towards the strengthening of local economies as it became a poverty
reduction tool that aided local communities in different ways such as educational
opportunities, environmental conservation as well as income generation (Cooperation, 2014).
Although CBT was meant for an increase in benefits and reduction in negative impacts on the
use of natural resources towards local communities, CBT was also meant for an effective
long term plan. Locals were therefore meant to be empowered as a way of advancing their
potential and utilization of resources surrounding them. With this, possible solutions have
emerged for dealing with negative impacts and problems of mass tourism especially in the
developing world to be future-oriented toward development planning for community
improvement (Yu-Chih L, and Pidpong J, 2020). This greatly view the importance of CBT on
the sustainability of natural resources for the benefit of future generations.

2.3.2 Review on economic impacts of CBTs

Research on the economic impacts of CBTs has been widely spoken of and showed many
ideas over the years (Webster and Ivanovic, 2014). Tourism industry around the globe is
regarded as dynamic and integral component in the global economies growth. It has come to
an agreement that tourism is an alternative for the expansion of economics in both developing
and developed nations around the globe as it is source of employment and income creation.
Thus the sustainable development of the tourism industry has a positive contribution to the
economic needs without much impact or threat to the environment (Manyara G and Jones E,
2009) whilst Osvaldo et al (2011), alluded that results of tourism developments possess
economic components. The growth of the CBT has a bearing on the improvement of
livelihoods as well as addressing of poverty alleviation (Deller, 2010) as outlined in sync
with the sustainable development theory of ending poverty as well as sustainability of
resources. CBT was an alternative optimal means in the conservation of natural resources
whilst generating economic benefits to the host communities. In other words, it was meant
tactically sustaining local livelihoods in eradicating poverty.
Publications made by Hoelman et al (2015) together with the advice by UNWTO (2015),
noted that CBT has a positive determinate in the economic growth of host communities. On
the other hand, researches by Ridderstaat et al (2014), concluded that there is an economic
growth for any country around the globe. The benefits of CBT differentiated based on current
community conditions and could be seen in various perspectives (Yu-Chih L, and Pidpong J,
2020). Thus the scope of the research was to assess the economic impacts of CAMPFIRE
program as was guided by the research objectives whilst the analysis of the economic impacts
was derived from the guidance from the sustainable development theory which qualitatively
and quantitatively summed the study.

2.3.2.1 Employment benefits

Employment is seen as a vital requirement for a human well-being as supported by authors

like Summers et al (2012) as well as Jax and Heink (2016). Also, with the employment at
stake, people become able to afford a better lifestyle than ever as they are able to sustain
themselves. CBTs has been noted as key generators of employment around the globe. Several
publications on tourism’s economic impacts revealed that there is an increase in visitor
expenditure on tourist services as well as facilities which has led to some changes in
disposable income usage as noted by Bridda et al (2008). It has been argued that as there is
positive engagement by tourists to host communities, it triggers employment opportunities
which is targeted at both individual and household levels and this creates some financial
rewards to the host communities as well as poverty reduction (Ashley, 2009). There is an
establishment of employment to the nations such as India which have service sector heavily
linked to tourism as the fastest growing sector as noted by Khatic and Nag (2012). It has been
noted that tourism creates economic status quo to the preservation of any environment.

According to authors such as Sahu and Chavali (2008), tourism as a service sector is a major
contributor of employment and its importance towards employment is linked with laborious
nature and a substitution of funding in service production. Tourism is a key contributor of
employment to the globe. According to Kulshreshtha (2012), rural communities in India have
derived economic development as well as employment creation and the host communities
have identified tourism as sustainable venture for the benefits of livelihoods.
CBT created jobs such as tour guides, travel agents, security guards and cleaners as well as
unskilled workforce tasks (Yu-Chih L, and Pidpong J, 2020). According to Sebele L (2010),
as long as there is waged employment in local communities, community members eradicate
poverty and their standard of living is uplifted. Therefore, this impact is a community need
for host communities where CBT is practiced.

2.3.2.2 Education

Education is noted to be a drive for the developments of communities. When communities

lack educational qualities, it is likely that they end up losing their control of the natural
resources. Residents need to get educated and trained enough in areas such as front office,
tour guides and culinary arts so that they possess adequate knowledge for them to be in full
possession of tourism activities in the area as noted by Salazer (2012) as such lack of
knowledge stand as a barrier towards active participatory community initiatives. In studies
conducted in Ghana by Cobbinah et al (2015), it has been noted that only a percentage of
local residents were employed and due to lack of educational qualifications, stand as barriers
to reach upper ranks such as senior and advisory roles. Education is very crucial as it is noted
for residents to fully possess access to the resources as well as information that is helpful to
the sustainable development of the communities.

In addition, CBT has a positive contribution to the community in that when residents are
educated, they feel empowered. It has been noted that community empowerment was found
to have a greater impact on the outcome variable (Tukamushaba E, and Okech R, 2011).
Education through CBT has been noted to be strong predictor of community participation and
involvement in tourism planning as well as development. When communities are educated
and trained, they are likely to get motivated to get involved in all tourism activities performed
at communal level up to national level (Tukamushaba E, and Okech R, 2011).

2.3.2.3 Infrastructure
Through CBT, a community is guaranteed to have some infrastructural developments and is
one of the greatest benefits to be experienced by host communities where it is practiced. CBT
provides access to infrastructure development in terms of power supply, road network, and
water supply, development of land through construction of buildings such as schools, hotels
and clinics as well as other. Through a successful CBT in a community, it supplement the
community development that the public sector cannot fully carry out such as infrastructure
development (Zimbabwe Ministry of Tourism, 2017). CBT ensures that the infrastructure of a
host community is upgraded to meet the expectations by tourists whenever they feel like
visiting the destination hence important.

Whenever the infrastructure in CBT community is well maintained, it makes the area to me et
all the expected benefits being derived by the community as such development makes the
area more accessible (Korol and Spyridou, 2020). According to Yu-Chih and Pidpong J,
(2020), the government of Thailand has been noted to be active on the construction of road
network across all the communities where CBT is being active in order to maximise the total
populations of tourists. It has also been noted that as this development has taken place in
Thailand, there has been an increase in tourists flow as well as the generation of revenue.
This is also supported by Tukamushaba E, and Olech R, (2011), who noted that development
of infrastructure has a direct impact to the host community where CBT is practiced.
Therefore, it has been noted that for the communities where CBT is alive, the development in
infrastructure is very important and is a key benefit for the host communities.

2.3.2.4 Cash dividends

CBT also offers an opportunity for host communities in aiding cash for eradicating poverty.
Financial risks as noted Korol and Spyridou, (2020). It has been noted that when financial
benefits are absent at community level, the communities will definitely lose their own power
towards the controlling of resources to external stakeholders. In addition, it has been noted
that for anticipating the vulnerabilities and preparations of backup plans, financial warning
system is very essential for business operations (Korol and Spyridou, 2020). This is
supported by Yu-Chih and Pidpong J, (2020) in their study in Thailand where they say that
CBT in the country has been developed to create opportunities for sustainable development
and address financial shortages in communities through community participation when
enhanced.
CBT suggests that there should be equal opportunities for local participants in a community
in terms of cash dividends. CBT generates cash through various forms such as sale of
artefacts, tour visits, and cultural performances by local people, employment as well as other
forms (Yu-Chih and Pidpong J, 2020). Local residents are the core beneficiaries of benefits of
CBT especially on the distribution of cash generated. Cash is also generated through trophy
hunting which contributes about 90% of CBT project in Zimbabwe where selling of hunting
concessions to professional hunters and safari operators boosts cash dividends to local
communities (Sebele L, 2010). It has been noted that since the introduction of CBT, locals
has benefitted a lot through cash dividends. Cash generated is distributed among the residents
so that everyone enjoy from the project. CBT creates such benefit in order to alleviate
poverty especially in the developing world (Yu-Chih L, and Pidpong J, 2020). Government
and private stakeholders should be very keen to the project so that citizens are motivated and
are financially stable. In addition, CBT is becoming one of the key driving forces in the
development of Cape Verde Island where its aim is to ensure that the wealth generated
through CTB has a direct benefit on the residents.

2.4 Implications of literature review

The literature reviewed in-depth information on CBT from a global perspective to the ward
level of Mahenye in Chipinge. A review of the literature reveals that CBT is one of the best
forms of tourism as it contributes significantly to local communities. Moreover, according to
the literature review, community-based tourism since its inception has faced many
challenges. These challenges serve as other barriers as they affect rural households, right up
to the national level. If these challenges are not addressed meticulously, they make the system
intended to benefit the community and not produce any particular benefits. Despite having all
the challenges identified, there are some benefits and great opportunities to the local
residents. In addition, the literature reviewed in-depth solutions to the identified challenges.

2.5 Chapter Summary

This chapter looked at different perspectives of different authors on CBT. These ideas have
been applicable in the case of Mahenye community area of Chipinge in their CAMPFIRE
program. These ideas gave the same impression that community-based tourism is intended to
benefit local people and aims to improve the lives of the community in a variety of ways. The
challenges, possible solutions and benefits of the current project are outlined in the chapter.
In addition, this chapter contains an implication of literature review and summary of the
chapter. The following chapter presents the methodology used in data collection in the study.

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The chapter provides a detailed description of different approaches and methods used for
gathering data (information) for the study. The chapter gave a comprehensive description of
how the study was conducted. There was identification of methodology, research design,
which was used and justification of methods used. The population size, techniques used for
data collection, sampling methods, data analysis as well as ethical consideration was given.
There were some questionnaires and in-depth interviews to determine the research
information required. In addition, the chapter explained the scope of the topic.

3.2 Methodology

Methodology is defined as “the function of any particular piece of research and is the way in
which the researcher systematically designs the study ensuring effective and reliable results
that meet the objectives of the study” (Jansen and Warren 2020). The researcher chose to use
qualitative approach for the study.

3.3 Research design

According to (Labaree, 2016), research design is a comprehensive strategy that researchers

choose for integrating different aspects of their research in a rational way. Research design is
a plan of which one intends to do research focusing on the final product, the origin and the
concept of research (Babbie and Mouton 2010). It also introduces analytical tools that were
used to analyse data in line with research objectives.

The research design is the use of questionnaires which are a descriptive research design. The
descriptive research aimed to describe the number of people or something accurately and
systematically (McCombes, 2020). Descriptive research will enable production of an accurate
and reliable information as it is the second source of information that helps to develop a fact-
based story.

In addition, the researcher has chosen qualitative research in the study because of its purpose
that it is conducted in a natural environment and as it examines human behaviour in society.
In addition, a model research approach was used in the study.

Justification for using the qualitative research design are that it help explore phenomena’s
that cannot be captured if quantitative methods only are used, it also provide more vivid
understanding of the reseach at hand because of the first hand information provided by the
method used to collect data i.e. in this case the questionnaires, it provides flexibility for the
researcher in the sense that it gives the researcher the ability to adapt according to what is
need at that time and lastly it also help the researcher to generate more that one theory
compared to just using and testing an already existing one.

3.4 Approach to methodology

The research is a qualitative approach in nature. This approach was chosen as the data was
obtained from the use of questionnaires and in-depth interviews. The researcher therefore
chose the research method as it provided a platform for asking respondents “how, what and
why” questions. It was also selected as it allowed the researcher to conduct an in-depth study
of the CAMPFIRE program in the Mahenye area of Chipinge.

3.5 Population

The study was conducted in Chipinge district in the Mahenye area where it was targeted at
local people, council officials and ward councillor. The survey was conducted on the target
population of 800 in the area which included household heads, traditional leaders and local
administrative officials. The key candidates were selected on purpose based on their
knowledge and understanding of electronic governance and systematically elected residents
in ward 19.

3.6 Sampling procedure

According to Touvila (2020), “sampling is a method used in statistical analysis in which the
predetermined number of observations is taken from the general population”. In simple terms,
sampling is a method used for selecting a specific number of people from a given location.
Salkind (2010) emphasized that a suitable sample size is required for any study as he
emphasizes that the sample should not be too small or too large.

The study used a purposeful sampling process as a way to gather information from
participants. A targeted sample method is a method of selecting members basing on their
ability of providing information (Denzin and Lincoln, 2013). This process was chosen as a
way to have discussions with experts. Of the 800 households, only 11.8% of participants
were selected to come up with 94 participants as well as 4 informants who were 3 council
officials and a ward councillor.

3.6.1 Sampling frame

The sample framework is a list of all the units of interest of the people (Lenao, 2021). In this
study, the sample framework included household heads, traditional leaders and local
administrative officials.

3.6.2 Sampling technique

In this study, the researcher chose purposive sampling for selecting interviewees because
there were in-depth interviews, therefore this technique was preferred. This is a selection of
small portion of key participants based on their knowledge who were able to represent the
whole population in the area of study. This was chosen to select individuals basing on
appropriate individualities as was required on the sample.

For the selection of households, the researcher opted to use stratified sampling as a technique.
The target population was firstly divided into separate strata and samples were selected
within each strata through simple sampling. In this scenario, each individual had an equal
chance to get selected to participate in the research therefore, they were then randomly
chosen from each stratum.

3.7 Research instruments

These are instruments which are used for data collection in a research and this research used
questionnaires and interviews.
3.7.1 Interviews

Key informant Interviews

4 informants were interviewed during the study and included 3 council officials and the
fourth being the ward councillor.

An interview is a two-way conversation between two people, one being the respondent or the
interviewee and the other being the interviewer or the researcher in order to collect primary
data (Cohen, 2013). Interviews with key experts are discussions that take place between the
researcher and the key informants in the study. Interviews with key informants were of great
help to the researcher as he personally obtained information from council officials who
improved the research data. Interviews with key experts also assisted the researcher in
making organizational recommendations to address the challenges it faces. They helped to
consolidate and confirm the validity of the data given by the citizens.

Nonverbal behaviour of the informants was very important in analysing and validating the
data since the data comes directly from knowledgeable people, important informative
discussions provided insight into other possible alternatives. However, one responded was
reluctant to provide all the details and that the interviews were time consuming which
undermined the overall strength of the research results.

3.7.2 Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of

gathering information from respondents (McLeod, 2018). The researcher used open-ended
questions in this study to enrich the data that was collected. The questionnaires were
distributed to 94 residents.

The questionnaires assisted the researcher in developing effective measures that will be used
by the local council to address the challenges it faces in its effort to implement e-governance
and the challenges citizens face in accessing e-service assistance. The questionnaires were
also used because they reached targeted respondents quickly as well and they maintain
retaining of respondents’ anonymity which is a key element of research principles. The
researcher also selected questionnaires because of the speed with which they receive the
answers and puts less pressure on the respondents as they were able to answer in private.
3.7.3 Limitations of the study

In the distribution of the questionnaires, the researcher found out that it is time consuming
and tedious. Also, stationery costs money which is why they are expensive. In order to
overcome these challenges, the researcher photocopied the questionnaires and distributed
them as early as possible and assististance from a friend who also distributed the
questionnaires.

Another difficulty encountered by the researcher was language barrier. In most cases, it was
very difficult to approach a person who does not understand other languages other than Ndau.
In order to overcome language barrier, the researcher went to the area of study with a friend
from Chibuwe and was based in Mutare and assisted in translating between the parties.
However, relevant data was obtained which enriched the overall output of the research.

3.8 Data analysis

In this process, the researcher collected data all the required data, summarized it into well
interpreted and understandable story. The data went through systematic procedures which
encompassed raw data, editing, coding, tabulating and charting. The data obtained from the
interviews was analysed through thematic analysis. This form of analysis organizes and sorts
the data into fine components as well as interpreting the study details. The researcher
analysed the data and was arranged into different categories such as age group including
gender and educational qualities as was recorded. The data collected was illustrated in tables
and pie charts under data presentation.

3.9 Ethical considerations

According to Bhasin, (2020), “these are a set of principles and values that must be followed
when doing home affairs and ensure that no one acts in a way that is harmful to the
community or person”. Whenever a study is conducted, respondents may get hurt which is
why they need protection to participate freely. The following are the ethical principles of
research that were considered in the conduct of the research.

1. Confidentiality
All identifying information is not included in the report as all participants have the right to
privacy which is why their personal data is protected. In this case, the names and any other
personal information were not collected in the research area to improve confidentiality.

2. Exit option

All participants were given the opportunity to withdraw from the study without any penalties
imposed on them. They were given enough information about their rights yet through
research processes.

3. Informed consent

There was a provision of sufficient information concerning the study and the reason why the
participants were selected to participate. This helped them to decide whether to participate or
not. Respondents were educated on the basis of the research and allowed to express their own
views.

3.10 Validity and Reliability

3.10.1 Validity

In this research, validity was premised on the results of the work that was undertaken
meaning that the result outcomes of the research deemed valid as appropriate and truthful.
The researcher therefore managed to authenticate and validate the results from the study
through reengaging the respondents for validation and credibility of the first results if they
match with second results which was then acknowledged as valid as supported by Kananen
(2011).

3.10.2 Reliability

The researcher managed to achieve reliability of the study findings as the results were
scrutinized vigorously in contrast to other proved test results which were certified as correct
by other researchers in previous studies.

3.11 Chapter summary

An overview of the research procedures and methodology was outlined in the chapter. The
chapter outlined the research design and research resources developed and used in data
collection. Sampling techniques applied in the research, data collection procedures and
ethical considerations have been provided.

CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to present and analyse all the findings of the study conducted on the
economic impacts of CAMPFIRE on the rural livelihoods of Mahenye. The chapter
highlights response rate which shows the number of the sample size population that
participated in the study. It also presents descriptive statistics in the form of tables and pie
charts for an easy understanding of the research findings. There are also discussions which
are drawn from the study, chapter summary.

4.2 Response rate

A total of 94 questionnaires were distributed to respondents of which 90 were answered and

returned. This translates to a response rate of 96% which provides a good representation of
what respondents think and feel about a research article supported by Davies (2009) who
connotes that response rates of approximately 60% in most studies should be the goal of
every researcher and rated as positive and from 80% rated as excellent.

As suggested by Martella et al (2013) a response rate of more than 75% is considered to be

the best in analytical reporting. Therefore, as indicated on the table above, the researcher had
a response rate of 96% which can be summarized as valid and sufficient to draw conclusions
from. This is shown via a pie chart as demonstrated below.
 RESPONSE RATE

96

returned not returned

Fig 4.1: Response Rate

4.3 Demographic information

4.3.1 Respondents demographic information

Of the distributed questionnaires, a total of 81% of the respondents were male as compared to
only 19% females. Out of the 81%, 6% were passer-by and the majority were locally based
people. In addition, only 17% were working class and the remaining are either unemployed or
they are heavily dependent on the project. The information is therefore presented on the pie
chart shown below.
 Gender representation

Female respondents
19%

Male respondents
81%

Fig 4.2: Respondents gender presentation

4.3.2 Age groups of respondents

Of the 94 respondents, 38 ranged from 20-40 years which translates to 40% whilst those aged
41-59 years had 31 respondents translating to 33% and finally, the age group of 60 years plus
had 25 respondents translating to 27% of the total respondents. This is translated on the table
below.

Table 4.1 age group of respondents

AGE GROUP 20-40 41-59 60+ TOTAL

NUMBER OF 38 31 25 94
RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE 40% 33% 27% 100

4.4 Study findings

4.4.1 Economic impacts of CAMPFIRE program in Mahenye

The economic impacts of CAMPFIRE program that were identified in the area of study were
employment, education, infrastructure developments and cash dividends.

The economic benefits were summarized as follows:

Table 4.2 Economic impacts

IMPACT FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE

EMPLOYMENT 16 17

EDUCATION 50 53

INFRASTRUCTURE 3 3

CASH DIVIDENDS 25 27

TOTAL 94 100

As shown on the table above, the information was drawn from questionnaires. The frequency
column shows the number of the respondents who benefited from the project economically
and the percentage column showing the total percentage of the respondents who benefited.
Those are the figures of the respondents who commented that they directly benefit from the
CAMPFIRE program.

4.4.2 Influence of the economic impacts on rural households

4.4.2.1 Employment

Employment is very crucial in tackling poverty and is one of the objectives of the program in
the area. However, although the program targeted to benefit the area, the results showed an
insufficient benefit for the local people towards employment. Of the 94 respondents who
received questionnaires, only 16 highlighted that they benefited from the program as they are
employed giving us 17% which can be summarized as not effective. This really show that it
is only a fraction of the total population who benefited from the program since its adoption.
Since the introduction of the program in the local community, it has been noted to be critical
to the local people. It has been noted that although the program has created job opportunities
in the local area of Mahenye in Chipinge especially from 2010 to 2014 and up to date, the
rate is very slow as per say. This has shown a clear picture of a vital requirement for a human
well-being as supported by authors like Summers et al (2012) as well as Jax and Heink
(2016). Also, with the employment at stake, people become able to afford a better lifestyle
than ever and they can send their kids to school. It has been noted that people are being
employed in lodges and safaris but not at an appetizing rate.

The table below showed sources of employment in the community.

Table 4.3 Sources of employment

Type of employment Chilo Safari Lodge Zambezi Hunters Total

Supervisor 1 1 2

Clerks 2 1 3

Security 1 2 3

Safari/tour guides - 1 1

Chefs 2 - 2

Waiters/waitresses 3 - 3

Housekeepers 2 - 2

11 5 16

The table above shows that the project is not much effective in terms of employment in the
area. As shown above, management roles for both Chilo safari lodge and Zambezi Hunters
tour operator were not posed on the local residents and showed that this role is for outsiders.
There were only 2 respondents whose role were being supervisors whilst only 3 were
employed as clerks. Security officers in the project were also very few as only 3 of the
respondents were employed as security guards. Lack of employment creation was also noted
as only 1 was employed as a tour guide by the tour operator whilst Chilo safari lodge
employed 2 respondents as chefs. There were also 3 employed as waiters as well as 2 as
housekeepers. It was noted that employment in the area was not much effective in the area as
only a fraction really benefited.

Results from interviews showed that although the program is meant to create employment
opportunities, there were still many challenges in trying to benefit local community. The
respondents pointed out that only a fraction got employed from the local people.

Key informant 1 said, "Since the introduction of the project here in Mahenye, its vision of
employing local community is at a slow rate. Only a few gets a direct benefit and at most
cases, those who get the chance to get employed are the ones who have the knowledge of
tourism services. If you know nothing about tourism, the chance to get employed is very
slim". This shows that steps to be taken into consideration in the employment is being abused.

Key informant 2 noted that, "it takes years for the local community to fully enjoy the fruits of
the program. We have come to realize that although the program is meant to benefit people
surrounding it, only a few directly benefit as most of the employees are from outside
communities".

It has been noted that the program should come up with strategies to overcome the criticism
from the local residents. Since it is meant to benefit the locals, what they consider is a
challenge to the residents as noted by key informant 3 who said, "they come up to say that for
you to get employed in the lodges, you should at least possess educational background in the
hospitality industry. If you lack a knowledge about the industry, then you miss the
opportunity".

The informant added that, "CAMPFIRE has employed full-time an average of 12 people per
year in Chipinge from 2009 to 2014. Relatively higher employment gains are on part-time
basis. Chipinge recorded the highest average of 30 people employed on part-time basis from
2009 to 2014 unlike today. Also, those who get employed are given low posts which barely
earn them much. In the lodges, posts such as supervisor and managers are given to people
from outside the district and those linked to the owners of the lodges".

Tourism was seen as an advance in the Mahenye project. CAMPFIRE program has brought
different ecotourism products and services to the local communities. These include sport or
trophy hunting, boating wildlife watching, fishing, catering and traditional ceremonies just to
mention a few. These ecotourism products are a benefit to the local residents as they bring
some income which sustains their living. In support of this information, key informant 4 said,
“CAMPFIRE project in Mahenye brought a lot of revenue sources which resulted from the
existing tourism attractions. There is cultural tourism in this area as people are talented to
participate in different ceremonies. It is a great honour to have such resources in the area as
we now see the value to participate in the projects”.

The researcher noted that locals are directly involved in the project as they participate in
different projects which improves their lives such as fish farming, bee keeping and other
agricultural activities in the area. In addition to this, the researcher noted that the locals have
power and access to the resources they have in the area and they are very proud of it and it
shows empowerment. In this regard, this is supported by Ngonya E, (2015), who said that
community based tourism is highly responsible for community empowerment. The researcher
noted that local residents need to get educated and adequate training for them to fully benefit
from employment opportunities. He noted that the majority of the local communities are not
skilled enough which make them miss the opportunity to get employed.

4.4.2.2 Education

The results showed that the residents have the opportunity to get a benefit in terms of
education. Of the total respondents, 50 of them noted that they got the opportunity to benefit
from the program which gave a result of 53% of the total population. This has been
summarized as a positive picture that CAMPFIRE program has been showing some results to
achieve its objectives.

Since the introduction of CAMPFIRE PROGRAM in Chipinge district, education is one of

the key objectives as it is a tool for a success to every citizen. Key informant 1 said,
"Education in Mahenye area has improved in the past years due to the CAMPFIRE program.
The project has been significant for the construction of school blocks, teachers’ houses as
well as helping students who are in the need for school fees". It has been noted through the
data collected that there is a percentage of students from local communities who are chosen
to get assist in terms of school fees and is greatly appreciated. The key informant added on
the comment by saying that, "we have come to realize that the program is of great
importance as we see students from each community getting access to get fees paid by the
project. In each village, at least 8 students are picked each year and get full cover in terms of
fees".

In addition to the information given in the above paragraph, not only school pupils benefit
from the project when we talk of education. Key informant 2 said that, "the program is very
keen in helping the communities in Mahenye. People in the communities have benefited from
the program as they get assist as they are educated how to sustain themselves from poverty.
Residents were being educated how to keep poultry, fish farming, bee keeping as well as
other projects which is very important as it increase their income and make their lives better
than they used to before the program. This has shown much of the program and is greatly
appreciated.

It has been noted that education has been taken into consideration for the local communities.
All the respondents had something to say about education in the area. Key informant 1 said
that, "education is a sign of success of the program here in Mahenye. Young people are given
an opportunity to get access to education. There is a positive picture as we have seen that in
the past decade, those who had dropped out of school due to lack of school fees are being
given such great opportunity to get access to education".

This has also been supported by key informant 2 who argued that, "we have come to realize
that education is taken serious in the area. In the past decades, lot of pupils would drop out
of school unlike in the past 5 years as we have seen a great change. If there are still
dropouts, the rate is very slim".

Not only school children benefit from such an opportunity as noted by key informant 3 who
said that, "there are workshops being conducted in order to raise more projects in the area.
Residents are being educated on different projects for them to survive. Such projects include
beekeeping, poultry and fish farming". In addition to such a benefit, key informant who added
that, "more and more projects are coming and residents are being educated. They are being
trained to cater for themselves and not to be too reluctant. This benefit is for all age groups
in the area and this objective is meant to be achieved”.

4.4.2.3 Infrastructure

Infrastructural development was a great sign for a success when we talk of CAMPFIRE
program in Mahenye. There has been some developments in terms of infrastructure in the
local community. According to Schröter et al, (2014), “the contractual arrangement between
the safari operator and the district council defined the relationship between the safari
operator, the district councils and the communities or wards…monitoring and infrastructural
investment and in some cases employment”. Key informant 1 said, "the project has been vital
for the development of the area since its inception. It has been noted that electrification of
rural homes has been successful and piped water with the help of River lodges of Africa. The
project has also been noted for the construction of classrooms and teacher houses at
Mahenye School as well as construction of 2 grinding mills. Since the adoption of the project
in the area, CAMPFIRE brought about the development of a model Shangaan cultural
village which is being used for eco-tourism purposes and the development of the 15000
hector wilderness area for future projects". Key informant 2 added that, "there has been also
a development in the health department through the construction of a clinic which has been
helpful for minimizing costs in travelling to Chipinge town to get medication which is greatly
appreciated". 3 respondents commented much on the infrastructural developments in the area
as they pointed out that the project did much in the development of infrastructure in the area.

Key informant 3 perception on infrastructure development is significant and consistently

associated with the district spatial location. The responded said that, “the CAMPFIRE has
managed to build and in some cases renovate schools in the district of Chipinge especially
Mahenye primary as well as secondary schools”

On infrastructural developments, second key informant pointed that CAMPFIRE is a

successful project in the area as it brought out major developments. The informant said that,
“CAMPFIRE program has successfully installed and maintained 2 grinding mills in the area.
However, there are still some challenges being faced in the area in terms of these
developments. Very little has been done so far especially building of clinics and maintaining
of the dust roads as well as the boreholes”.

Although the project has brought some benefits to the local people, most people are left out
on some of the developments. CAMPFIRE program came up with an idea of buying trucks to
be used in the area for the benefit of each and every person in the community. Key informant
3 (ward councillor) pointed out that, “…little has been done on household access to the
purchased trucks. At most, at least 20% benefits from the trucks. More so, the maintenance of
these trucks is seen as very poor and does not actually benefit the communal people at
household level, but rather get used in other businesses not meant for the project”.

The ward councillor also added information regarding the development of infrastructure. It
has been gathered that CAMPFIRE program has aided the development of infrastructure in
quite a handful parts of Mahenye which is greatly appreciated. The councillor further said
that, “the project has been seen as a successful thing as we see most of the income brought
from the project is heavily channelled towards local economic development and to a great
extent, the infrastructural development hence a success”.

Although some responded that they really benefited from the project in terms of
infrastructural developments, the researcher observed that a lot still need to be done. During
the study, the researcher noted that there is a lack of government support for infrastructural
developments. There is poor road network as the roads are very bad in the area. Due to the
rain, there are many potholes on the road and most of the road gravel is being swept away.
Travelling to Mahenye needs patience as it is very tiresome due to the period it takes for one
to reach the area from Chipinge town.

4.4.2.4 Cash dividends

From the table given on page 25, it has shown that not everyone really benefit from the cash
dividends. This has been agreed by the key informants as informant 1 said, "…there is a
sharp decrease in cash dividends which is shared among households from donor to post
donor era". This has given a proof that there is an experience of challenges with the Campfire
program as only a few benefit from the program. At least 27 percent of the participants from
the selected households agreed that they benefit much from the cash dividends whilst the rest
opposed. This really showed that the revenue being obtained from the project was being
abused and benefited other people not from the local communities.

Revenue is one thing that results from the program and is seen as a benefit to the local rural
households of Mahenye. The key respondents agreed that there is issue of cash dividends
which is an opportunity for the local residents. It was noted that there is active action of cash
dividends to the area although leaving some as supported by key informant 1 who said that,
"in as much as the income generated from the wildlife resources, it has become very difficult
to distribute the money adequately to the people as the cost of maintaining and sustaining
game hunting have continued to rise owing to the economic situation of the country hence the
direct disbursement of cash to the local people has declined over the years".

Key informant 2 said that, “there is cash dividends for the benefit of the local people. About
54% of total revenue earned through Campfire program is distributed to the local
households. The cash is shared among the rural households equally and part of the cash is
shared among the committee members of the program”.

The respondents also highlighted that cash dividends has decreased since the withdrawal of
the donors. Key informant 2 added that, “during the donor era, a lot of funds were pumped
into the community and everyone benefitted much as compared to the current situation”. This
decrease is a negative impact to the community as less funds are now earned as only a few
can benefit much and shows some challenges involved with the program to the local people.
This is agreed by Gandiwa et al, (2013) who noted that since 2000, the Mahenye community
has experienced challenges with Campfire because local people have been receiving few
benefits and there has been less involvement of local people in decision making processes
related to the program.

It was also noted that although the program is pumping cash to the residents, they earn more
from outside the program which showed the insignificance of the program. Key respondent 3
said that, "the fact that income in the area from other household sources such as livestock
sales, casual labour, salaries and wages, is significantly higher than that from the
CAMPFIRE program and this has caused some problems in recent years such as boost in
human-wildlife conflicts as residents want more".

In addition, it has been noted that there were more challenges raised on the issue of cash
dividends on the area of study. Key informant 4 said that, "...the Mahenye community has
experienced challenges with CAMPFIRE because local people have been receiving few
benefits especially since withdrawal by the donor and there has been less involvement of
local people in decision-making processes related to CAMPFIRE. These challenges have
reportedly been associated to the changes in chieftainship, involvement of the new chief in
determining the composition of the CAMPFIRE committee long back, election of a new ward
councillor, and lack of transparency in tendering the hunting concession which stand as
burden to the community".
4.4.3 Recommendations on improving economic gains derived from CAMPFIRE in
Manhenye

To improve economic gains derived from the project, recommendations were gathered in the
study and were as follows.

It was recommended by the ward councillor that there is a need for government intervention
as well as Non-governmental organizations as well as private stakeholders in the area so that
there is boost in the employment sector. If there is an intervention, many tourism services and
projects are created in the area which boost employment opportunities. Since there were a
few who got employed through the project, informant 1 noted that, “there is much to be done
in the area for the benefit of the residents. Since there are a few who benefit from being
employed, there is a need for the government intervention. This helps much as more will be
honoured opportunities to get employed”.

Key informant 2 also added that, “there is a need for the creation of several tourism
activities in the area so that every citizen from the communities surrounding the project
benefit. Many people especially the young generation are seeking greener pastures in
outskirts and some are getting employed in Mozambique which we hope should be done in
the area”.

In addition to the recommendation stated above, it has been recommended that new projects
should be adopted to create activity among the residents. Some of the activities recommended
include “beekeeping, fish farming, poultry, brick molding and hand crafting which again
provide more income to the residents” as mentioned by the informant. Key informant 3 said
that, "there is a need for local residents to get trained in professional tasks so as to make
them educated enough to manage themselves in case that the service providers opt to quit the
area".

Key informant 3 added on that, "the young generation need to get educated so that they are
fully equipped with the knowledge on the importance of the project so that it is sustained for
the future generation. People in the area need to get educated so that they possess their
rights to the resources in the area".

More need to be done to improve the infrastructure in the area. As the roads are very poor,
the rural district council and the government need to take part in grading as well as paving the
road with use of gravel as the residents pay tax to the council. Key informant 4 recommended
that, "of the funds that are received in the project, it is wise to set aside some of it and be
directed towards infrastructural developments. There should be a committee that agree on
percentage of the total income that should be used in such developments so that the area is
upgraded. Also, there is a need of government intervention towards the area as there is a
need for its attention. People need to be educated on how to avoid land degradation which
again costs the area when it comes to its development".

Although there were some evidence of cash dividends in the area, more need to be done to
improve the flow of cash to the rural households. Key informant 1 said that, "An inclusive
approach should be used by the local authorities and other relevant authorities in pursuing
the CAMPFIRE initiatives towards financial gains. In this regard the common people should
be consulted to promote good governance, through transparency and this make sure that
there is accountability and equity of the revenue received in the project".

Findings have shown that CAMPFIRE provides revenue but is little and declining at local
level mainly due to lack of accountability of the management system. Key informant 1 said
that, "there is a need to increase the role of the local residents in decision making. Also every
decision reached should be made public. Furthermore, the project committee should be
separate from local leadership so as to avoid abuse of powers". The respondent added that,
"funds need to be monitored to make the trace visible. As traditional leaders earn some of the
revenue, the amounts they get should be well known and they should not earn extra financial
benefits than anyone in the area. Also, as they are needed, they should only be consulted
when a need rise that fully participating and overtaking some roles that the community can
do".

4.5 Discussions

There is a need for redesigning CAMPFIRE through corrections of system errors. As a CBT
program, CAMPFIRE’s goal of freedom of movement is in place but does not work and has
been selected or demeaned by strong local actors, especially rural district councils whilst
being ignorant on other important aspects (Cox et al, 2010). This is related to the results as it
has been noted that local residents lack power on certain roles in the program. Traditional
leaders were noted for overtaking roles meant for the benefit of others. This causes
malfunction of key roles in the project.
In maximizing its impacts, CBTs must incorporate local institutional authority into a
comprehensive institutional framework as well as a policy framework which gives a support
on local residents on having control of sustaining natural resources (Reid, 2016). For this to
be achieved, there should be a devolution of power to the locals. This is very true in the case
of Mahenye as recommended by key informant 1 on the participation of traditional leaders as
they go beyond their roles which are meant for others. There was an absence of effective
committee as observed in the results section which should be strong and vibrant to the roles
of residents and leaders in the project.

As supported by Bluwstein et al, (2016) and Reid H, (2016), land ownership (or lack thereof)
was often the determining factor in whether the CAMPFIRE program objectives could be
achieved. There is an indication of positive light on the acknowledgement by the local
residents in Mahenye as they still benefit from already constructed infrastructure even after
donor withdrawal from the area. This also make them to be fully active on the ownership and
sustainability of the resources.

In addition to the specific direct benefits that are limited to the household level, families have
expressed their concern on the continuation of the program in the area as they really benefit
and rely on the social and economic benefits. The wellbeing of the rural people is not
safeguarded by wildlife management but requires the accompaniment of other socio-
economic activities and having those involved in decision making to come up with possible
solutions to all the threats to the program in the area. This is very true in the case of Mahenye
as it has been recommended by the key informants to increase tourism activities in the area in
order to increase number of employment opportunities in the area.

On employment creation, for full benefits in an area, there should be access to an increase in
the number of tourists in the area for an increase of employment creation as well as some
positive changes in income disposable (Bridda et al, 2008). This links to the results as there
were a few to get access to the benefit in the community, and a positive engagement by
tourists in the area acts as a catalyst in employment opportunity creation for all households as
it also impact poverty to be reduced. As supported by Proenca and Soukicizis (2008), there is
economic developments and employment creation in remote areas due to tourism activities
which has been noted in the case of Mahenye.
More so, as noted in the study, education is very vital. As residents possess educational
opportunities, they end up in full control of the natural resources in the area as supported by
Salazar, (2012). If a few get employed in the community, there is loss of power on the
resources and loss of the economic benefits. In this case, education was meant for all in the
area hence this literature is in line with the results. All age groups were given the opportunity
to get educated so that the concept of the program dwells in the area for the benefit of the
future generation.

4.6 Chapter summary

This chapter has illustrated data collected from research participants in Mahenye. The study
participants include rural households, ward councillor and council officials. Response rate,
research findings as well as research objectives results has been outlined in the chapter. The
researcher came up with some tables and pie charts for illustration of the data collected. The
following chapter demonstrates summary, conclusions as well as some recommendations of
the research.

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

The section gives a summary for the findings of the research, giving a conclusion for the
research and make recommendations that will assist both the local authorities and the local
people to better harness the opportunities that arise from the CAMPFIRE program. The
chapter also focuses on areas that need some critical improvements in the council as well as a
provision of some recommendations. Achievements of the research objectives, theoretical
and methodological contributions to the study are also discussed in this chapter together with
the direction for further research. The chapter is then closed by a summary.
5.2 Achievement of research objectives

5.2.1 To identify the economic impacts

As indicated above, the first objective to the study was to identify the economic impacts of
CAMPFIRE program in the area of study. These economic impacts were employment
benefits, education, cash dividends and infrastructural developments. The objective was
achieved through respondents s discussed in detail in the previous chapter hence successful.
An analysis of the impacts of the program was also done thus an in depth examination of both
the negative and positive influence (economically).

5.2.2 To examine the influence of economic impacts of CAMPFIRE to the livelihoods of

Mahenye community

This objective was achieved as most of the respondents highlighted challenges and benefits
they face in the project. Challenges included poor marketing skills, lack of adequate
knowledge, lack of resources and benefits include employment benefits, sharing of game
meats as well as other as explained in the previous chapter.

5.3 Summary of research

The findings obtained from questionnaires, key informant interviews and theoretical
framework made it possible for an abstract of results obtained from the study findings.
Demographic information given in the previous chapter proved that CAMPFIRE and other
tourism activities had a notable impact to all rural residents of Mahenye. There are also some
challenges noted facing CAMPFIRE program in the area especially in providing products
related to tourism as well as some services and accesses to them within the area of study.

Interviews and key informant guides were very essential during data collection process and
its analysis where by the data collected from the sampled respondents was also accredited by
experts thus key informants which included council officials and the councillor of ward 29.
This helped in coming up with more reliable findings.

Recommendations to the various challenges and short fall of the CAMPFIRE program are
also given in this paper which will then help both the state at large and the responsible local
authorities as well as all those involved in mitigating the challenges they are facing and also
to better harness the benefits of the program.

5.4 Conclusions

Based on objective 1

It can be appreciated that local residents of Mahenye are involved with economic benefits of
CAMPFIRE program. These benefits have been identified as employment, education,
infrastructural development as well as cash dividends as identified in the previous chapter.
However not all the residents are directly involved and only a few from the program. A lot
has to be done in order to make the program effective/transparent.

Based on objective 2

In as much as the CAMPFIRE program has economically benefited the rural households in
Mahenye, it has been to a lesser extent due to many reasons which have also been discussed.
In that regards one can be forgiven for arguing that the CAMPFIRE program if implemented
properly (devolution) and a bottom up approach to development is used, then the full
potential of the program can be realized. Transparency, equity, inclusiveness are key if the
program is to benefit the rural households economically to a greater extent. However apart
from that, the local residents in Chipinge (mainly in Mahenye) area benefit from the program
as it poses employment opportunities, cash dividends thus income and also socio economic
benefits in form of infrastructure facilities. This shows that the CAMPFIRE program is
benefiting the local people hence local economic development.

It is also quite very important to note that the most of the negative impacts of the program
arises from human wildlife conflicts which have led to crop husbandry being undermined as
wildlife destroyed the fields as well as the crops, also that some instances of people getting
injured from these conflicts. Poaching also results in the program failing to realize its full
potential.

Based on objective 3

On the economic benefits of the program to the rural households in Mahenye,

recommendations were gathered in order to improve the economic benefits. Government
intervention as well as private stakeholders is of great importance in monitoring issues raised
towards economic benefits in the area.

5.5 Contributions (theoretical and methodological contributions) to the study

Through the empirical evidence of the economic impacts of CAMPFIRE to rural livelihoods
in Mahenye, the research gives an insight of how the campfire program can be manipulated
and used to promote LED (local economic development) sustainably. It has also proved from
the research findings that apart from the direct economic benefits that have been analysed the
program promotes the trickle don effect of development to the surrounding localities which
intern bring about socio-economic and political development.

The use of key informant interviews greatly influenced the accuracy of the findings as those
with expert knowledge were regularly consulted and accredited the data collected from the
villagers (respondents), it also helped to gain some significant information from those who
have been in the area of study for long, which gives some bit of history of the program. Apart
from that, the questionnaires saved time and made it possible to acquire fruitful data within a
short range which contributed to the research being finished on time.

5.6 Recommendations

1. The researcher recommends that the government as well as the private sector should
support community-based tourism for successful results. The support can be in the
form of financial assistance, marketing, as well as training and educating local people
about the importance of community-based tourism.
2. The government should be interested in developing CBT projects in the area. In this
regard, authorities in the area should be keen to focus on determining important
factors for successful projects in the long run.
3. There should be a promotion of entrepreneurs to participate in the area in making
tourism business to economically benefit local communities.
4. The researcher also recommends that there should be uniform CBT models in the
country for full participation of all local community residents. This helps in
motivating all the people residing in areas where the programs are available.
5. For securing an impact at scale community based tourism programs need to adopt
issues related to empowering local institutions with policy frameworks supporting
 decentralization of rights as well as responsibility for residents in terms of resource
management.
6. An inclusive approach should be used by the local authorities and other relevant
authorities in pursuing the CAMPFIRE initiatives. In this regard the common people
should be consulted thus a bottom up approach promotes good governance, through
transparency, it also proffers for accountability and equity in the harnessing of the
CAMPFIRE benefits.
7. These recommendations were laid by the researcher and sought to better use of
indigenous resources in the area of study and also to give mitigation measures on the
impediments being faced by the local people, the local authorities and every other
stake holders of interest to the program in their quest to maximize the benefits of the
program. In this context the third and last objective of the study was achieved hence
one can be forgiven for arguing that the researcher managed to achieve all the three of
his objectives.

5.7 Directions for further research

The research focused mainly on assessing economic impacts of CAMPFIRE program to rural
households in Mahenye communal area where the program is being practiced. Therefore, a
study focusing on political and social impacts of CAMPFIRE program is of great use in
future. With this, different research designs as well as study settings can also be used in order
to validate the findings.
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR KEY INFORMANTS AT CHIPINGE RURAL DISTRICT

COUNCIL

1. How important is the CAMPFIRE program to the local community?

2. For how long has the program existed in the district?
3. How many rural households are involved in the project?
4. To what extent is the community involved in decision making for the project?
5. What benefits does the local community get from the program?
6. Is the community involved in any CBTEs?
7. If the answer for the above question is YES, what kind of projects are they doing?
8. For how long have they been doing the projects?
9. As a rural district council, how do you assist the local rural households to achieve
their projects?
10. What challenges do you face as an organization towards the program?
11. What are the possible solutions to the identified problems?
12. How is the government or private sector helping out the community in the program?
13. What challenges does the community face in the program?
14. What are the causes of the challenges identified?
15. What are the possible solutions to the identified problems from the above?
APPENDIX 1.1 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR RURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN MAHENYE,
CHIPINGE DISTRICT

My name is Allen Gopito, registration number R189146C. I am conducting a research in

partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bcom Tourism and Hospitality Management Degree
at Manicaland State University of Applied Sciences. I am undertaking a study entitled “An
assessment of the economic impacts of CAMPFIRE among rural households in Chipinge,
case of Mahenye.”

I therefore kindly ask you to volunteer in filling this form and complete the questions below.
Your cooperation will be sincerely appreciated as I guarantee you that this is purely for
academic purposes.

INSTRUCTIONS:

1. To answer the following questions, please tick on the appropriate box.

2. If the questions require more than one answer you can put more than one tick.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

1. Gender
Male Female
2. Age
Less than 20 years 21-30 years

31-40 years Above 40 years

 3. Professional status

Unemployed Employed
Other ……………………………………………………………

4. Level of education attained

Primary Secondary Tertiary
Other ……………………………………………..

5. Place of residence
………………………………………………………..
6. How long have you stayed in the community
1-3 years 4-6 years

6-10 years Above 10 years

SECTION B: INVOLVEMENT OF THE COMMUNITY IN CAMPFIRE PROGRAM

7. Are you involved in CAMPFIRE PROGRAM?

Yes No

8. If the above answer is yes, for how long have you been involved?

1-3 years 4-6 years 6-10 years above 10

years

9. How are you involved the program?

 Agro-tourism Cultural tourism

Sculpture making Weaving and crafting

Trophy hunting

Other (specify)………………………………………………….......................

10. What are the benefits that you obtain from the CAMPFIRE PROGRAM?

Financial benefits Employment Education

Empowerment Infrastructure development

Any other (specify)……………………………………………………………………….

11. Is the government supporting you in the program?

Yes No

12. If the above answer is YES, what kind of support do they give you?

Financial support Marketing Infrastructure development

Education and training

Other (specify) …………………………………………………………………

13. Are there any NGOs or private stakeholders supporting your community?

Yes No

14. If the above answer is yes, how are they supporting you?

Financial support Marketing Infrastructure development

 Education and training Medical facilities

Other (specify) ….........................................................................................................

15. What challenges are you facing in the program?

Poor leadership skills Poor infrastructure Inadequate of

resources

Lack of financial support Low tourist arrivals Disputes on

resources

Other (specify) …………………………………………………………………..

16. What are the causes of the challenges you are facing?

Lack of education Low level of community involvement

Resource exploitation by external parties’ Corruption

Lack of government support

Other (specify) …………………………………………………………………………

17. What possible solutions can be put in place to solve the challenges identified?

Education and training Intensive marketing

Support from government Infrastructure development

Funding

Other (specify) ……………………………………………………….

APPENDIX II: UNIVERSITY APPROVAL LETTER

CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT

Cell: +263773543934

Dean’s office: 08677002005

Email:
vitalis.basera@staff.msuas.ac.zw

MANICALAND STATE UNIVERSITY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

24 February 2022

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

INTRODUCTORY LETTER: Mr ALLEN GOPITO: B.COM TOURISM AND

HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT DEGREE STUDENT REG NUMBER R189146C

This letter serves to confirm that Mr Allen Gopito is a Bcom Tourism and Hospitality
Management degree student in the Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management at
Manicaland State University of Applied Sciences.

He is conducting research in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bcom Tourism and

Hospitality Management degree. We would be grateful if you could please give him any
assistance he may require.

Please do not hesitate to contact us if you require any clarification or additional information

Yours faithfully
V. Basera (Mr)

APPENDIX III: APPROVAL LETTER (FIELD)

APENDIX IV: CONSENT FORMS

This consent form is designed to check if you understood the purpose of the study and that
you are aware of your rights as a participant and to confirm that you are willing to take part
without constrains.

NB: Please tick in the appropriate box

DESCRIPTION YES NO
I have read and understood the interview guide under this research.

I am fully aware that I am participating in the interview at my own

discretion and without coercion.
I am aware that the information that I would provide is correct and
will be treated with due care and held in the highest form of
confidentiality.
I agree to participate in the research.

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